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Table of Contents
Steam Turbines
SECTION PAGE #
1. Introduction 1
2. Basic Design 5
3. Malfunction Behavior 32
4. Process Effects 59
5. Mechanical Effects 68
6. Using a Diagnostic Methodology 76
7. Information Required 92
8. Other Diagnostic Tools 96
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Steam Turbines--Introduction Page 1
Steam Turbines--Introduction
Steam Turbines, as a rule, are one class of machines regardless of what

industry they serve or what they are connected to. Steam turbines used by a power
plant as a boiler feed pump drive turbine are frequently the same turbines used
aboard ships as drive turbines or power generation turbines.
Different manufacturer's turbines will, of course, have features unique to
their design. However, with few exceptions, these design differences will not
cause one manufacturer's turbines to behave differently than another
manufacturer's turbines. Fundamentally, all turbines are rotor systems, governed
by laws of physics that are predictable and well understood. The science of rotor
and fluid dynamics is well developed, and to a competent observer there aren't
many surprises. The difficulty comes not in understanding the rotor dynamics at
work within the turbine, but in finding out what is causing the turbine to behave in
the way that it is. For example, what is causing the bearing alignment to change,
what is causing the rub to occur, etc.
When one thinks about steam turbines, some things are physically evident.
For example, High Pressure / Intermediate Pressure (HP/IP) rotors are mounted in
cases that are significantly heavier than the rotors. The HP/IP rotor will have short
stiff blades and many of packing areas. Low Pressure (LP) rotors will have long
blades that are susceptible to breakage and shroud loss. It is important to
remember that there is a good reason, based on the laws of physics, for your
turbine to behave the way it is behaving. In a power plant, data exists to explain
why the turbine is behaving as it is. There is no magic.
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Page 2 Applied Diagnostics
This course examines steam turbines as a general class of machines, but will
concentrate on main turbines. When you become familiar with main turbines, you
will be able to understand any other turbine. The analysis presented is meant to
provide you with an awareness of what must change either internally or externally
to change the machine's vibration response.
STEAM TURBINE DRIVERS
For more than a century, steam turbines have been a preferred choice as a
prime mover driving compressors, generators, pumps and other equipment.
Turbines offer variable speed and can be easily used as the prime mover for
machines in an operating petrochemical plant, utility or steamship. Although the
efficiency may not compare with that of an electric motor, this may not matter if
the exhaust steam is needed. The turbine offers an efficient way to reduce steam
operating conditions while extracting mechanical work.
The mechanical considerations for selecting turbines will be the prime
purpose of this article; however, the thermodynamic considerations must also be
studied. The available energy is taken from the Theoretical Steam Rate (TSR)
which can be taken from ASME TSR Tables. The change in enthalpy h1-h2 at the
same entropy constitutes the available energy where h1 represents the enthalpy in
BTU's/pound of steam at the inlet conditions of pressure and temperature
(superheat) and h2 represents the exhaust conditions in enthalpy at the (BTU's/lb)
same entropy, i.e., no loss of work in pure isentropic expansion (s1=s2).
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1500°F
Key Diagram Showing 1800
1400°F
Sectionalisation of Mollier (h-s) Chart
1720
1200°F
psia 1640
1000°F 1560
psia
psia
15000
psia
1000
1480
5000
100
800°F
ia
1400
s
1350 15 p 600°F
1320
psia
1270 400°F 1.0 1240
1190 Sa
tu rati
on 1160
ia
L ine
ps
1110
0.2
1080
1030
1000
x=
950 0.
80 920
Critical Point
870
1.05 840
1.3 1.55 1.8 2.05 2.3
Specific Entropy (s) Btu/lb°R
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Since this cannot exist in the real world, the actual nonreversible adiabatic
expansion to some point h′2 is compared to the theoretical h2 to determine the
thermodynamic efficiency.
h1 − h'2 (actual)
η=
h1 − h 2 (ideal)
As an illustration, suppose we have a 30,000 hp back pressure turbine taking
steam at 1200 psia and 900°F (sat. temp. of 567°F) and exhausting at 40 psia.
There are six impulse blading stages and the operating speed is 5500 RPM. There
is an extraction (bleeder or pass out) point at 160 psia. The steam conditions at the
inlet are 1440 BTU/lb (h1), specific entropy, at 1.59 BTU/lb. - °R. The zero
extraction (full exhaust flow) conditions are at 40 psia about 267°F with 98%
quality (2% water content). This would be considered an exhaust condition with
minimum erosion damage to the last (sixth) stage blading, i.e., hard coatings would
not be necessary. What is the thermodynamic efficiency and the steam flow
required to deliver full horsepower? Estimating from a Mollier Diagram for
simplicity only: h1=1440 BTU/lb., h2=1107 BTU/lb., h′2-1150 BTU/lb., s′2=1.59,
s2=1.65. Then h1-h2=1440-1107=333 BTU/lb.
This would be used to determine the TSR. The actual enthalpy drop is
h1-h′2=1440-1150=290 BTU/lb for a thermodynamic efficiency of 87% (290/333 x
100). Since there is 2546 BTU's/hp-hr (3413 BTU/kW-hr), then the TSR is 2546
(BTU/hp-hr) 333 BTU/lb. or 7.65 lbs/hp-hr. The actual steam rate is
2546/290=8.78 lbs/hp-hr. The theoretical steam flow is 7.65 lbs/hp-hr.
(30,000 hp) = 229,500 lbs/hr. The actual steam flow is 8.78 (30,000) = 263,400
lbs/hr. The efficiency is the ratio of the steam rates, the steam flows, the ratio of
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enthalpy loss of work. For a four valve inlet to the steam nozzles, the steam flow
per valve is approximately 65,850 lbs/hr. This incidentally is near the limit of
some turbine vendors for single valve turbines. Thus, as the steam flow increases
on a turbine design, one must eventually go to a multi-valve design which can vary
from 4 up to 7 valves depending upon the design. This applies to mechanical drive
turbines. The values for sizing, flows, valving, etc., would vary widely for
generator drivers which might reach 1200 MW (1,608,580 hp).
Basic Steam Turbine Design
If we look at steam turbines as a general class of machines, we will see some

