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(Tutor Marked Assignment)

Course Code: AHE-01
Assignment Code: AHE-01/TMA/ 2020
Maximum Marks: 100
1. Differentiate between the following pairs:
i) Toxic substance and hazardous substance
Answer- A toxic substance is a substance that can be poisonous or cause health effects.
People are generally concerned about chemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and
dioxin which can be found at some hazardous waste sites. Products that we use daily, such as
household cleaners, prescription and over-the-counter drugs, gasoline, alcohol, pesticides, fuel
oil and cosmetics, can also be toxic. Any chemical can be toxic or harmful under certain
conditions. Since chemicals can be toxic, it is important to understand how they can affect
health. To determine the risk of harmful health effects from a substance, you must first know
how toxic the substance is; how much, and by what means, a person is exposed; and how
sensitive that person is to the substance.

A hazardous substance can be any substance, whether solid, liquid or gas, that may cause
harm to your health.

Hazardous substances are classified on the basis of their potential health effects, whether acute
(immediate) or chronic (long-term).

Dangerous goods are classified on the basis of immediate physical or chemical effects, such as
fire, explosion, corrosion and poisoning. An accident involving dangerous goods could seriously
damage property or the environment.

Harm to health may happen suddenly (acute), such as dizziness, nausea and itchy eyes or skin;
or it may happen gradually over years (chronic), such as dermatitis or cancer. Some people can
be more susceptible than others.

We use hazardous substances and dangerous goods almost every day of our lives. It may be
antiseptic for a cut, paint for the walls, or a cleaning product for the bathroom. While they may
seem harmless, even these ordinary things can make you very sick if they are not used
properly.

ii) Desert and Grassland

Answer- A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and,
consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation
exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one-third
of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the polar regions
where little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called polar deserts or "cold deserts".

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Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls, by the temperature that
prevails, by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location.

Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day
and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces. Although rain seldom
occurs in deserts, there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods. Rain falling on
hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and rubble strewn over the
desert floor are further eroded by the wind. This picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts
them aloft in sand or dust storms. Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path
can abrade the surface. Rocks are smoothed down, and the wind sorts sand into uniform
deposits. The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes.
Other deserts are flat, stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the
surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones. These areas are known as desert pavements
and little further erosion takes place. Other desert features include rock outcrops, exposed
bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water. Temporary lakes may form and salt pans
may be left when waters evaporate. There may be underground sources of water in the form of
springs and seepages from aquifers. Where these are found, oases can occur.

Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae); however,
sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) families can also be found along with variable
proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all
continents except Antarctica. Grasslands are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. For
example, there are five terrestrial ecoregion classifications (subdivisions) of the temperate
grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome (ecosystem), which is one of eight terrestrial
ecozones.

grassland is an area of land that mostly contains grasses. There are wild grasses, and there
may be some trees. Several parts of the world have grasslands. Grasslands are found in Africa,
North America, Central Asia, South America, and near the coasts of Australia. The largest
grasslands are in East Africa. Grasslands with a few scattered trees are called savannas.
Others are called prairies or steppes.

Little rain falls in a Grassland. Between 25 and 75 cm of rain falls each year, which makes the
weather in these savannas hot and sunny in the summer and cool in the winter months.

iii) Mutualism and Commensalism

Answer- Mutualism represents a symbiotic relationship where both species involved benefit
from the relationship. On the other hand, commensalism represents a symbiotic relationship
where only one organism benefits while the other does not benefit from the relationship. One
notable aspect is that the organism that does not benefit is not harmed by the nature of
relationship between the two.

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Therefore, the major difference between mutualism and commensalism is that both organisms
benefit in mutualism while only one organism benefits in commensalism but the other one is not
affected.

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Mutualism-both species involved benefit from the relationship. In other words, the relationship is
mutually beneficial to both organisms as the name implies. The relationship that exists is
obligatory implying that each organism requires the other for survival in the ecosystem.
Commensalism- only one organism benefits from the symbiotic relationship that exists between
the species involved. The other organism that does not benefit remains neutral and is not
harmed.

iv) Family and Kingship

Answer- While the family denotes a relationship between the spouses and their children, who
are described as ‘siblings’, the kin includes within the bound a large number of persons; and
what creates a kinship will necessarily depend upon the social organization in the context of
which the term is applied.

A distinction has to be made for this purpose between the biological parent and the sociological
one; and in some communities the person who is called father may not be the biological parent.
For example, in Malagasy, among the Tanala tribe there is a practice that the husband may
claim as his own the first three children that may be born to his wife after he divorces her on the
ground of adultery.

We have seen earlier that some tribes have a classificatory system of relationship according to
which men of certain age groups will be called ‘father’ or ‘brother’ and women of particular age
groups will be addressed as ‘mother’, ‘sister’ etc., and many of them may be very distantly
related by blood.

