CHAPTER 1

FLOW PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.1 The fluid state

It is an everyday experience that all matter exists in either the fluid or the solid
state. This also invariably applies under the physical circumstancesof hydrocarbon
production and technology. The different molecular structure of fluids and solids
manifests itself in different macroscopic properties. From the point of view of this
book only those properties are of interest, which relate to the motion of fluids, or
the conditions affecting this motion. In the fluid state molecules have great mobil-
ity; translation, rotation and vibration are all allowed. In contrast to this, a solid
is characterized by a restricted molecular mobility, only vibration and rotation
about a fixed average position is possible. Fluids and solids behave differently
under the action of external forces. A solid has tensile strength, while a fluid has
none (except for viscoelastic materials). Fluids have no shape of their own, they
always fill their container, adopting its shape. A fluid resists compressive forces
only if it is kept in a container. Solids can withstand shearing stress up to their
elastic limit, whereas fluids subjected to shearing stresses deform immediately and
for as long as the stress is applied. The force of friction between two solids depends
on the pressure which compresses the two surfaces; fluid friction is independent of
the applied pressure. Between solids frictional forces can exist at rest, whereas in
fluids shear stresses vanish in the hydrostatic state. Fluids are isotropic materials,
in contrast to most solids. These differences in mechanical behavior help to define
what is a fluid.
A fluid is considered to be an isotropic material which deforms continuously
under the influence of an applied external force. The characteristic form of fluid
motion is that of flow, which is represented mathematically by a continuous
transformation of three-dimensional Euclidean space into itself. Any fluid, no
matter how viscous, will flow even under the slightest tangential stress. Tangential
stresses between adjacent fluid particles are proportional to the rate of deformation
and disappear when the flow ceases; remnant stresses cannot exist in fluids.
A fluid may be either a liquid or a gas. Liquids are relative incompressible,
whereas gases are highly compressible. Liquids have a constant density and volume
(slightly dependent on temperature), gases tend to expand infinitely. A liquid can
have a free surface at which the pressure is constant and equal to the gas or vapor
pressure over it.
2 I FLOW PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

The molecules of gases are spaced far away from each other, and have a high
translation energy. The kinetic energy of this molecular translation is much greater
than the energy of attraction between the molecules. The average distance between
the molecules of a liquid is much smaller; the translation kinetic energy being less
than the energy of attraction between the molecules. The distribution of the
translation energy among the molecules of a liquid follows Maxwell’s distribution
law. Certain molecules therefore may have enough kinetic energy to overcome the
attraction of adjacent molecules. These molecules can thus escape from the liquid
and form a vapor. Liquids, consequently, exert a vapor pressure which is the
pressure attained by the vapor when left in contact with its liquid until equilibrium
is achieved at constant temperature. The vapor pressure is a function of tem-
perature.
The main difference between a gas and a vapor is that a gas cannot be liquified
by compression alone. For a vapor this is obviously possible.
An essential difference between liquids and gases lies in their compressibility.
Since liquids can only be compressed very slightly, even at very high pressures, they
can be considered to be incompressible. Thus pressure becomes a simple mechani-
cal variable and is no longer a thermodynamic variable. In this case mechanical and
thermal processes may be considered separately. In contrast to the cases for a
liquid, the density of a gas is strongly affected by changes in pressure and tem-
perature. Since pressure now is a variable of the thermal state, mechanical and
thermal processes must be considered simultaneously.

