ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Module 2
ECOSYSTEMS

Structure

Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concept of Ecosystem
3.3 Structure and Function of Ecosystem
3.4 Ecological succession
3.5 Major types of ecosystem
3.6 Summary
3.7 Questions
3.8 Answers

Objectives

At the end of the unit you will be able to:

> understand how nature functions in relation to its
various components
> understand different types of ecosystems and their similarities
and differences.

3.1 Introduction

Let us a little permit Nature to take her own way; she

better understands her own affairs than we.
~Michel de Montaigne (translated)

Our Earth is the only known planet with life. We have to

understand its delicate balance, develop respect for its complexity and
learn to obey it realizing that nature knows better than we do just as
parents know better than a little child. Anthropogenic interference due
to developmental activities affects the delicate balance that is
maintained in the units of self dependent systems in the biosphere
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called as ecosystems This is because in these units the living and non
living environment work in complete coordination for the well being of
the whole unit. It is important to understand this coordination to fathom
how man is working against this otherwise perfect system and destroying
it in small and big ways. Thus endangering his own survival.

3.2 Concept of Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be defined as a biological environment
consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area interacting
with each other, as well as with all the nonliving, physical components
of the environment, such as air, soil, water, and sunlight, exchanging
energy and matter. That is, it is all the organisms or in other words the
biological communities of different species in a given area and its
physical environment or abiotic components of the area.

The study of ecosystems is called ecology. The term ecology was

coined in 1869 (by Earnst Haekal) much before the term ecosystem. It
is derived from the Greek word Oikos (Home) and Logos (study) and so
ecology meant the study of organisms in their natural environment or
home interacting with their surroundings. The unit of study of ecology
was later described by Tansley (1935) as ecosystem.

Ecosystems have become particularly important politically,

since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - ratified by 192
countries – which defines “the protection of ecosystems, natural
habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in
natural surroundings” as a commitment of ratifying countries. This has
created the political necessity to spatially identify ecosystems and
somehow distinguish among them. The CBD defines an “ecosystem” as
a “dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities
and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit”.
Some of the major ecosystems are forest ecosystem, grassland
ecosystem, desert ecosystem, aquatic ecosystems etc. Though there
are obviously various differences in different ecosystems, the basic
structure and functions are common.
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3.3 Structure and function of Ecosystem

Ecosystems show large variations in size, structure,
composition etc. However all the ecosystems are characterized by
certain basic structural and functional features which are common.
The basic structural components of an ecosystem are biotic and abiotic
components. That is the ecosystem can be viewed as a series of biotic
components that are linked together and thus interact with one
another exchanging energy and matter, and being influenced by other
abiotic factors. The fact that ecosystem components are linked
indicates that disturbances to one component impact on all other
components of the ecosystem to varying degrees.

A. Structure of ecosystems – This can be summarized in four ways

I. Trophic levels (Biotic Components)
II. Abiotic Components
III. Trophic relationships
IV. Ecological pyramids

I. Trophic levels - Ecosystems have a basic structure according

tohow different populations acquire energy flow, where energy flow is
a function of ecosystems. Species obtaining energy in a similar way are
grouped into trophic levels. There are three primary trophic levels:
1. primary producers
2. consumers
3. decomposers

Primary producers are autotrophic organisms(primarily green

plants)capable of photosynthesis making food for themselves and
indirectly for other components. In terrestrial ecosystems the autotrophs
are usually rooted plants, while in aquatic ecosystems shallow waters
have rooted plants and deep waters have phytoplanktons as the major
autotrophs Consumers are heterotrophic organisms dependent on
otherorganisms for food. Consumers can be subdivided into more
specific trophic levels .Those feeding directly on producers are called
primary consumers (herbivores) like rabbit, deer for terrestrial
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and protozoa, many mollusk species for aquatic ecosystems. The

secondary and tertiary consumers (carnivores) eat other consumers.
For e.g. frog, tiger for terrestrial ecosystems and fishes for aquatic
ecosystems. Decomposers are organisms that obtain energy and
nutrients from remains of dead producers and consumers.
Decomposers are primarily bacteria and fungi which are extremely
important in the process of nutrient cycling.

Composition of Species: For each ecosystem, the species

composition in these three basic structural levels of producers,
consumers and decomposers will be different. For example, pond
ecosystem will have different composition of species in the three levels
compared to marine ecosystem. A desert will have fewer species as
compared to the variety of species in a forest ecosystem. Thus Species
composition differentiates ecosystems.

II. Abiotic Components – The abiotic components are air, water,

salts,light, temperature, nutrients etc. These are basic components in the
structure of every ecosystem. In deserts, temperature and light will be in
excess, but with scarcity of water. In deep sea, light would be limited. But
all these components are vital and the species composition is affected by
these abiotic factors. Nutrients such as N, P and Ca, necessary for the
growth of living organisms are accumulated in the biomass and the
abiotic components like the soil. The amount of these nutrients present in
the soil at any given time is known as standing state. Different
ecosystems have different standing state of nutrients. The standing state
of nutrients may vary at different time even in the same ecosystem.