Among Australian tribes there is a system of dividing society into certain classes, and a child’s
class is determined by his birth into a family; and he would be permitted to marry into a class
that is not the one to which his parents belong. Certain tribes have a four-class or an eight-class
classification, and marriage between uncle and niece is prohibited, although the one between
cross-cousins is allowed and even encouraged.

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The rules relating to formation of kin relations may vary but, once the relationship is established,
it standardizes the different duties, responsibilities and the privileges of the members who fall
within its range. The terms and conditions of such relationship may also be distinctive. Among
the Thado Kuki of Assam, there is a practice that a man would use the term ‘hepu’ to denote his
relationship with his mother’s father, mother’s brother as also his mother’s brother’s son.

Any of these persons can claim from him his mother’s bride-price and, when she dies, her
‘bone- price’. Among the AO Naga tribes of Nagaland, there are three exogamous groups in
society, and a man’s wife’s mother may belong to his mother’s group, to his grandmother’s
group or even to his own group. Among the Australian tribes, there is a system of having
classificatory relationships and kinship systems generally fall into four categories.

v) Perihelion orbital and aphelion orbital of the sun.(5×2=10)

Answer- The Earth is closest to the Sun, or at the perihelion, about 2 weeks after the
December Solstice, when it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Conversely, the Earth is
farthest away from the Sun, at the aphelion point, 2 weeks after the June Solstice, when the
Northern Hemisphere is enjoying warm summer months.

The dates when Earth reaches the extreme points on its orbit are not fixed because of the
variations in its eccentricity. In 1246, the December Solstice was on the same day as the Earth
reached its Perihelion. Since then, the Perihelion and Aphelion dates have drifted by a day
every 58 years. In the short-term, the dates can vary up to 2 days from one year to another.

Mathematicians and astronomers estimate that in the year 6430, over 4000 years from now, the
timing of the Perihelion and the March Equinox will coincide.

2. Define carrying capacity. What are the different types of carrying capacity? Explain
how the finite nature of resources determines carrying capacity. (2+5+3=10)
Answer- A common fallacy is to equate existing and seemingly open or "unused" spaces with
the kind of resources and ecologically productive land needed to support human life under
modern conditions. In fact, the criterion for determining whether a region is overpopulated is not
land area, but carrying capacity.

Carrying capacity refers to the number of individuals who can be supported in a given area
within natural resource limits, and without degrading the natural social, cultural and economic
environment for present and future generations. The carrying capacity for any given area is not
fixed. It can be altered by improved technology, but mostly it is changed for the worse by
pressures which accompany a population increase. As the environment is degraded, carrying
capacity actually shrinks, leaving the environment no longer able to support even the number of

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people who could formerly have lived in the area on a sustainable basis. No population can live
beyond the environment's carrying capacity for very long.

We must think in terms of "carrying capacity" not land area. The effects of unfettered population
growth drastically reduce the carrying capacity in the United States.

Types-

Physical carrying capacity - This is the maximum number of tourists that an area is actually
able to support. In the case of an individual tourist attraction it is the maximum number that can
fit on the site at any given time and still allow people to be able to move. This is normally
assumed to be around 1m per person. “PCC per a day = area (in metres squared) x visitors per
metre x daily duration" (Mowforth and Munt) This is a formula which has been used to calculate
the physical carrying capacity.

Economic carrying capacity- ​This relates to a level of acceptable change within the local
economy of a tourist destination, it is the extent to which a tourist destination is able to
accommodate tourist functions without the loss of local activities, take for example a souvenir
store taking the place of a shop selling essential items to the local community. Economic
carrying capacity can also be used to describe the point at which the increased revenue brought
by tourism development is overtaken by the inflation caused by tourism.

Social carrying capacity - ​This relates to the negative socio-cultural impacts associated with
tourism development. The indicators of when the social carrying capacity has been exceeded
are a reduced local tolerance for tourism as described by Doxey’s Index of irritation. Reduced
visitor enjoyment and increased crime are also indicators of when the social carrying capacity
has been exceeded.

Biophysical carrying capacity - ​This relates to the extent to which the natural
environment is able to tolerate interference from tourists. This is made more complicated by the
fact that because it deals with ecology which is able to regenerate to some extent so in this
case, the carrying capacity is when the damage exceeds the habitat's ability to regenerate.

Environmental carrying capacity is also used with reference to ecological and physical
parameters, capacity of resources, ecosystems and infrastructure.

3. How is the epidemiological approach used to study health problems related to the
environment? (10)
Answer- Environmental epidemiology is a branch of epidemiology concerned with determining
how environmental exposures impact human health. This field seeks to understand how various
external risk factors may predispose to or protect against disease, illness, injury, developmental

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abnormalities, or death. These factors may be naturally occurring or may be introduced into
environments where people live, work, and play.