1.2 The continuum model of fluids

Like any other material a fluid is discrete at the microscopic level. The dimen-
sions typically involved in engineering problems are however, much greater than
molecular distances. A mathematical description of fluid flow consequently re-
quires that the actual molecular structure be replaced by a hypothetical continuous
medium, called the continuum. This continuum continuously occupies a three-
dimensional space, and can be infinitely subdivided while still preserving its origi-
nal properties. In the continuum model the actual material is replaced by con-
tinuous functions of physical quantities. The actual physical processes are rep-
resented by the evolution of these continuous functions in space and time. This
spatial- and time-evolution can be expressed by means of partial differential
equations. The value of such a function at a certain point is obtained as an average
value in the infinitesimal volume d V surrounding the point. The essential math-
ematical simplification of the continuum model is that this average value is, in the
limiting case, assigned to the point itself.
This infinitesimal fluid element of volume d V must contain a sufficient number
of molecules to allow a statistical interpretation of the continuum. When the
molecular dimensions are very small compared with any characteristic dimension
 1.3 VARIABLES OF STATE 3

of the flow system, the average values obtained in this fluid element may be
considered as variables at a given point. This infinitesimal fluid element is called
a fluid particle. This notion of a fluid particle is not to be confused with any particle
of the molecular theory.
To illustrate the limiting process by which the local continuum properties can be
defined, consider a small volume A V surrounding a point P,the mass of fluid in
A V is now Am. The ratio
e= - Am
AV
will asymptotically approach a certain limiting value, as A V becomes smaller.
When A V has decreased to a certain value A V' striking random fluctuations begin
to appear since the number of molecules is too low to produce a statistically valid
result. Thus the density is defined as

e= lim -A=m- dm
AV-AV' A V dV
The limiting process is carried out only to A V instead of to zero. This approxima-
tion can never be valid when the characteristic dimensions of the fluid system are
but slightly larger than the molecular distances. The latter is the case when a fluid
flows through very narrow capillaries, or in the rarefied atmosphere of high-
altitude flights.

1.3 Variables of state

If any material system is left alone for a sufficient length of time, it will achieve
a state of equilibrium. In this equilibrium state all macroscopically measurable
quantities are independent of time. Variables that depend only on the state of the
system are called variables of state. The pressure p and the density e are obviously
variables of the mechanical state of the system. The thermal state of the system can
also be characterized by the pressure and density, but it is an experimental observa-
tion that the density of the system is not solely a function of its pressure; a third
variable of state, the temperature T, must be considered. The relation between the
variables of state can be expressed by the equation of state

In the equation of state, the density is often replaced by its reciprocal called the
specific volume
8 = -1, (1.3)
e
In general it is not possible to express the equation of state in a simple analytic
form. It can only be tabulated or plotted against the variables of state. It is obvious
4 I FLOW PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

that an equation such as

P =P(9, T )
can be represented by a surface in the coordinate system 9, T, p. This surface of
state consists of piecewise continuous surface parts, as shown in Fig. 1.1. It is
customary to plot this relation as projected onto any one of the three planes p- 9,
p - T, or 9- T. In such a projection the third variable of state is treated as a
parameter. The most common diagram of state is that of water as shown in Fig.
1.2. Thus we obtain isothermal curves (isotherms) in the p, 9 plane, the isobars in
the 9, T plane and the isochores in the p, T plane. The shape of the surface of state
is characteristic of a particular material.
Three partial derivatives of the equation of state determine three important
properties of a material.
The coefficient of thermal expansion is defined by the expression

or, expressed in terms of the density:

Soturoted Su blimotion
steam

Fig. 1 . 1 . Surface of thermal state

 1.3 VARIABLES OF STATE 5

t
221.2

1.01325

0.006112

J
Fig. 1.2. State diagram of water

The isothermal compressibility is defined by the derivative

or, in terms of the density:

The isochoric pressure coefficient is obtained as

Since a, fl and II are interrelated through the variables of state, Eqs (1.5H1.9)

.=
can also be considered as expressions of the equation of state. The latter can then
be written as
-
a
(1.10)
BP .
In certain regions of the surface of state, the equations of state can be determined
experimentally. Such a degenerated equation of state is the condition of incompres-

2
6 I FLOW PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

sibility
e = const . (1.11)