basic design features that are common to most turbines. This is because there are
design limits imposed by metallurgy, efficiency, pressure, expense and size, among
other things. What this means is that steam turbines are much the same when it
comes to problems that they can have, the components they are made of, and how
they behave. This also means that diagnosing a problem in a steam turbine, or
determining the condition of a steam turbine, becomes easier if you understand the
basic design features common to most steam turbines.
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Figure 2. LP Rotor and Case
Figure 3. HP—IP Rotor & Case
Most steam turbines have the following components:
A) A High Pressure case is usually significantly heavier than the rotor

inside. Low Pressure case(s) may, or may not, be heavier than the
rotor inside.
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Steam Turbines Page 7
B) Rotors. A steam turbine may have a High Pressure / Intermediate

Pressure (HP/IP) rotor, or separate HP & IP rotors, and one or more
Low Pressure (LP) rotors.
C) Bearings. Most U.S. manufactured machines have two bearings

per rotor. Therefore, a U.S. machine with one HP/IP rotor and one LP
rotor will have 4 bearings. These bearings are oil lubricated, have
babbitt wear surfaces, are horizontally split and are usually self-
aligning by means of a spherical support cradle. Recently, more
tilting pad bearings are being used in turbines and are now being used
on the HP, IP and sometimes the LP rotors.
D) Seals. Turbine steam seals or shaft packing can be fixed, spring-

loaded or retractable. Steam seals or shaft packing will be found
anywhere on the rotor where the shaft penetrates the case or where
higher pressure steam needs to be isolated from lower pressure steam.
E) Couplings. Couplings connecting individual rotors are usually the rigid

flanged type.
F) Turning Gear. A turning gear is a device that will slowly rotate the rotor
on a turbine that is shut down. The purpose of a turning gear is to
prevent the rotor from developing a bow.
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In the next section, we will look at the individual components mentioned

above in more detail and examine what it is about these components that make
them key to steam turbine behavior.
Main Steam Power