Environmental epidemiology research can inform government policy change, risk management
activities, and development of environmental standards. Vulnerability is the summation of all risk
and protective factors that ultimately determine whether an individual or subpopulation
experiences adverse health outcomes when an exposure to an environmental agent occurs.
Sensitivity is an individual’s or subpopulation’s increased responsiveness, primarily for biological
reasons, to that exposure. Biological sensitivity may be related to developmental stage,
pre-existing medical conditions, acquired factors, and genetic factors. Socioeconomic factors
also play a critical role in altering vulnerability and sensitivity to environmentally mediated
factors by increasing the likelihood of exposure to harmful agents, interacting with biological
factors that mediate risk, and/or leading to differences in the ability to prepare for or cope with
exposures or early phases of illness. Populations living in certain regions may be at increased
risk due to location and the environmental characteristics of a region.

Environmental epidemiology studies are most frequently observational in nature, meaning

researchers look at people's exposures to environmental factors without intervening and then
observe the patterns that emerge. This is due to the fact that it is often unethical or unfeasible to
conduct an experimental study of environmental factors in humans. For example, a researcher
cannot ask some of their study subjects to smoke cigarettes to see if they have poorer health
outcomes than subjects who are asked not to smoke. The study types most often employed in
environmental epidemiology are:

Cohort studies
Case-control studies
Cross-sectional studies

Environmental epidemiology is the study of the effect on human health of physical, biologic, and
chemical factors in the external environment, broadly conceived. By examining specific
populations or communities exposed to different ambient environments, it seeks to clarify the
relationship between physical, biologic or chemical factors and human health.

One challenging question that confronts environmental epidemiologists is how to estimate the
health effects associated with past patterns of disposal of hazardous chemicals and effects that
could occur in the future as a result of continued or projected exposure from failures to clean up
sites, or from proposed remediation plans. Investigating these problems is technically difficult,
time consuming, and expensive (Ozonoff and Boden, 1987). As part of its project on
environmental epidemiology, the committee elected to focus first on an evaluation of available
scientific and technical literature that concerns the health effects of exposure to materials found
in and issuing from hazardous-waste sites. In using this focal point, the committee has not
restricted itself to sites officially listed under various state and federal laws, but has undertaken

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a broad review of available evidence on the human health effects that could be linked to
exposures from materials at sites where disposal of hazardous wastes has taken place.

The committee's members acknowledge that the published literature regarding toxic chemical
waste disposal sites is limited and uneven and that profound methodological and practical
problems attend the field, as others have noted (Grisham, 1986). However, the committee
members believe that a deliberate and systematic assessment of current knowledge will provide
a useful foundation for their later work in developing and extending the intellectual framework of
the larger field of environmental epidemiology.

All the major methods of epidemiology are essentially observational and nonexperimental,
drawing inferences about causation is considerably more difficult than it is for those controlled
experiments that use random samples and controls. People move around, eat different foods,
engage in different social and recreational activities, have different genetic backgrounds, and
live their lives with the full diversity of the human experience. Yet, all of these factors can directly
or indirectly influence their health at any given time. To sort out the relative role of such factors,
epidemiologists, like other scientists who study human events, must rely on inductive methods
for drawing inferences about their data.

4. Explain the economic implications of waste generation and waste disposal. (10)
Answer- The objective of solid waste management is the removal of discarded and valueless
material from the material flow pattern. Management comprises judicious use of available
resources to achieve the objective. The first need to justify the use of resources in removal of
the discarded and valueless material is that if they are where they are generated or dumped
somewhere in the midst of or near population there is risk of disease and ill hygienic condition
as well as economic loss of land area. In nomadic society the waste was left where it was
produced and the population use to move away. But with permanent settlement being the order
of the day and urbanization requiring every inch of available land for residential and economic
purposes both the risks to health and locking of land can not be tolerated and hence the
removal of solid waste at a safe distance and in a safe way becomes imperative.

These constraints apparently can be listed as public health protection, cost restriction,
environmental compatibility and recovery of resources from wastes. The solid waste particularly
from food source and putrescible material, is capable of attracting rats and flies. Such vermins
are capable of disease causing bacteria. This makes solid waste a significant health hazard and
management functions concentrate on this object of removing disease causing waste material
from environs of population. The cost evaluation of removing solid waste takes several factors
into account. The management has to identify such technologies as dumping waste in a gravel
pit, hauling it to sea, volatilizing it in atmosphere or incinerating. There is yet another technique
of removing and creating a landfill. All the techniques may have a current cost but also a cost
which will incur in future. The economic evaluation must consider both and attempt to bring the

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combined cost to minimum. The cost of design, construction and operation of handling,
transporting and dumping equipment must be minimum at present and in future as well.

It is important to see that any consequence of waste disposal method does not cause damage
to environment. The earlier technique of burning the waste and converting it into innocuous and
less voluminous ashes has to be abandoned in favour of adding no harmful gases to the
environment. The cost of removal of ash may pose a far less expenditure in transportation. The
environmental pollution cannot be allowed for its incompatibility with the people. Almost since
1970 the burning of all disposable solid waste has been abandoned.