III. Trophic relationships - Ecosystems also have a basic

structureaccording to trophic relationships. This is the relationship of
“who-eats-whom” in an ecosystem and is a food chain. More often,
however, food
chains are not isolated from one another but rather are “cross-linked”
into more complicated structures called food webs. Thus a food chain
can be defined as a linear series of organisms dependent on each other
for food, resulting in the function of transfer of energy in an ecosystem.
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Example Grass is eaten by sheep, which in turn is eaten by a lion. A

food web can be defined as an interconnected set of food chains in
theecosystem. For example a mouse in the field may eat several types
of seeds and be preyed upon by several different carnivores animals.
But each of these carnivores animals may consume not just the mouse
but several different types of prey and so on, thus forming an
interconnected network of species.
The two most important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling
takes place through this basic structure of food chains and food web.
The food chains are also significant in that it helps in maintaining and
regulating the population size of different animals and thus maintain
ecological balance.

As the diversity (e.g. number of species) in the ecosystem increases,

the complexity of these food webs also increases and as complexity
increases so does stability. e.g. disturbance or extinction of one or two
species can be compensated for . In simple food webs or chains,
extinction of one species may lead to the collapse of the entire system.

Fig3.1: Trophic Relationships

Human agricultural ecosystems are good examples of simple,

unstable ecosystems. Monocultures of single crop plants consumed by
livestock and/or humans are the single food source of insects in the
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ecosystem making the system unstable and because they are unstable,
they require additional energy inputs to prevent them from collapsing e.g.
insecticides, herbicides, fertilizers, irrigation water, etc. Irish potato
famine is an example of the instability of human agricultural ecosystems.

IV. Ecological Pyramids- Another way to summarize the structureof

trophic of ecosystems is in the form of ecological pyramids for the
trophic relationships. Ecological pyramids are graphic representation
of the structure of trophic and function of an ecosystem, starting with
producers at the base and successive trophic levels leading to the apex.
These are mostly upright but can be inverted or even urn shaped.
Ecological pyramids can be based on three different kinds of
information related to the trophic relationships. These are as follows:
1. Pyramid of numbers – It is based on numbers of individuals ineach
trophic level. For example the producers in the grasslands are grasses
which are small in size and large in number thus forming a broad base.
The herbivores in this ecosystem are insects while tertiary carnivores
are hawks or other birds which are gradually less and less in number,
thus forming an upright pyramid. In forest ecosystem the producers
are big trees which are less in number, where the birds, insects etc
that feed on the trees are more in number forming a broader middle
structure. The secondary consumers like lizards, snakes, fox etc which
feed o these are lesser in number and thus the pyramid is urn shaped.
For parasitic food chain of few big trees with fruit eating birds
harboured on them, which in turn have higher number of lice, bugs etc
as parasites growing on them, while a still greater number of
hyperparasites like microbes feeding on
them, makes for an inverted pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass – It is based on weight of living materialin
each trophic level. For example in a forest the producers (trees)
accumulate a huge biomass while the total biomass of the consumers
feeding at each successive level decreases resulting in a broad base
and narrowing top, that is an upright pyramid. Whereas for a pond
ecosystem the producer are phytoplanktons which have much less
biomass as compared to herbivores (zooplanktons, insects) and
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carnivores (small fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish). Thus the
pyramid takes an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex.
3. Pyramid of energy – It is based on energy content of each
trophiclevel. As energy is always lost at each step of a food chain, the
pyramid of energy is always upright. The energy loss in the form of
heat, respiration etc at each trophic level is as high as 90%, that is only
about 10% of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level. This
would mean that if there were a 1000 units of energy at the producers
level the primary consumers would receive 100 units of energy, the
secondary consumers would receive 10 units of energy, and the
tertiary consumer would receive 1 unit of energy. That is why it takes
a lot of producers to support a few top consumers. Hence the pyramid
of energy is the best representation of the trophic relationship. This
pyramid helps to demonstrate the loss of energy from one level of the
food chain to the next level.

Fig 3.2.a. Basic pyramid of trophic relationship (source: Utah

State Office of Education)
Lion, Tiger
Snakes, foxes, lizards
Insects, birds
Trees

Fig 3.2. b. Pyramid of Numbers for forests

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Big fish
Small fish
Insects
Phytoplanktons

Fig 3.2.c Pyramid of Biomass for pond

Values for all the pyramids based on the three types of

information, thus generally get smaller from producers to primary
consumers to secondary consumers, etc (hence takes a pyramidal
form when represented) where major exceptions are Forest
ecosystems showing urn shaped pyramid of numbers and parasitic
food chains showing inverted pyramid of numbers. Pond
ecosystems showing inverted pyramid of biomass. The pyramid of
energy has no exceptions being always upright. The three pyramids
(of number, biomass and energy) drawn for each ecosystem thus
gives a holistic representation of trophic relationships, or the
structure of the particular ecosystems, is based on the function
they perform. (Refer fig.)

B. Functions of Ecosystem- Interactions between

ecosystemcomponents involve two general processes or
functions:
1. Energy flow.
2. Nutrient cycling.