Control Valves Actuator
Upper
Crossover
High Pressure Head
Bucket Nozzle Nozzle Diaphragm
Wheel Plate Electronic
Bearing Thrust Wear Speed Probe
No. 2 Detector Assembly
Bearing
No. 1
Thrust
Bearing
Oil
Deflector
No. 1
Front
Oil Standard
Deflector Cold Reheat Flexible
No. 2 Hot Reheat Connection Pedestal
Connection
Main Steam
Control Valves
Lower Power
Actuator
Figure 4. HP Turbine
A. Cases
High Pressure cases are most always significantly heavier that the rotor
inside. In order to withstand the high pressure steam these cases are very heavy and
are very stiff. Modern designs will have an inner and outer case, the two cases
being fit together by means of machined fits and aligning dowels. High Pressure
cases will have the turbine steam valves attached to them, partially cast into them
or will employ separate steam chests. All of the high pressure steam lines will be
attached to the High Pressure case directly or indirectly through the valves.
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1) Rotor to Casing Vibration Transmission
What rotor to casing vibration transmission means to the

diagnostician is the following: If the case is significantly more
massive than the rotor, then a shaft relative measurement transducer
(proximity probe) is going to yield the best information. The
relatively light rotor is going to move more than the massive case
does. If the rotor is rubbing on the case, or some part attached to the
case, the rotor is still going to move more than the case moves. The
situation is analogous to the confrontation between a car and a freight
train, the car ALWAYS loses.
2) Differential expansion, HP Turbines
A turbine case, being much more massive, warms up and cools

slower than the rotor does. This makes differential expansion a
concern. The good news is that, because the high pressure case is so
massive and stiff, it usually won't warp unless there is a severe water
induction incident.
As most of the diaphragms are fixed to the inner case, the
bearings will be fixed to the outer case and steam seals will be fixed to
both cases, the potential for misalignments within the turbine is
increased.
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The HP case has all the high pressure steam pipes attached to it
as well as extraction and numerous drain pipes. Movement or binding
of any of the larger pipes may shift the position of the case or restrict
its normal movements due to expansion. This could change the
alignment of the whole turbine, cause rubs, change the vibration level,
or affect resonant frequencies.
Steam Inlet
Diaphragm
Last Stage Blade
Turning Balance Plane

Gear
Vibration
Probe
Bearing
Coupling
Rotor Steam to
Condenser Seals Radial
Bearing
Figure 5. LP Turbine
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3) Differential Expansion of LP Turbines
As far as differential expansion is concerned the LP cases, in most