Any management strategy in respect of solid waste must keep the objective of recovering
usable material as well as energy from the waste. The landfills have been used to recover fuel
gases. Their geographical locations, mixing with moisture, exposure to sun, depth to which filled
and distance from populated areas are sundry factors which need consideration under this
disposal programme. The plastic, metals and paper products can be recycled, and thus a great
deal of energy can be saved. However, such a scheme will require sorting of components of
waste. The best and efficient way to separate them will' be at source itself. The MSW is one of
most entangled waste whereas industrial solid waste can be very conveniently separated at the
source itself. That is the reason why these two types require two different strategies. Educated
and enlightened housewives can support the separation strategies at the source of domestic
waste. The institutions which produce large volumes of waste can also help in separation or
sorting at the source and thus boost the recycling strategy.

5. Write short notes on the following:

i) Competition - Competition arises whenever at least two parties strive for a goal which
cannot be shared: where one's gain is the other's loss (an example of which is a zero-sum
game).

It is, in general, a rivalry between two or more entities: animals, organisms, economic groups,
individuals, social groups, etc., for group or social status, leadership, profit, and recognition:
awards, goods, mates, prestige, a niche, scarce resources, or a territory.

Competition occurs in nature, between living organisms which co-exist in the same environment.
Animals compete over water supplies, food, mates, and other biological resources. Humans
usually compete for food and mates, though when these needs are met deep rivalries often
arise over the pursuit of wealth, power, prestige, and fame. Competition is a major tenet of
market economies and business, often associated with business competition as companies are
in competition with at least one other firm over the same group of customers. Competition inside
a company is usually stimulated with the larger purpose of meeting and reaching higher quality
of services or improved products that the company may produce or develop.

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Competition is often considered to be the opposite of cooperation, however in the real world,
mixtures of cooperation and competition are the norm. Optimal strategies to achieve goals are
studied in the branch of mathematics known as game theory.

Competition has been studied in several fields, including psychology, sociology and
anthropology. Social psychologists, for instance, study the nature of competition. They
investigate the natural urge of competition and its circumstances. They also study group
dynamics, to detect how competition emerges and what its effects are. Sociologists, meanwhile,
study the effects of competition on society as a whole. In addition, anthropologists study the
history and prehistory of competition in various cultures. They also investigate how competition
manifested itself in various cultural settings in the past, and how competition has developed
over time.

ii) Niche
Answer- Niche, in ecology, all of the interactions of a species with the other members of its
community, including competition, predation, parasitism, and mutualism. A variety of abiotic
factors, such as soil type and climate, also define a species’ niche. Each of the various species
that constitute a community occupies its own ecological niche. Informally, a niche is considered
the “job” or “role” that a species performs within nature.

In ecology, a niche is a term describing the relational position of a species or population in an

ecosystem.

More formally, the niche includes how a population responds to the abundance of its resources
and enemies (e. g., by growing when resources are abundant, and predators, parasites and
pathogens are scarce) and how it affects those same factors (e. g., by reducing the abundance
of resources through consumption and contributing to the population growth of enemies by
falling prey to them).

The abiotic or physical environment is also part of the niche because it influences how
populations affect, and are affected by, resources and enemies.

iii) Predation
Answer- Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats
another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes
parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill the host) and parasitoidism (which
always does, eventually). It is distinct from scavenging on dead prey, though many predators
also scavenge; it overlaps with herbivory, as a seed predator is both a predator and a herbivore.

Predators may actively search for prey or sit and wait for it. When prey is detected, the predator
assesses whether to attack it. This may involve ambush or pursuit predation, sometimes after

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stalking the prey. If the attack is successful, the predator kills the prey, removes any inedible
parts like the shell or spines, and eats it.

Predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as
vision, hearing, or smell. Many predatory animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, have sharp
claws or jaws to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and
aggressive mimicry that improve hunting efficiency.

Predation has a powerful selective effect on prey, and the prey develop antipredator adaptations
such as warning coloration, alarm calls and other signals, camouflage, mimicry of well-defended
species, and defensive spines and chemicals. Sometimes predator and prey find themselves in
an evolutionary arms race, a cycle of adaptations and counter-adaptations. Predation has been
a major driver of evolution since at least the Cambrian period.

iv) Freshwater ecosystem

Answer- Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include
lakes and ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and wetlands. They can be contrasted with
marine ecosystems, which have a larger salt content. Freshwater habitats can be classified by
different factors, including temperature, light penetration, nutrients, and vegetation.

Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into lentic ecosystems (still water) and lotic ecosystems
(flowing water). Limnology (and its branch freshwater biology) is a study about freshwater
ecosystems. It is a part of hydrobiology.