1. Energy Flow – Energy flow is an important function that

sustainsthe ecosystem but the energy does not cycle and so needs
a constant input. Energy flow is a one-way process in ecosystems
The sun is the ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems,
which provides for the essential constant input of energy. This
is called radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic waves,
as is sunlight. Primary producers capture a fraction of energy in
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sunlight striking the earth and convert it into chemical energy

(carbohydrate) that is stored in their tissues. This is fixed
energy, which is potential chemical energy bound up in various
organic substances, which are broken down in order to release
their energy content. Energy in tissues of primary producers is
transferred to consumers as each consumes tissue of other
organisms. Each organism oxidizes the organic substances of
the first to liberate energy to synthesize its own cellular
constituents, thus further decreasing the useful energy at each
step. About 90% - 95% of energy present in one component is
lost as heat at each transfer.
The fixation of energy and its flow thus obeys the two
laws of thermodynamics where the first law states that energy
can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be
transformed from one form to another. And the second law
states that every transformation of energy is accompanied by a
simultaneous degradation of energy from concentrated form to
dispersed form. Energy flow is thus a very inefficient process
and very little energy is left when decomposers get to it.

Energy Flow Model

The basic components of an energy flow model can be examined in a

Generalized model of Y-shaped energy flow called the Universal model
given by E.P. Odum 1983. This model is applicable to both terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems. It is applicable to any living component, an
individual, a population or a trophic group. (Refer fig 3.5)
Fig3.4: Simple Enegy Flow diagram representing both the grazing
and the detritus(dead matter) food chain

Fig3.5: Generalised Y shaped Enegy Flow Model (Universal

Model)
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It can be concluded form the energy flow, that shorter the food
chain, greater would be the available food energy as with the increase
in length of the food chain, there is a correspondingly greater loss of
energy. It also implies that a larger population of people can be
supported if people shorten the food chain by eating grains directly
rather than eating animals that feed on grains. Although fruit and
vegetable-sources of protein are more often lower in one or more
essential amino acids than animal sources, like lysine, and to a lesser
extent methionine and threonine. Yet the plant sources of protein can
be adequate for adult needs even with any one of the legume, cereal,
nut, seed, or fruit food groups.

2. Nutrient Cycling - Now, let’s consider nutrient cycling in

ecosystemsand see how it is in contrasts to energy flow. Nutrients are
molecules required by living organisms e.g. carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus.
Unlike energy, there is no major input of nutrients from outside the
ecosystem. Thus, nutrients are used over and over again which would
mean that the carbon, nitrogen, etc. atoms in our body have been used
over and over again in ecosystems. Nutrients move through ecosystems
by way of biogeochemical cycles which by name indicate that these cycles
include biological, geological and chemical processes. Major cycles
are Nitrogen, Carbon and Phosphorous cycle. Nutrients exist in either a
reservoir or exchange pool: reservoir is the storehouse of nutrients.
The nutrients in the reservoir are not directly available to organisms in
the ecosystem e.g. reservoirs for carbon include limestone, coral reefs,
and fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. Reservoir of phosphorous are
rocks, fossils etc. Exchange pool is the source of nutrients in a form
that can be taken up by primary producers e.g. carbon in the form of
atmospheric carbon dioxide is the exchange pool form. . From
Phosphate rocks the phosphorous becomes available as dissolved
phosphorous due to erosion. Nutrients tied up in biomass are released
by decomposition back into exchange pool.

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Nutrients are taken up by primary producers and passed from

trophic level to trophic level like energy but is not lost as heat, rather
are incorporated into biomass of each trophic level. In obtaining
energy from dead organic material, decomposers release nutrients
back into exchange pool. Some of this dead material may not be
decomposed and nutrients may become part of reservoir -- e.g.
carbonification of dead organic materials not decomposed produces
reservoir forms such as natural gas, oil and coal.

3.4 Ecological Succession

“Ecological succession” is the observed process of change in the
structure of species of an ecological community over a period of time.
Within any community some species may become less abundant over
some time interval, or they may even vanish from the ecosystem
altogether. Similarly, over some time interval, other species within the
community may become more abundant, or new species may even
invade into the community from adjacent ecosystems. This observed
change over a period of time in what is living in a particular ecosystem
is “ecological succession”.

It occurs because ecosystems are not static in nature, and is

triggered by changes in the environment. The original environment
may have been optimal for the first species of plant or animal, but the
newly altered environment is often optimal for some other species of
plant or animal. Under the changed conditions of the environment, the
previously dominant species may fail and another species may become
ascendant.

Does ecological succession ever stop?

In ecological succession there is the concept of the “climax”
community. The climax community represents a stable end product of
the successional sequence. Its apparent that the structure of the
species and composition will not change much over observable time.
To this degree, we could say that ecological succession has “stopped”.
We must recognize, however, that any ecosystem, no matter how
inherently stable and persistent,
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could be subject to massive external disruptive forces (like fires and

storms) that could re-set and re-trigger the successional process. As
long as these random and potentially catastrophic events are possible,
it is not absolutely accurate to say that succession has stopped. Also,
over long periods of time (“geological time”) the climate conditions
and other fundamental aspects of an ecosystem change. These
geological time scale changes are not observable in our “ecological”
time, but their fundamental existence and historical reality cannot be
disputed. No ecosystem, then, has existed or will exist unchanged or
unchanging over a geological time scale.

Process of Succession

Thus Ecological Succession can be elaborately defined as an

orderly process of change in the community structure and function
with the passage of time, mediated through modifications in the
physical environment and ultimately culminating in a stabilized
ecosystem known as climax. The whole sequences of communities
which are transitory are known as Seral stage or seres whereas the
community established first of all in the area is called a pioneer
community. The process of succession takes place in a systematic
order of sequential steps as follows.

