Viviparity

The term viviparity or viviparous stems from the Latin roots vivus, meaning “alive”, and parere,

meaning “to give birth to” [1]. Viviparity is a mode of reproduction where the development of an

embryo occurs within the mother’s body until maturation.

What is Viviparity?

Viviparity simply means live birth. Animals that give birth to live offspring are called

viviparous. These animals sexually reproduce by internal fertilization, meaning the male sperm

enters the female reproductive tract, and the development of the embryo takes place inside the

female reproductive system [2]. Nutrition is received from the mother through special structures

or processes (e.g. a placenta or gas exchange) to support their embryonic growth. This form of

development is called matrotrophy [3]; however, previous studies have suggested that viviparity

evolved from other modes of reproduction and development [4].

Evolution of Viviparity

Figure 1. Proposed scenario for reproductive evolution of

oviparity to viviparity [5].
As matrotrophy and viviparity is observed solely in vertebrates, it is believed that viviparity

independently evolved from oviparity and lecithotrophy [4]. Animals that are oviparous lay eggs

outside of the mother’s body [3]. To put it plainly, oviparity means egg birth. Lecithotrophy is a

form of development where nutrition is received from the egg yolk which is contained by a hard,

outer shell [4] as seen in chicken eggs. A proposed linear model shown in Figure 1 describes the

supposed evolution from oviparous lecithotrophy to viviparous lecithotrophy (also known as

ovoviviparous), and eventually to viviparous matrotrophy [5]. Exhibited in many invertebrates,

ovoviviparity is a mode of reproduction that have similar features pertaining to both viviparity

and oviparity [2]. Similar to viviparity, these animals reproduce via internal fertilization, but the

embryo is encased in an outer shell seen in oviparity. This mode of reproduction can be seen in

some species of sharks where the shell is a thin membrane layer that surrounds the embryo and is

later shed during development [6]. The main difference is that the nutrition is received by

consuming unfertilized egg yolks or their siblings, and not by mother despite being held in the

womb. As the egg is first hatched in the mother, this gives off the appearance of a live birth seen

in viviparous animals [7].

Costs and Benefits of Viviparity

Being viviparous requires a lot of investment as the development of the embryo occurs

completely in the mother which means a lot of energy must be utilized. As a result, only a couple

of offspring can be birthed at one time, which is extremely different compared to the hundreds or

thousands of offspring that are spawned in oviparous animals [8]. Consequently, there are huge

repercussions for the mother to incubate the young for long periods of time. During the period of

embryonic development, the mother’s energy must be conserved to care for the young. Pregnant
mothers have a decrease in mobility as well [9]. However, as the development of the offspring

occurs in the womb of the mother, this adds a layer of protection against predation, increasing

their survival rate [3]. The offspring can easily be transported to safer locations, away from

extreme temperature fluctuations or other environmental stressors. Additionally, viviparous

animals can reproduce any time of the year, free of seasonal limitations that oviparous or

ovoviviparous animals must endure [9].

Viviparous Animals

Here are a couple of animals, insects, and plants that exhibit viviparity.

Humans

Like most mammals, humans are viviparous. The

embryo is implanted in the uterine wall during

development and gathers nutrients through the mother’s

tissues [9]. Human pregnancy is divided into three

trimesters (first, second, and third trimester) until the

fetus reaches maturation. Unlike other mammals,

humans typically give birth to newborns well before they Figure 2. A human embryo developing in a
placenta [3].
are fully developed and require plenty of nurturing [9].
Other Mammals

Most mammals that have mammary glands are viviparous

(e.g. humans, cows, cats, dogs, dolphins). To provide

nourishment to the developing young, these mammals

utilize a placenta as seen in Figure 2 [3]. The only

mammals that are not viviparous are non-placental animals

such as marsupials (e.g. kangaroos and koalas) and Figure 3. A bottlenose dolphin giving birth to a
calf [10]
monotremes (e.g. platypus and echidna) [2].

Fish

Bony fishes like surfperches (shown in Figure 4), rockfish,

and guppies are viviparous [6]. Only 2% of bony fishes are

viviparious, where freshwater fishes and marine fishes each

represent 1% [11]. Along with some species of sharks (e.g.

bull sharks, hammerhead sharks), the amount of offspring

in viviparous fish and sharks range roughly around 2 to 30

Figure 4. A pregnant surfperch with the body
at a time [6]. wall removed [12].
Reptiles

A ton of research has been conducted on squamates (a

large order of reptiles) to understand the evolution of

viviparity. A large variety of snake species exhibit

viviparity such as sea snakes, garter snakes, boas (shown

in Figure 5), pit vipers, and cobras [13]. Viviparity is less

common in lizards, although it can be observed in skinks

Figure 5. Boa constrictor giving live birth
and especially in Zootoca vivipara, a Eurasian lizard [15]. [14].

Others

Aphids (sap-sucking insects) exhibit viviparity during specific seasons when it is more efficient

for the mothers and the population [16]. There are also plants such as the tiger lily and

mangroves that display viviparity where the development of the seedling occurs in the parent

before separating [6].

 References
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https://www.etymonline.com/word/viviparous

[2] Kennedy, J. (2019). What does viviparous mean? Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco. 114: com/viviparous-definition-2291690

[3] Panawala, L. (2017). Difference between oviparous and viviparous. Pediaa.com

[4] Blackburn, D. G. Convergent evolution of viviparity, matrotrophy, and specializations for

fetal nutrition in reptiles and other vertebrates. (1992). American Zoologist 32: 313-321.

[5] Blackburn, D. G. Viviparity and oviparity: Evolution and reproductive strategies. (1999).
Encyclopedia of Reproduction (Vol. 4).

[6] Saunders, W. B. Clinical anatomy and physiology of exotic species. (2005). Elsevier
Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-070202782-6.50005-3

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https://www.thoughtco.com/ovoviviparous-definition-2291734
[8] Liu, J. X., and Avise, J. C. (2011). High degree of multiple paternity in the viviparous
Shiner Perch, Cymatogaster aggregata, a fish with long-term female sperm storage.
Marine Biology 158: 893-901. doi:10.1007/s00227-010-1616-0
[9] Viviparous. (2020). Biology Dictionary. Retrieved from
https://biologydictionary.net/viviparous/

[10] Birth & Care of Young. (2020). SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment. Retrieved from
seaworld.org/animals/all-about/bottlenose-dolphin/care-of-young/.

[11] Helfman, G. S., Collette, B. B., Facey, D. E. (1997). The diversity of fishes. Malden,
MA, USA: Blackwell Science.

[12] Bond, E., and Forsgren, K. (2019). Gravid black surfperch. Forsgren Lab.

[13] Blackburn, D. G. (2005). Squamate reptiles as model organisms for the evolution of
viviparity.
[14] Do all snakes lay eggs? (2014). Retrieved from https://snake-facts.weebly.com/do-
snakes-lay-eggs.html
[15] Cornetti, L., et. al. (2015). Reproductive isolation between oviparous and viviparous
lineages of the Eurasian common lizard Zootoca vivipara in a contact zone. Biological
Journal of the Linnean Society 114: 566-573.
[16] Hadley, D. (2018). Learn how aphids can quickly overrun your garden. ThoughtCo.
Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/why-are-there-so-many-aphids-1968631