Original attempts to understand and monitor freshwater ecosystems were spurred on by threats
to human health (ex. Cholera outbreaks due to sewage contamination). Early monitoring
focused on chemical indicators, then bacteria, and finally algae, fungi and protozoa. A new type
of monitoring involves quantifying differing groups of organisms (macroinvertebrates,
macrophytes and fish) and measuring the stream conditions associated with them.

(4 × 2½ =10)

6. Describe the Chernobyl accident and discuss the various issues that arose after the
accident. (10)
Answer- The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on Saturday 26 April
1986, at the No. 4 nuclear reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat
in the north of the Ukrainian SSR. It is considered the worst nuclear disaster in history and is
one of only two nuclear energy disasters rated at seven—the maximum severity—on the
International Nuclear Event Scale, the other being the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
in Japan.

The accident started during a safety test on an RBMK-type nuclear reactor, which was
commonly used throughout the Soviet Union. The test was a simulation of an electrical power

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outage to aid the development of a safety procedure for maintaining cooling water circulation
until the back-up generators could provide power – there is a time gap between the moment of
power outage and the moment at which the back-up generators reach full power. This operating
gap was about one minute and had been identified as a potential safety problem that could
cause the nuclear reactor core to overheat. Three such tests had been conducted since 1982,
but they had failed to provide a solution. On this fourth attempt, the test was delayed by 10
hours, so an unprepared operating shift had to perform it. During a gradual decrease of reactor
power that was done in preparation for the test, the power unexpectedly dropped to a near-zero
level at one moment. The operators were able to partially restore power, but this put the reactor
in a highly unstable condition. The risks were not made evident in the operating instructions,
despite a similar accident occurring years before, and the test proceeded even though the
power was still lower than prescribed. Upon test completion, the operators triggered a reactor
shutdown, but a combination of unstable conditions and reactor design flaws caused an
uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction instead.

A large amount of energy was suddenly released, vapourising superheated cooling water and
rupturing the reactor core in a highly destructive steam explosion. This was immediately
followed by an open-air reactor core fire that released considerable airborne radioactive
contamination for about nine days that precipitated onto parts of the USSR and western Europe,
before being finally contained on 4 May 1986. The fire gradually released about the same
amount of contamination as the initial explosion. As a result of rising ambient radiation levels
off-site, a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) radius exclusion zone was created 36 hours after the accident.
About 49,000 people were evacuated from the area, primarily from Pripyat. The exclusion zone
was later increased to 30 kilometres (19 mi) radius when a further 68,000 people were
evacuated from the wider area.

The reactor explosion killed two of the reactor operating staff. In the emergency response that
followed, 134 firemen and station staff were hospitalized with acute radiation syndrome due to
absorbing high doses of ionizing radiation. Of these 134 people, 28 died in the days to months
afterward and approximately 14 suspected radiation-induced cancer deaths followed within the
next 10 years. Among the wider population, an excess of 15 childhood thyroid cancer deaths
were documented as of 2011. The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation (UNSCEAR) has, at multiple times, reviewed all the published research on the
incident and found that at present, fewer than 100 documented deaths are likely to be
attributable to increased exposure to radiation.[13] Determining the total eventual number of
exposure related deaths is uncertain based on the linear no-threshold model, a contested
statistical model, which has also been used in estimates of low level radon and air pollution
exposure. Model predictions with the greatest confidence values of the eventual total death toll
in the decades ahead from Chernobyl releases vary, from 4,000 fatalities when solely assessing
the three most contaminated former Soviet states, to about 9,000 to 16,000 fatalities when
assessing the total continent of Europe.

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To reduce the spread of radioactive contamination from the wreckage and protect it from
weathering, the protective Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus was built by December
1986. It also provided radiological protection for the crews of the undamaged reactors at the
site, which continued operating. Due to the continued deterioration of the sarcophagus, it was
further enclosed in 2017 by the Chernobyl New Safe Confinement, a larger enclosure that
allows the removal of both the sarcophagus and the reactor debris, while containing the
radioactive hazard. Nuclear clean-up is scheduled for completion in 2065. The Chernobyl
disaster is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, both in terms of cost
and casualties. The initial emergency response, together with later decontamination of the
environment, ultimately involved more than 500,000 personnel and cost an estimated 18 billion
Soviet rubles—roughly US$68 billion in 2019, adjusted for inflation. The accident resulted in
safety upgrades on all remaining Soviet-designed RBMK reactors, of which 10 continue to be
operational as of 2019.

Test delay and shift change - Process flow diagram of the reactor - The test was to be
conducted during the day-shift of 25 April 1986 as part of a scheduled reactor shut down. The
day shift crew had been instructed in advance on the reactor operating conditions to run the test
and in addition, a special team of electrical engineers was present to conduct the one-minute
test of the new voltage regulating system once the correct conditions had been reached. As
planned, a gradual reduction in the output of the power unit began at 01:06 on 25 April, and the
power level had reached 50% of its nominal 3,200 MW thermal level by the beginning of the day
shift.