1 Nudation-It is the development of a bare area without any life form.

The bare area may be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruptions,
drought, glaciers, frost, overgrazing, outbreak of diseases, agricultural,
industrial activities etc

2. Invasion-It is the successful establishment of one or more species

ona bare area through dispersal (by wind water birds etc) or
migration, followed by ecesis or establishment. As growth and
reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form
groups or aggregations.
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3.Competition and coactions- As the number of individuals grows

there is interspecific (between species) and intraspecific(within
species) competition for space water and nutrition. This influence on
each other in a number of ways is called coaction.

4. Reaction- the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact

thatestablished species have upon their own environments, sometimes
subtle and sometimes overt alteration of one’s own environment.
This modification of the environment by established species is called
reaction and the modifications are very often such that they become
unsuitable for the existing species and favour some new species which
replace them. This reaction is what leads to seral communities.

5. Stabilization-The succession ultimately culminates in a more orless

stable community called climax which is in equilibrium with the
environment owing to full adjustment with the environment, maximum
biomass and mutually beneficially linkages with other organisms

Significance of Biotic succession

The information gained through the understanding that the
sequence of seral communities in succession is fixed is very useful. For
ecologists it helps in their study of any area, in recognizing the seral
stage at any area and to understand its stage of succession. It also
helps them judge the history of an area whether it was a lake or rock
or desert in the past. In measures of afforestation and reforestation,
this understanding helps in incorporating the conditions and
procedure that is conducive to bringing about a climax community of
forests. Commercially it helps in maintaining a particular biotic
community by interfering with biotic succession by identifying and
preventing the members of the next seral stage to invade the area.

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Natural Control
Have you thought about the various implications of the fact that in a
forest all the plants and animals are present in relation to the dominant
species? For example in a typical rain forest an almost solid roof is
formed by the tops of large trees. The dense mass of leaf material makes
a permanent ceiling for the entire forest (since the trees are not
deciduous). This prevents direct sunlight from reaching the ground,
which means that there is little undergrowth.

It is obvious that because of the dominant tree canopy through out the
year, only shade loving plants flourish except in pockets where a tree has
fallen and sunlight enters in till the space is filled up again. It is also
obvious that according to the dominant flora of a habitat are the fauna
that survive in these habitats (animals etc dependent on the plants
prevalent in a habitat).So the climax condition in any habitat is very
much in accordance with the dominant species which is currently
mankind and mostly according to mankind is whatever other life
survives and whatever does not...
In this respect therefore our dominance of nature does not seem to have
been against the natural growth and climax in natural habitats! So it is
only natural that there also has to be a check not far off in future that is
predestined for a species like ours. Aren’t we the dominant species
altering our habitat making it unsuitable for our own survival which is
what does happen naturally in succession in habitats which eliminates
that errant species? Nature has never been helpless; it always has a
check for everything, however slow in coming. Our efforts to conserve
environment and remedy the damage is our effort to prevent the natural
succeeding stage of elimination of the errant species.

To understand Succession it would be interesting to study two

types of succession, depending upon the nature of the habitat; namely
Hydrosere and Xerosere. It is to be noted that the climax community
irrespective of whether succession started from water body or desert
or rock, is still a forest, implying that forest is the most diverse and
hence most stable community.
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Hydrosere:
Hydrosere or Hydrarch succession occurs in a pond and its community
are converted into a land community in the following stages-
Phytoplankton- rooted submerged stage -rooted floating
vegetation(swampy)- reed swamp stage(marshy) –sedge
meadow stage- Land plants

Characteristics of Hydrosere:
• Phytoplankton stage- In the initial stage,
phytoplankton(cyanobacteria), green algae (Spirogyra,
Oedogonium), diatoms etc are the pioneer colonizers.
• Rooted submerged stage- The phytoplanktons consumed
byzooplankton (protozoans as Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium etc),
fish such as sun fish, blue gill fish etc. Gradually these organisms
die and increase the content of dead organic matter in the pond.
This is then utilized by bacteria and fungi, and minerals are
released after decomposition. Nutrient rich mud supports
rooted hydrophytes which have roots but are submerged such as
Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum etc in the shallow water zone which is
created by increasing silt brought in by streams of water flowing
into the lake. This submerged stage is also inhabited by animals
such as may flies, dragon flies etc. and Crustaceans as
Daphnia,Cyclops etc.
• Rooted floating stage- The hydrophytes die and are
decomposedby micro organisms and thus release nutrients. Due
to silting, depth of water is further reduced, and sunlight is able to
penetrate to the bottom. At the margin of pond grow rooted
floating vegetation. Example- Nelumbo nucifera,
Monochoria,Trapa etc.In floating stage faunal living space is
increased anddiversified. Example- frogs, salamander, hydra,
diving beetles etc inhabit such conditions. Some turtles and
snake also invade the pond.
• Reed swamp stage- Gradually, the depth of water
decreasesdue to water evaporation and organic matter
decomposition.
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Free floating plants as Lemna, Azolla, Pistia, Spirodella, Wolffia

etc increase in number as the availability of nutrients are more
in water. When these die, they build up the pond ecosystem,
resulting in further build up of the substratum. Pond becomes a
Swampy ecosystem where the shoots of the plants are above
water. The reed swamp species are Scirpus, Typha etc
• Sedge meadow stage- With further increase in
sedimentationthe mud becomes almost visible with just a thin
layer of water over it finally forming a marsh land. Mesic
(growing in moderate moisture) communities like sedges like
Juncus and grasses begin forming a mat like vegetation.
• Wood Land Stage- The marshes get dry due to the sunlight
andthe marshy vegetation disappears. The soil encourages land
plants as shrubs and trees.
• Forest stage- Depending upon the geographic
conditions,different forests like deciduous or tropical forest
stage takes over. The once aquatic fauna gets replaced by land
animals.