situations, have similar characteristics as the HP cases. LP cases don't have
stiff pipes attached to them, as a rule, but are connected to the condenser and
are affected by condenser vacuum. That is, a dramatic change in vacuum is
frequently known to cause a change in shaft and bearing position. LP cases,
being of lighter construction, will usually warm up faster than the LP rotor.
Since the maximum steam temperature is lower than it is in the high pressure
side, the differential expansion problems tend not to be as severe, partially
because LP rotors tend to have greater clearances than HP rotors. When
rotors expand, they tend to expand away from the thrust bearing. This
means that the rotor that is farthest from the thrust bearing (usually the LP)
will experience the greatest movement due to expansion. LP cases are
usually fitted with hood spray systems for temperature control. These
systems are not terribly complicated and seldom fail. However, the injection
of cool water at the wrong time, or not spraying water when needed, could
certainly cause differential expansion problems.
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B. Rotors
Figure 6. HP Rotor Cross Section
Many steam turbine rotors are machined from a single forged piece, so the
only parts attached to it are the blades. Some of the very large LP rotors will have
the last stage disks shrunk on and pinned or keyed. Some rotor designs are made
from parts welded together, however, the rotor will act similarly to a forged rotor
for the purposes of this discussion. Typical rotors are hollow with bore plugs fitted
in both ends. The bore plugs are sealed to keep water from collecting in the rotor
bore space. If a significant amount of water or some other fluid does collect in the
bore space, this can cause the rotor to become thermally sensitive. Thermally
sensitive rotors can be a nightmare to balance because a slight change in
temperature can cause the vibration amplitude and phase angle to change
significantly.
Both HP and LP rotors are machined with numerous grooves for labyrinth
seals. These are the areas that frequently rub, so it is a good idea to get familiar
with their locations in relation to the cases for future reference. These rotors are
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usually well-balanced at the factory before shipment and usually only require a
trim balance after installation. If the vibration amplitude or phase angle changes
during the course of operation, this always means that the mass or dynamic
stiffness (or both) have changed. If the vibration amplitude or phase angle changes
are outside of an established acceptance region, the cause should be investigated,
due to the potential of a very serious problem developing.
Turbine rotors are generally constructed from a chromium-nickel-
molybdenum steel (e.g., AISI 4340) forging. This forging will be taken from a
vacuum degassed furnace, heat treated and double tempered.
Rotors that are integral are far more superior than built-up rotors of
individually shrunk discs. They are also more expensive and for small sizes and
speeds may not be necessary.
Turbine rotors generally operate as a flexible rotor, i.e., above the first rigid
cylindrical mode resonance. Small back pressure rotors of low speed and stagings
may operate as rigid rotors. The normal rotor mode is, therefore, a pivotal mode
and the rotor is hopefully below the first bending critical speed wherein a stress
reversal occurs on each revolution of the shaft. There are many bearing designs
available which will affect the rotor support stiffness and damping but it is
important (extremely important) that the rotor shaft have sufficient stiffness. The
shaft stiffness versus bearing stiffness should be thought of as 2Kb/Ks and should
be in the range of less than 5. Ks is the shaft stiffness and takes the form of
48EI/L³ where E is the Modulus of Elasticity lbs/in², and I is the moment of inertia
in inches4, and L is the bearing span in inches. The support stiffness of the rotor at
the bearings, Kb, will depend on the oil film stiffness and the bearing supports.
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Please refer to this manual's dynamics section for a relationship of the stiffness
map (criticals versus support stiffness and alterations via bearing stiffness, shaft
diameter and shaft span).
Overhangs of the bearing supports only complicate a rotor's predicted
response. Long overhangs at the coupling affect the pivotal mode strongly and the
first mode only slightly. The same is true of governor drive gears and thrust collar
overhangs. The weight of the coupling also greatly affects the predicted critical
response. Anything which binds the coupling will affect both balance and
harmonics and axial vibration as well.
Figure 7. Dual Flow LP Rotor Cross Section
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1) Turbine Blading
Figure 8. HP Blades
Figure 9. LP Blades
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Blading is attached to the rotor. Rotor blades, from a vibration standpoint,