Comparative Generation II reactor vessels size comparison, a design classification of

commercial reactors built until the end of the 1990s. The day shift performed many unrelated
maintenance tasks, and was scheduled to perform the test at 14:15 and preparations for the test
were carried out, including the disabling of the emergency core cooling system. Meanwhile,
another regional power station unexpectedly went offline and at 14:00 the Kiev electrical grid
controller requested that the further reduction of Chernobyl's output be postponed, as power
was needed to satisfy the peak evening demand. The Chernobyl plant director[citation needed]
agreed, and postponed the test.

Soon, the day shift was replaced by the evening shift. Despite the delay, the emergency core
cooling system was left disabled – it was disconnected by a manual isolating slide valve which
in practice meant that two or three people spent the whole shift manually turning sailboat-helm
sized valve wheels. The system would have no influence on the events that unfolded next, but
allowing to run the reactor for 11 hours outside of the test without emergency protection
indicated a generally low level of safety culture.

At 23:04, the Kiev grid controller allowed the reactor shutdown to resume. This delay had some
serious consequences: the day shift had long since departed, the evening shift was also
preparing to leave, and the night shift would not take over until midnight, well into the job.

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According to plan, the test should have been finished during the day shift, and the night shift
would only have had to maintain decay heat cooling systems in an otherwise shut-down plant.

The night shift had very limited time to prepare for and carry out the experiment. Anatoly
Dyatlov, deputy chief-engineer of the entire Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, was present to
supervise and direct the experiment; as he out-ranked all other supervisory personnel present,
his orders and instructions overrode any objections of other senior personnel present during the
test and its preparation. Serving under Dyatlov, Aleksandr Akimov was chief of the night shift,
and Leonid Toptunov was the operator responsible for the reactor's operational regimen,
including the movement of the control rods. Toptunov was a young engineer who had worked
independently as a senior engineer for approximately three months.

Unexpected drop of the reactor power - The test plan called for a gradual decrease in power
output from reactor No. 4 to a thermal level of 700–1000 MW and an output of 720 MW was
reached at 00:05 on 26 April. Due to the reactor's production of a fission byproduct, xenon-135,
which is a reaction-inhibiting neutron absorber, core power continued to decrease in the
absence of further operator action—a process known as reactor poisoning. In steady-state
operation, this is avoided because xenon-135 is "burned off" as quickly as it is created from
decaying iodine-135 by the absorption of neutrons from the ongoing chain reaction, becoming
highly stable xenon-136. With the reactor power reduced, previously produced high quantities of
iodine-135 were decaying into the neutron-absorbing xenon-135 faster than the now reduced
neutron flux could burn off.

When the reactor power dropped to approximately 500 MW, the reactor control has been
switched to a different mode in order to manually maintain the power level. Around that moment,
the power suddenly fell into an unintended near-shutdown state, with a power output of 30 MW
thermal or less. The exact circumstances that caused the power fall are unknown because
Akimov died in hospital on 10 May and Toptunov on 14 May; early reports attributed it to
Toptunov's mistake, but it has also been suggested it was due to an equipment failure.

7. Discuss air quality standards. (10)

Answer- There are air quality standards which apply to air supplied to any form of air-supplied
RPE. Standards are given in BS 4275: 1974 and in HS(G) 53, Appendix 4. The latter states that:
the air supplied should contain not more than 5 ppm of carbon monoxide and 500 ppm of
carbon dioxide, with other impurities kept to a minimum; the air should be comfortable, being in
the temperature range 15–22°C and with relative humidity no higher than 85%; and the air flow
capacity should be a minimum of 120 l/min per person.

The primary sources of information on air quality standards, criteria, and policies will be the
relevant local, state, and central organization that have a mandate for overseeing the air
resources of the study area. Documentation of this information will allow the determination of

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the significance of air quality impacts incurred during projects or activities and will aid in
deciding between alternative actions or in assessing the need for mitigating measures for a
given alternative. Pertinent institutional information and sources of data related to the air
environment have been described earlier. Also, specific air-quality management policies or
requirements may be in existence for particular areas, and the particular requirements of such
policies may need to be ascertained.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 was enacted by the Central Government
with the objective of arresting the deterioration of air quality. The Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1981 describes the main functions of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
as follows:

● To advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the
quality the air and the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.

● To plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control
and abatement of air pollution. To provide technical assistance and guidance to the
State Pollution Control Board.

● To carry out and sponsor investigations and research related to prevention, control and
abatement of air pollution.

● To collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data related to air pollution; and
To lay down and annul standards for the quality of air. The mandate provided to the
CPCB under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act empowers it to set
standards for the quality of air.