Xerosere:
Xerosere or Xerarch succession begins on the exposed parent rocks
(lithosere) or dry sand (psammosere).

A lithosere involves following stages-

crustose lichen stage (pioneers) – foliose lichen stage – moss
stage – herbs stage – shrub stage – forest stage (climax
stage). Characteristics of Lithosere:
• Crustose lichen stage-The pioneer plants are lichens,
laterfollowed by stages of mosses and Selaginella
(Spikemossess) that basically help in soil formation. Rocks
cannot absorb water and are not in a position to hold nutrients,
but the weak acids formed by the pioneer lichens to appear, the
crustose lichens like graphis, Rhizocarpum etc corrode the rock
surface forming small depressions and release the minerals
needed for the growth of these lichens.
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• Foliose lichen stage-The dead and decaying organic matter

ofthe lichens along with the weathered rock and sand particles
brought by the wind get collected in depressions making the
substratum suitable for the growth of foliose lichens like
Parmelia, which gradually replace the crustose lichens. These
increase the shading of the rocks, accumulation of organic
matter and formation of larger depressions thus accelerating
soil formation. Lithosere also involves successive changes in
animal life. Pioneer stages in animals are few species of mites,
spiders and ants, which are exposed to harsh temperatures.
• Moss stage-Large sized xerophytic mosses like Grimmia,
Tortulashade the Lichens and replace them. Their rhizoids can
penetrate deep into the crevices of the rocks, and more of soil and
organic matter is added to the soil. During moss stage, many new
species of mites, spiders, springtails invade the community.
• Herbs stage-The compact mat formed by mosses
retainssufficient moisture and especially in rainy season
making it possible for seeds of annual grasses and herbs like
Poa, Eleucine etc to germinate. The roots of these annuals and
herbaceous vegetation penetrate deeper through the soil and
cause more weathering of the rocks. Increased moisture and
soil invites perennial grasses like Cymbopogon etc which
spread very fast because of runners and rhizomes. Increased
shade, soil moisture and perennial grasses makes the area
suitable for the existence of several small animals. Herb stage is
invaded by nematodes, mites and various insect larvae
• Shrub stage- Xerophytic shrubs like Zizyphus, Rubus etc
startinvading the area and they soon replace the grasses.
Shrubs provide more shade for the sol surface, and the
atmosphere becomes more moist due to more of transpiration.
Roots of shrubs cause more fragmentation of rocks and there is
more accumulation of soil.
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• Forest stage: - Shrubs are replaced by hardy trees and

thecommunity becomes more stable, called the climax community.
The nature of the climax community is determined by the climate
of the area. For example in tropical regions the climax community
may be a rain forest while in temperate regions it might be a
coniferous or deciduous forest. Whereas areas with less rainfall
will have grasses as climax community Great modifications occur
in the fauna of shrub and forest stage. Numerous kinds of animals
as snails, wire worm, millipede, mites, ants and amphibians such
as frogs, salamander occur. Reptiles which occur there are skinks,
turtles and other lizards. Birds such as goose, flycatcher and
mammals as shrews, mouse, mole, squirrels, fox and chipmunk
occur. Thus, the reason why climax community acquires stability
is that a variety of producers, consumers and decomposers are
present and the community can regulate the flow of energy and
matter economically.

3.5 Major Types of Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystems
These ecosystems tend to be stable climax community of
various strata of trees shrubs herbs climbers and a variety of animals
and birds, or they are always moving towards maturity called a climax
forest. This maturing, also called forest succession, of the ecosystem
increases diversity. Management of forests for sustainability is
desirable when forest diversity is threatened by overuse, resource
exploitation and poor management.
Forest ecosystems can be disrupted and harmed when not
properly sustained. A sustained forest that is certified by a
qualifiedcertification program is assurance that the forest is managed
to havemaximum diversity while satisfying environmental and
economic demands. Complex forest ecosystems are extremely diverse,
ranging from dry desert shrub land to large temperate rain forests
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Depending on climatic conditions forests can be of various types

a. Tropical Rain Forests- These are considered the storehouse
ofbiodiversity and found near the equator having high
temperature, humidity and rainfall favouring broad leafed
evergreen tree growth which forms a dense canopy which
prevents sunlight from reaching in. Therefore mostly shade loving
smaller trees and shrubs exist as understory. Some trees shoot out
through the canopy and stand out tall and are called emergent. On
the tree trunks some woody climbers are found to grow which are
known as Lianus. Epiphytes like orchids attach to the branches of
big trees and their special leaves capture and hold the water
falling from above. Large epiphytes often act like mini ponds in the
forest crown and attract birds and animals like monkeys to make
their home in the forest crown. Termites, mushroom and fungi
grown on the ground layer which receives almost no sunlight.
Warm temperature and moisture facilitate decomposition of
dropped leaves releasing nutrients rapidly which the trees take up
by the mycorrhizal roots. The silent valley in Kerala is the only
tropical rainforest lying in India. Other examples are most notably
the Amazon rainforest in South America, Central
American countries such as Panama, the Kilum-Ijim Forest
(west Africa) and Madagascar Lowland forest in Africa
b. Tropical Deciduous Forests-Found a little away from
equator,having warm climate, rainfall only during
monsoon,(moderate amount of precipitation), ), a large part of
year remaining dry and so favouring deciduous trees which lose
their leaves in autumn.
c. Tropical Scrub Forests- Found in areas where the dry
seasonis very long favouring small deciduous trees and shrubs.
Some areas of Western Ghats in India have shrub forests.
d. Temperate Rain Forests- Found in temperate areas
withadequate rainfall dominated by coniferous trees like pines,
firs, redwood and also some evergreen broad leaved trees
owing to the plentiful rainfall. Found in United States along the
coastline
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of the Pacific Northwest and in Canada, and Alaska. Temperate