The condition of incompressibility does not exclude the density varying with the
temperature. Since many flows may be considered to be isothermal, the condition
of incompressibility merely signifies a constant density at a given temperature while
a flow problem is being solved. Usually a reference density eo is given (generally
at 15 "C), from which the density at an arbitrary temperature can be obtained as
eT=eo[l+ a V - TO)]. (1.12)
At constant temperature the variation in the density as a function of pressure can
be expressed as
e=eo[l + B ( P - P ~ ) ~ . (1.13)
For gases at low pressures and remote from the two-phase boundary the equa-
tion of state of an ideal gas,

P =RT,
- (1.14)
e
provides reasonable accuracy for engineering calculations. In this equations R is
the gas constant with dimensions [J/kg "C].
More suitable to calculations in the field of petroleum engineering, where greater
pressures are involved, is the modified equation of state:

=Z R T , (1.15)
e
where Z is the dimensionless compressibility factor. This can be obtained from a
diagram, where Z is plotted against the reduced pressure at constant values of
reduced temperature. The compressibility factor chart of Viswanath and Su is
shown in Fig. 1.3.
When the energy relations, i.e. the exchange of work and heat between a system
and its surroundings are considered it seems to be necessary to define two further
variables of state the internal energy E , and the enthalpy i. For a simple system E
and i are functions of any two of p , 9 and T. Thus the so-called caloric equation
of state can be written
E=E(Q, T), (1.16)
i= i(9 T ) . (1.17)
A specific material can be characterized by its equations of state. These equa-
tions cannot be deduced from thermodynamic principles; they are obtained experi-
mentally. For incompressible fluids and for perfect gases the caloric equations of
 1.3 VARIABLES OF STATE 7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

- 70

pr
Fig. 1.3. Compressibility factor of pure gases
8.0 90

state are obtained in very simple form

&=CUT, (1.18)
i=cpT, (1.19)
where c, and cp are the heat capacities at constant volume (or density) and at
constant pressure. The relations between c, and cp are obtained in the form
c~-c,=R, ( I .20)
and
-
CP
=K. (1.21)
c,
Both c,, cp, R and x are important material constants. They are tabulated in
Table 1.1.
Variables of state can be classified as either intensive or extensive variables.
Intensive variables are related to the points of a system, thus they are point
functions. Velocity, pressure and temperature are typical intensive variables. Inten-
sive variables can relate to a finite region only if their distributions are uniform. In
this case both the values of a variable relating to the whole region, and that relating
to a part of it must be the same.
Extensive variables are related to a finite region of a system, thus they are set
functions. The mass of the system is such an extensive variable, and so are the
volume, momentum, energy, entropy, etc. Set functions are additive, for example
the momentum of a certain body is equal to the sum of the momentums of its parts.
Specific quantities such as density or specific enthalpy would seem to be intensive
variables since their values vary from point to point in the manner of point
functions. There is, however, an essential difference between such specific quan-

2'
 I FLOW PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Table 1 . 1 .

K
e(1 bar)
[kg/m'l
~

Air 1005 718 287 1.40 1.2763

Butane 1663 520 143 1.11 2.668
Carbon dioxide 825 636 189 1.31 1.977
Ethane 1666 1389 277 1.22 1.356
Ethylene 1465 1 I68 297 1.24 1.2605
Hydrogen 14235 101I3 4122 1.41 0.0899
Methane 2177 1658 519 1.30 0.7168
Nitrogen 1043 746 297 1.40 1.2505
Oxygen 913 653 260 1.40 1.429
Propane 1550 1361 189 1.14 2.019
Superheated steam 1860 1398 462 1.33 0.7936