8. (a) List the reasons for extinction of Wild Life and discuss any one reason.
Answer- ​ Causes of Extinction of Wildlife - The major causes of wildlife extinction are as follow:

1. Degradation of ecosystem

There are different types of living beings in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Cattle,
insects, plants, trees, etc. grow in the terrestrial ecosystem while fish, some insects, small plants
live in the aquatic ecosystem. The terrestrial ecosystem is degraded due to forest fire,
destruction of forests, use of insecticides and pesticides, etc. An aquatic ecosystem is spoilt by
falling stones and soil when construction work is done and by explosions. Thus, the living
beings on both land and water are affected. Because of the degraded ecosystem, there will be
the lack of habitat for the living beings. So, human beings should not degrade the ecosystem.
We should not discharge harmful things like rubbish, insecticides, etc. directly to water sources.
When we protect the ecosystem, it helps to protect the biodiversity.

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2. Loss of habitat

Habitat plays a significant role in retaining biodiversity. Natural habitat is ruined because of
human activities like construction work, the extension of agricultural work, destruction of forests,
etc. which results in bad effects in animal’s habitat, food cycle, climate and reproduction
progress. The numerical growth of living beings and their life cycle are hampered. It is unwise to
destroy the natural habitat while conducting development construction and human activities.
The habitat which has been destroyed should be restored.

3. Loss of mobility

The deterioration of the natural environment causes the loss of mobility of birds and animals.
The causes of deterioration of the environment are the destruction of the forest, expansion of
agricultural land and urbanization. All these factors limit space for the animals and birds for
roaming. That’s why the natural habitat for the several animals and birds have been diminished.
In this situation, they have to stay within a limited area. So, people should not ruin the natural
environment if they want to conserve animals and birds. We should try to make the dry and
uncultivated land suitable for the habitat of animals and birds.

4. Limitation of expansion of vegetation

Land for cultivation is extended due to the population growth. Various types of development and
construction work are continuing. Similarly, settlement areas are expanding and urbanization is
taking place. Grazing land is declining in size. These activities harm the forest, vegetation,
herbs, etc. Because of these adverse effects, biodiversity is degrading. People should grow
trees in the surrounding of their houses, either side of the road and bare fields. Pasture lands
should not be damaged. Grass should be grown in the bare place for the cattle. Thus, the
greenery can be increased.

5. International trade

The trade of some items of wild origin such as animals fur, bones, tusks, musk or as orchids,
medicinal plants resulted in the decline of wild animals and plants. Maximum use of items such
as decorative souvenirs, perfumes, cosmetics etc. in the developed countries has increased the
loss of wild animals and plants in many countries.

(b) Describe the various modes of transmission of communicable diseases.

Answer- The following points highlight the two main modes of transmission of communicable
diseases in humans. The modes are: 1. Direct Transmission of Communicable Diseases, 2.
Indirect Transmission of Communicable Diseases.

Mode # 1. Direct Transmission of Communicable Diseases:

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In this, the pathogens are transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person directly
without an intermediate agent.

It occurs in following ways:

(a) By direct contact with an infected person i.e., hand shake, mouth-to-mouth kissing, sexual
act, etc. e.g., contagious diseases like chickenpox, smallpox, measles, leprosy, ringworm,
gonorrhea syphilis etc.

(b) Droplet infection (though coughing, sneezing and spitting of infected persons) e.g.,
pneumonia, diphtheria, influenza, tuberculosis (Fig. 8.2), common cold, whooping cough, etc.
These are more common in more crowded living conditions.

(c) Contact with soil, e.g., bacterial cysts of tetanus.

(d) Animal bites e.g., rabies viruses.

(e) Tran placental transmission.

The viruses of German measles and AIDS; and bacteria of syphilis can be transmitted from the
maternal blood into foetal blood through placenta.

Mode # 2. Indirect Transmission of Communicable Diseases:

When the pathogens can be transmitted from the reservoir of infection to a healthy person
through some intermediate agents.

It occurs in following ways:

(a) Vector borne diseases e.g., malaria (female Anopheles) , sleeping sickness (vector is tse
fly), dengue (Aedes mosquito), cholera (housefly), etc.

(b) Vehicle borne. Pathogens of cholera, dysentery, typhoid etc. are transmitted by agencies like
conta​minated food, water etc. Such diseases are more common in areas without safe supplies
of drinking water. AIDS is spread by blood or semen of suffering donors.

(c) Air borne e.g., influenza, epidemic typhus.

(d) Formite borne – In this, the pathogens are spread through contaminated articles like
handkerchiefs, towels, crockery, etc.

(e) Unclean hands e.g., Ascariasis (Ascaris lumbricoides) and Enterobiasis (Enterobius
vermicularis).

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Sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs) are those diseases which spread by sexual contact from
an infected person to another person e.g., bacterial diseases like syphilis and gonorrhea and
viral diseases like AIDS.