rainforests are formed in the Pacific Northwest because the
coastal mountain ranges in Washington, Oregon, and Northern
California trap the air masses full of moisture that rise from the
Pacific Ocean. As this moisture condenses into rain it creates
lush rainforests with trees like the Coastal Redwood in
California that grow to enormous sizes and a biomass that
exceeds that of the tropical rainforests.
e. Temperate Deciduous Forests- Found in areas with
markedseasonality but moderate temperature and abundant
rainfall
throughout the year favouring broad leaf deciduous trees like
oak(Quercus), hickory, poplar etc. Therefore they are more
precisely termed as temperate broadleaf forest, and are found
in North America, southern South America, Europe, and Asia.
f. Evergreen Coniferous Forests(Boreal Forests)- Found
southof arctic tundra having long cold and dry winters, sunlight
being available for a few hours only and summer season being
mild and short favouring coniferous trees like fir, cedar, pines,
spruce etc. having tiny needle shaped leaves with wax coating
to withstand the cold. The soil gets frozen in winter where only
few species can survive. Species diversity is rather low in these
forests. The taiga or boreal forest exists as a nearly continuous
belt of coniferous trees across North America and Eurasia.
Taiga is the Russian name for this forest which covers so much
of that country

Grassland Ecosystem
Grasslands are open areas where grasses or grass-like plants are
the dominant vegetation and where there are few trees. Grasses came to
dominate over other species, such as trees, because they are better able to
thrive in hot, dry climates where spring and summer rain is sparse.
Grasses take advantage of moisture in the soil during spring and have
many long, fine roots to search for water at, and just below, the surface
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of the soil. The blades of grass plants curve inward to capture rain
drops and direct them into the center of the plant, where they are
absorbed by the roots. A layer of mulch and a crust of mosses, lichens,
liverworts and other organisms on the ground between the grasses
help to shade the ground from summer heat and from wind, thus
preventing evaporation of precious water from the root zone below.
Grass pollen is distributed by the wind that blows constantly in these
dry, open areas. Grass seeds themselves are tiny cylinders, often with a
long thread-like “awn” on the end, allowing them to move into cracks
in the ground towards moisture. Grasses are also able to withstand
grazing and fire. The growing point of most plants is situated at the tip
of a leaf or shoot, but in grasses it is at the base, close to the ground.
When a grass plant has been grazed or burned it is able to grow again
from this protected base. Grasses are not the only plants in grasslands.

The rolling landscape of grasslands includes hills, river valleys,

canyons and cliffs. All these features alter the amount of sun and
precipitation a specific part of the landscape receives. Elevation also
influences temperature and precipitation: at higher elevations days are
cooler and shorter, precipitation is higher and snow stays longer. Some
areas of the grasslands are hot and dry while others may be relatively
cool and moist. Flowering plants become more abundant with elevation.
Many flowering plants, also called forbs, have adapted to the hot, dry
climate, completing their cycle of flowering, seed formation and drying
out before the hottest part of the summer. Shrubs are also an important
component of grasslands, and in some areas they are the dominant plants
which have long, deep tap roots that search for water well below the
surface. Water runs over the landscape in the form of rivers, streams and
small creeks, collecting in low areas to form lakes, ponds, wetlands and
moist ground. The combination of landscape features, elevation and
climatic differences create a mosaic of plant communities and habitats
that includes open grasslands; rocky talus slopes and rock outcrops;
riparian areas; wetlands; ponds and lakes; gullies; aspen stands; open
coniferous forests; and closed coniferous patches, shoal forests.
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Distinct plant and animal species live in grasslands; they are

adapted to living where drought is common, summers are long and
hot, and winters are cold and relatively dry. Many animals that live in
grasslands are grazers, like the California Bighorn Sheep, and many,
like the marmot, burrow underground. Some animals, such as the
Sharp-tailed Grouse, use both the grasslands and nearby forests during
the year, while others such as the Western Harvest Mouse (vole) spend
their whole lives in the grasslands.

Three types of grasslands are found to occur in different climatic regions

a. Tropical Grasslands-In Africa these are known as
Savannas,which have tall grasses, scattered shrubs, stunted
trees and perennating bulbs, rhizomes, runners etc. Termite
mounds are very common. Animal diversity is high including
Zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelope
b. Temperate Grasslands-In United States and Canada
thesegrasslands are known as prairies, in South America as
Pampas, in Africa as Velds and in central Europe and Asia they
are known as Steppes. The soils are very fertile and often
cleared for agriculture.
c. Polar Grasslands-These grasslands are found in Arctic
Tundrawhere the climate is too cold and harsh for trees to
grow. A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the surface of
soil throughout the year. Only in summers when the sun shine
round the clock some annual plants grow and even shallow
lakes, bogs etc appear which attract migratory birds. Animals
include arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, reindeer etc.

Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are defined as regions wherein the average annual
precipitation seldom exceeds more than 10 inches per year, and the
amount of water lost to evapotranspiration is much more than the
amount of water gained by precipitation. Deserts are basically of two
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types that is, hot and cold deserts. Hot deserts such as the Sahara in Africa
(tropical desert) and Mojave in Southern California(temperate desert)
and cold deserts, like Gobi desert in China and the best example being
Antarctica. In India we have a hot desert, the Thar in Rajasthan. One of the
prominent differences between the two types of desert is the form of
precipitation, which is snowfall in cold deserts and rainfall in hot deserts.
Irrespective of whether it is a hot or a cold desert, the characteristic traits
of both almost remain the same. In fact the areas which we refer to as hot
deserts have a chilling temperature at night.

Though a desert may seem like a barren land devoid of forms of

life, life does exist in this harsh environment. Numerous plants and
animal species have adapted to these seemingly unsuitable conditions.
In the desert ecosystem, climate is a deciding factor for the existence of
forms of life. In deserts, temperatures can reach up to 115° F during
the day, and come down to 32° F at night. Many plants and animals
have adapted themselves over the years, and have become an
important part of the desert ecosystem today.

Desert Ecosystem: Animals

Deserts are home to a number of species of the animal kingdom.

Biodiversity of the deserts is as unique as other biomes of the world. Like
in most of the other ecosystems, plants are the primary producers, while
rodents, insects and reptiles which feed on these plants are the primary
consumers. Then come the secondary consumers, who mainly comprise
larger reptiles and insects which feed on primary consumers. At the top of
the desert food chain are the apex predators in the form of birds and
mammals. Most prominent members of the desert animals list include the
Gila monster, chuckawallas, desert tortoise, rattlesnakes, hawks,
ostriches, bobcat, kangaroo rats, mountain lions, etc. Most of these desert
animals are nocturnal, i.e. active during the night, and spend the entire
day burrowing. This adaptation helps them to fight
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the soaring temperatures that persist during the day. Water is scarce
in deserts; these animals also have modified themselves to make the
most of the available water. Some animals absorb water from plants,
while others store it in their fatty tissues like the hump of the Camel.

Desert Ecosystem: Plants

Desert vegetation is only thought about as cactus. However,
within cactus, there are different types which grow in different deserts
of the world. These plants have modified themselves to sustain in the
desert environment. Some plants store water in the specialized tissues,
while others have small leaves with hair like structures which reduce
the evaporation of moisture. In many cactus stem gets flattened and
develop chlorophyll and take up the function of photosynthesis
whereas leaves become like thorns to prevent evapotranspiration
losses. In North American deserts, barrel cactus is the most abundantly
found cacti species, while other species include crimson hedgehog
cactus, pancake prickly pear cactus, saguaro cactus, etc. Other cactus
plants such as brittle bush, saltbush, creosote bush, desert ironwood,
gravillias, Joshua tree, Mojave aster, Soaptree yucca, hanging chain
cholla, etc., are also quite common in deserts.

Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic systems are those that contain plants and animals that
predominantly depend on a significant amount of water to be present
for at least part of the year. They are either freshwater or marine.

Freshwater ecosystems are further standing type (lentic) like

ponds or free flowing type(lotic) like rivers.

Pond Ecosystem- Ponds are often shallow water bodies and

seasonal.Like in a forest, the top, middle, and bottom of a pond can be
vastly different from each other, and even the layers in between.
Under different temperature or light conditions the water in a pond
can vary
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greatly in oxygen, clarity, and other factors that effect where plants
and animals might live. The air above the pond and the land below the
pond are important as well, as those provide space for animals to live,
plants to root, and predators and prey to interact.

Diversity - A pond is not just a small lake with frogs and fishes,
ratherthere are thousands of different species of plants, algae, insects
fishes and animals living together in a natural pond. The more diverse
a pond is (more species that it has) the stronger and healthier it is.

Micro-organisms - Some of the most important plants and animals

ina pond are micro organisms and while a few may cause disease,
almost all are very beneficial and important to a pond ecosystem.
While bigger animals may fly, walk, or swim away to other ponds,
micro-organisms are always present in large numbers.

Macro-organisms - Larger plants and animals that are easy to see ona
pond are called “macro-organisms (macro=large). They are the plants
and animals that we often notice first, and can more easily spread from
pond to pond, for example water birds.

Lake Ecosystem- These are usually big water bodies having

shallowwater zone called littoral zone, open water zone where effective
penetration of sunlight takes place called limnetic zone and a deep
bottom area where light penetration is negligible called profundal zone.
Organisms- Several types of organisms occur like planktons(that float on
water surface), nektons(that swim like fishes), Neustons (rest ir swim on
surface, like water insects, Benthos(attached to bottom like snails),
Periphytons(clinging to other plants and surfaces like crustacians)

Dal lake of Srinagar, Naini lake of Nainital , Loktak lake in Manipur are
some famous lakes of the country.