are a study all by themselves. Blading can have many resonant frequencies and
modes of vibration. Many of the speed hold ranges defined in a turbine
manufacturer's operating instructions are speed ranges where there is not a blading
resonance. Operation in one of these blading resonance ranges for extended
periods of time can cause blade breakage. Blading vibration is not often seen when
looking at rotor vibration. Fortunately, the running speed of most machines is well
away from blade natural frequencies. HP/IP blades are usually not a major
concern, however, if the unit has a history of HP/IP blade problems, this may be a
good area to check. LP blading tends to have the most problems of the rotor
system. This is largely due to the length and flexibility of the LP blades. LP
blades break for many reasons, often due to overheating. The LP blades can
overheat if the unit is run with inadequate condenser vacuum. Heat generated from
windage builds up very quickly and can lead to premature blade failure. LP blades
are also subject to stress corrosion cracking if they are made from certain stainless
steels. In the case of a blade failure due to stress corrosion cracking, a large piece
of the blade can be lost, causing a very large change in vibration amplitude and
phase angle. A boiler chemistry upset can start stress corrosion cracking. LP
blades also experience erosion due to moisture. Usually this erosion happens
slowly, so it is unlikely that a blade will erode quickly enough between inspections
to fail unexpectedly.
There are two broad categories of blading, not considering radial
inflow/outflow designs. There are impulse turbines wherein the force imparted to
the blading is by direct impact, e.g., nozzle jet impacting on the blade of a water
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wheel. There is also a reaction blading design and this can be thought of in a sense
of the reaction jet type water sprinkler for someone's lawn.
The impulse blading has no convergence of the blading and one blade stands
a continuous distance from the adjacent blade. Therefore, there is no pressure drop
through impulse blading (only through the nozzles before each stage of rotating
blading).
Reaction blading, on the other hand, takes a pressure drop through the
rotating blading. There are generally more rows of reaction blading than impulse
blading for the same power frame of a turbine. Further, clearances are more dear
to the reaction blading designs and seal strips to prevent spillage can be more
complicated. Spillage is a colloquial term implying steam that bypasses the
blading and represents a loss in efficiency. Axial seal strips are fast becoming an
extinct design because the control of rotor thermal growth is difficult and contact
of axial seal strips can quickly drop efficiency not to mention the rub problems as
well as the thrust balance. Seals may be axially supported in recent designs but, in
fact, seal is a radial fashion which is good.
There is a velocity compounded wheel often used on impulse turbine designs
at the first stage position. This velocity compounded design is called a Curtis stage
(named for its developer Mr. Curtis of G.E.). This velocity compounded stage and,
as one would expect, the two impulse staging (often mounted on a single disc
particularly with built-up rotors) as well as the stationary blading-in-between are
concentric in curvature and result in no pressure drop in the blading or
redirectional stator blading. On some turbines, it is not uncommon for 1/4 to 1/3 of
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the power to be derived from this staging. In even smaller designs, e.g., 2000 hp,
all the power may be derived from a single Curtis stage.
A Rateau staging will imply an impulse row of rotating blading plus one
pressure reducing stationary row of nozzles (diaphragm). Some turbine designers
may put a degree of reaction into the rotating blading for efficiency improvements
(the blader may resent this however).
Extensive work has been done on blade profiles, angles, twists and
progressive heights (ref: Schlict designs by General Electric) to improve
performance. All turbine designers are involved in these betterments as the penalty
for efficiency draws tighter with no desire to risk reliability. The energy penalty
on our last project was $1400/KW. For one to penalize a quote based on energy
during the bidding stage, one must also commit testing in order to confirm the
successful bidder's information. A back charge is surely valid for unsuccessful
tests.
Various designs of blade fitting to a rotor or disc are available from a "T"
slot to "fir tree" designs. Some blades are weight assembled to improve balancing.
Slot openings between blading have been sensitive to a few cases for excitation of
the diaphragms. At least, an equal amount of effort is given to the shrouds for
blading as well as the fixation to the blade tenons (tangs). The shrouded blade
clusters are tested for the resonance of each blade and of the clusters. This display
of this information is made on an "interference diagram" (Campbell diagram)
where the excitation orders are plotted against the resonances - axial, bending,
tangential. The idea is that a significant excitation should not interfere with a
dangerous blading response. If an interference does occur, one is committed to
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Steam Exhaust
Pressure Volume
Pres.
Vel.
Figure 10. Impulse Blading
Steam Exhaust
Pressure
Volume
Velocity
Figure 11. Reaction Blading
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remove that interference or ascertain that the response is well damped and/or
within a safe stress value as shown on a Goodman diagram.
Blading is supported into discs which can be integral to the rotor or
individually shrunk onto the rotor shaft at perhaps 2 mils (0.002") per inch of bore
diameter at the disc fit (shrinkage pressure of 60,000 psi). Placement of each disc,
squareness of each fit, skew of each disc, bow of the shaft, thermal racheting down
a shaft, and many other factors make an integral rotor far superior to a built-up
rotor with a number of stagings (long bearing span) as will be explained in the
dynamics section of this manual.
Blade restraints can be in the form of tie wires across the blades or blade
shrouds. Reliefs which actually touch on thermal expansion and other dampers are
used in blade designs in lieu of tie wires (bands).
Blade material must be resistive to the condition of the steam impurities and
temperature but will generally start with a heat treated martensitic stainless
material, such as SS 403. A tough steel is needed with a good blend of strength
and fatigue resistance. Heat treatment, case hardening, shot peening, coatings are
just part of a continuing blade development program.
As the expansion process continues, the specific volume of the steam
increases (in our example 8:1) while the pressure is reducing and to keep the blade
velocity in control, the blade height (flow area) must increase. One means of better
control in the exhaust blading, particularly when the turbine operates at high
speeds, is to keep the blade heights reasonably short and increase the blading area
seen by the steam at the same pressure. This is accomplished in the exhaust end by
a double flow or triple flow arrangement. The steam flows into a 180° return bend
reentering the blading between two rows of blading and flowing through each in
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opposite direction before exiting the casing. This also tends to balance thrust in the
last regions which are harder to maintain low blade pressure differentials. Double
flow (or triple flow) is very common on higher speed condensing turbines. While
condensing turbines have a best steam rate, the operating costs of the condenser
and the water and the maintenance (including condenser pumps, jets and jet
condensers) must be included.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The CONDITION LINE on the H-S Chart indicates the real expansion including
losses which increase Entropy as the pressure drops. The non-adiabatic expansion
incurs lower heat drop per stage than the Isentropic drop. Stage heat drop is the
sum of nozzle drop and moving blade drop. Cylinder heat drop is the sum of the
stage drop.
Due to the fact that the pressure lines slope from almost vertical to almost
horizontal from left to right on the diagram, the stage enthalpy drops become
increasingly greater. Consequentially the turbine cylinder (multistage) efficiency
is better than the single stage efficiency.
CURTIS WHEEL - Used, where steam density is high and specific volume is low -
hence the blading is short. The Curtis wheel greatly reduces the pressure and
temperature which the remainder of the casing is subjected to. Fig. 10 shows the
velocity compounding design and pressure variations in the Curtis turbine.
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IMPULSE TURBINE - Figure 10 also shows the nozzle shape of the fixed blading
and the bucket shape of the moving blades.
REACTION TURBINE - Figure 10 - indicating pressure drop in fixed and moving