tities and real intensive variables. The specific quantities may be integrated over a
region thus producing an extensive variable; for a real intensive variable such an
integration has no physical meaning.
Intensive and extensive variables play different roles in physical processes. The
state of a material system can be determined by as many extensive variables as there
are types of interaction between the system and its surroundings. An interaction of
certain type may induce either equilibrium or a process of change. A characteristic
pair of intensive and extensive variables are associated with any interaction. The
characteristic intensive variable is that one which is uniformly distributed at
equilibrium. For instance, experimental observations show that thermal equi-
librium can exist only if the temperature has a uniform distribution throughout the
whole system. A homogeneous velocity distribution is associated with the con-
dition of mechanical equilibrium. A system with a uniformly distributed velocity
U is at rest in a coordinate system moving with the velocity U. Thus temperature
and velocity have particular significance as the characteristic variables of thermal
and mechanical interaction.
If the distribution of the characteristic intensive variable is not homogeneous,
the equilibrium condition is terminated and certain processes are induced accom-
panied by changes in the extensive variables. These changes are directed so as to
neutralize the inhomogeneity. Fluxes of extensive quantities may be convective, i.e.
transferred by macroscopic motion, or conductive, i.e. transferred by molecular
motion only. Conductive fluxes can be expressed by the product of a conductivity
coefficient and the gradient of the characteristic intensive variable. These conduc-
tivity coefficients are important material properties.
 1.4 CONDUCTIVITY COEFFICIENTS 9

1.4 Conductivity coefficients

In petroleum engineering the material systems considered may be in mechanical
and thermal interaction with their surroundings. In the case of mechanical interac-
tion the stress is the conductive flux of momentum. This conductive momentum
flux for one-dimensional motion is expressed as

(1.22)

where T is the momentum conductively transferred across a unit area per unit time,
dux/dy is the velocity gradient, and p is a coefficient of proportionality the dy-
namic viscosity coefficient, usually called just the viscosity. The viscosity coefficient
p is a characteristic property of fluids. Its value for a particular fluid may be a
function of temperature, pressure and the shear rate.
In the simplest case the viscosity coefficient is a function of the temperature only.
For isothermal fluids the viscosity is then constant. If the viscosity is independent
of the shear rate the fluid is called Newtonian. The viscosity of all Newtonian
liquids decreases with increasing temperature at constant pressure. The viscosity of
gases increases with temperature at constant pressure.
The viscosity of pure liquids depends strongly on the temperature, but is relative
insensitive to pressure variations, At extremely high pressures (p- 1000 bar) the
viscosity of a liquid increases remarkably with pressure. The viscosity of gases at
low pressures may be calculated based on kinetic theory. Above 8-10 bars the effect

Table 1.2.

e a k V

[kg/m'I Prcl w/m "CI [m2/sl

x 10-5 x x lo-' x
Ammonia 610 122 114 473 0.494 2.20 0.378
Benzol 879 106 98 1738 0.154 6.51 0.796
Brine 1050 17 48.5 4175 0.602 11.03 1.076
Ethyl alcohol 794 109 101 2430 0.215 6.15 1.65
Fuel oil 930 106 96 1860 0.141 48.17 51.8
Gasoline 72 1 114 118 2177 0.140 4.09 0.59
Glycerine 1255 50 108 2428 0.285 1.4800 680
Kerosene 800 97 55 1910 0.135 2200 2.75
Mercury 13546 18.1 4 139 9.304 15.54 0.1 147
Methyl alcohol 792 119 104 2470 0.212 5.84 0.735
Engine oil 91 1 102 82 2240 0.160 846 94
Water lo00 18 49.6 4183 0.598 10.046 1.OO

* c=heat capacity.
10 I FLOW PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

of pressure becomes significant. In many hydrodynamic equations it is common to

use the quotient of the viscosity divided by the density. This is the so-called
kinematic viscosity,
v= -
CL (1.23)
e’
with the dimensions [m’/s]. Both the dynamic and kinematic viscosities of some
common fluids are tabulated in Table 1.2.
In the case of thermal interaction between a system and its surroundings the
conductive flux of the internal energy for the one-dimensional case is given by

q = -k- d T (1.24)
dx ’
where q is the rate of flow of internal energy across a unit area per unit time, dT/dx
the temperature gradient, and k is the thermal conductivity coefficient. Its dimen-
sions are w / m “C]. The thermal conductivity coefficient depends on the tem-
perature, and for gases to a certain degree on the pressure.