9. (a) Describe the steps involved in the primary and secondary treatment of sewage
water in order to make it suitable for drinking purpose.
Ans:- PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Primary treatment of wastewater involves sedimentation of solid waste within the water. This is
done after filtering out larger contaminants within the water. Wastewater is passed through
several tanks and filters that separate water from contaminants. The resulting “sludge” is then
fed into a digester, in which further processing takes place. This primary batch of sludge
contains nearly 50% of suspended solids within wastewater​.

SECONDARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Secondary treatment of wastewater makes use of oxidation to further purify wastewater. This
can be done in one of three ways:

Biofiltration

This method of secondary treatment of wastewater employs sand filters, contact filters, or
trickling filters to ensure that additional sediment is removed from wastewater. Of the three
filters, trickling filters are typically the most effective for small-batch wastewater treatment.

Aeration

Aeration is a long, but effective process that entails mixing wastewater with a solution of
microorganisms. The resulting mixture is then aerated for up to 30 hours at a time to ensure
results.

Oxidation Ponds

Oxidation ponds are typically used in warmer places. In addition, this method utilizes natural
bodies of water like lagoons. Wastewater is allowed to pass through this body for a period of
time and is then retained for two to three weeks.

(b) Describe the measures that are used to rehabilitate degraded land.
Ans:- The factors responsible for degradation of land include excessive exploitation of land,
deforestation, clearing fertile land for settlements, slashing and burning the trees for agriculture,

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abandoned mining sites and surface mining, toxicity in the landfill, untreated industrial effluents
and concretisation

1. Deforestation

Deforestation is one of the major causes of Land Degradation and Forest degraded area
consists 28% of total eroded area in India.

2.Overgrazing

Overgrazing is Main cause of land degradation in states like Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

3. Over Irrigation

Over Irrigation is also responsible for land degradation as it leads to water logging that leads to
increase in salinity and alkalinity of soil. In States like Punjab and Haryana over Irrigation is
responsible for land degradation.

4.Mining

Mining leaves deep scars and traces of over burdening on the land leading to land degradation.
In states like Jharkhand and Odisha , mining has played significant role in land degradation.

5.Industrial effluents

Industrial effluents are also responsible for degradation of land and water in many parts

10. (a) Discuss the effects of radiation on human health.

Ans:- What is radiation?
Radiation is energy that travels as a wave or particle. Some types of radiation, called ionizing
radiation, can be harmful. Radioactivity is ionizing radiation that is given off by substances, such
as uranium, as they decay.

About half of the ionizing radiation we're exposed to comes from nature. It's in rock, soil, and the
atmosphere. The other half comes from man-made sources like medical tests and treatments
and nuclear power plants.

How much radiation is dangerous?

There is always a risk of damage to cells or tissue from being exposed to any amount of ionizing
radiation. Over time, exposure to radiation may cause cancer and other health problems. But in
most cases, the risk of getting cancer from being exposed to small amounts of radiation is small.

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The chance of getting cancer varies from person to person. It depends on the source and
amount of radiation exposure, the number of exposures over time, and your age at exposure. In
general, the younger you are when you are exposed to radiation, the greater the risk of cancer.

For example:

Someone who has had many CT scans starting at a young age is more likely to get cancer later
in life than someone who hasn't had any or as many of these tests. CT scans generally use
more radiation than other X-ray tests. The risk of an adult getting cancer from a CT scan is less
than 1 in 1,000. The risk of a child getting cancer from the same CT scan can be much higher. A
child who was treated with radiation for cancer is more likely to get another cancer later in life. A
person who has been exposed to large amounts of radiation from a nuclear accident is more
likely to get cancer than someone who has not been exposed.

(b) Discuss the role of NGOs in the protection and management of the
environment.(5)
Ans:- Role of NGOs in environmental protection
Globally, NGOs, socially conscious enterprises and individuals are rallying together to enable
humanity in order to live sustainably i.e. "meet the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This belief is the driving force for
programmes of environment or development, across government, civil society, business, and
industry. Only if we live sustainably can we protect the environment without compromising
economic growth and the mission to eradicate poverty and better standards of living. And, in
situations where attacks on ecosystems or certain demographics take place, Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) serve as the first port of call. Here’s how NGOs are working for
environmental protection.

NGOs working to conserve nature and environment

Many NGOs specialise in the 'green' arena, addressing the need to conserve nature and
environment. They do this through mass awareness campaigns, tree planting drives, promoting
ecologically sustainable practices for waste removal like vermiculture and composting instead of
dumping in landfills, supporting the use of cycles and green renewable fuels instead of
dangerous fossil fuels. The push from these NGOs has translated into Indian government
ministries making many of these practices part of their recommendations to states and villages,
and official solar and wind energy targets under the 2014 government. India’s solar energy
mission, for example, has received a billion dollar loan from the World Bank. Their role is vital
for other campaigns like the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.

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