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Streams and Rivers- Streams are shallow flowing water and rivers
arelarge streams flowing through plains and falling into the sea.
Stream organisms have to face extremes of temperature and current
but constant movement and shallow water provides abundant oxygen.
Large rivers are relatively deep and wide and rich in organic matter
but also contain a lot of inorganic sediment produced by erosion and
runoff into the upland waters. Thus, the water is more turbid (muddy),
and there is insufficient light to support as much photosynthesis as in
smaller rivers. Collectors and predators dominate the consumer
community, and consumption exceeds primary production. Fish
species such as sturgeon and catfish, which feed on sediments, are
more common here than predatory fish.

All lotic organisms must adapt to drift, the incessant flow of water
towards the sea, carrying nutrients and the organisms themselves
downstream. Drift is particularly significant when spring snow melts and
heavy summer rains increase the current. River valleys offer especially
rich farmland because of the great quantities of nutrients deposited by
periodic flooding. Nutrient loss by drift is compensated for by the
continual addition of riparian organic matter to the lower-order upland
streams, while animals compensate for drift by their rheotaxis and other
means. Many aquatic insects fly upstream to lay their eggs, and fish such
as trout and salmon are well known for their upstream spawning runs.
The immature animals drift downstream as they grow and typically reach
maturity at lower altitudes, only to repeat the process and deposit their
offspring back in the headwaters.

Marine Ecosystem
These are among the largest of Earth’s aquatic ecosystems. They include
oceans, salt marsh and estuaries and lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs,
the deep sea and the sea floor. Marine waters cover two-thirds of the
surface of the Earth. Such places are considered ecosystems because the
plant life supports the animal life and vice-versa.
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Marine ecosystems are very important for the overall health of

both marine and terrestrial environments. According to the World
Resource Center, coastal habitats alone account for approximately 1/3 of
all marine biological productivity, and estuarine ecosystems (i.e., salt
marshes, seagrasses, mangrove forests) are among the most productive
regions on the planet. In addition, other marine ecosystems such as coral
reefs, provide food and shelter to the highest levels of marine diversity An
estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or
more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to
the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river
environments and ocean environments and are subject to both marine
influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and
riverine influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The
inflow of both seawater and freshwater provide high levels of
nutrients in both the water column and sediment, making estuaries
among the most productive natural habitats in the world.
Estuary mudflats seem an unlikely setting for some of the most
productive habitats in the world, but here at the interface of land and sea
life abounds though for the select few. Certain plants, seaweeds and
photosynthetic micro-organisms (phytoplankton) absorb nutrients at a
fast rate, grow rapidly and produce lots of food. The estuary is a hostile
environment for most plants because salt dominates. A few grow further
back on the shore, where they live in a fluctuating environment of sea
water and fresh water. These plants must cope with:
• varying salinity levels
• strong currents and storm waves
• varying exposure to sunlight and wind
• low oxygen levels in muddy soils.

Estuaries are termed ‘open’ ecosystems because they are vitally

linked to the wider environment. Nutrients are carried in from the
land via rivers, and from the sea by the tides. Some of these nutrients
are then taken out again when animals such as fish and birds leave the
estuary. Some are also flushed out to sea on outgoing tides. Living
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organisms within an estuary co-exist in a network of interdependent

feeding relationships that is food web. Estuaries have a rich
biodiversity and many of the species are endemic. An estuarine food
web contains the following elements:

• Phytoplankton. These microscopic organisms manufacture food

by photosynthesis and absorb nutrients such as phosphorus
and nitrogen from the water.
• Detritus (dead organic matter).
• Microscopic animals known as zooplankton eat some of the
phytoplankton. The remainder of the phytoplankton becomes
detritus, when it dies.
• Larger estuary animals such as filter-feeding worms, shellfish and
hungry young fish feed on the zooplankton and detritus. There are
many migratory species of fishes like eels and salmons in which
half of the life is spent in fresh water and half in salty water. Some
fishes migrate to fresh waters in the breeding season.

3.6 Summary

• Ecosystems are complex and varied but they have a basic

structure and functions.
• There is an amazing complexity to different ecosystems.
• Ecosystems are not stable and succession is a feature of
ecosystems, that is structural changes take place over time
till stable communities are established over time

3.7 Terminal Questions

1. Explain Ecosystem and its basic structure and functions

2. Describe any two ecosystems that you have noticed in your
region giving their structural and functional features.
3. Explain succession and explain with any one type of succession.
4. Differentiate pond, lake and marine ecosystem
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3.8 Answers

Self Assessment Questions

1. Trophic levels, Trophic relationships,
Ecological pyramids
2. Energy flow and Nutrient cycling
3. Reaction

Terminal Questions
1. Refer in section 3.3
2. Refer in section 3.5 and 3.3
3. Refer in section 3.4
4. Refer in section 3.5

References

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem
http://schools.utah.gov/curr/Science/sciber00/8th/energy/acrobat/
ecosys.pdf
http://www.psu.edu/dept/nkbiology/naturetrail/succession.htm
http://forestry.about.com/od/environmentalissues/a/forest_
ecosystem.htm
http://www.bcgrasslands.org/whataregrasslands.htm
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/desert-ecosystem.html
http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/classes/bio100/Lectures/Lect22/lect22.
html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_ecosystem
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuary
http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/projects/jason/xv/docs/TempRain.pdf
http://www.tutornext.com/energy-flow-models/11853
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web (file from the Wikimedia
Commons)
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