blades (equal drop in 50% reaction design). Note that axial thrust is much higher
in the Reaction turbine than in the Impulse design.
BLADE SPEED RATIO - As the steam expands and blade length increases to
provide greater annular flow area, the blade velocity increases, requiring a
corresponding increase in steam velocity to maintain optimum "blade speed ratio".
Note that as the load is reduced, the pressure reduces in proportion and specific
volume increases in proportion. Therefore blade speed ratio does not change at
constant turbine operating speed.
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C. Bearings
Figure 12. Turbine Bearing
Lubrication Oil
Inlet Slots
Bearing Oil
Drain
Bearing
Jacking Oil
Figure 13. Turbine Bearing Cross Section

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The manufacturer has several designs to improve turbine performance with a

good stabilized design. The most common turbine bearings used are pressure dam,
elliptical (lemon bore) and tilting pad. Four lobe, offset half and others are used
but to a lesser degree. Tilting pad bearings are either four pad or five pad and may
be load-on-pad or load-between pad designs. Bearing clearances will generally run
in the 1-1/2 to 2 mils to the bearing bore inch on the diameter, e.g., an eight inch
bearing will have 12 to 16 mil clearance on the diameter (0.012" to 0.016"). The
preload of the bearing may be from zero to 0.3. Preload stiffens a rotor bearing in
support. An increase in stiffness shifts criticals higher and increase in rotor mass
lower criticals. Tilting pad bearings are generally arranged to be center pivot
(offset factor = 0.5). This allows rotation in either direction. Where rotation
direction is not important, the offset factor may be altered from 0.5 to 0.55 or 0.6
by shifting the pad support from the center positions respectively. This will
generally increase the load carrying capability assisting the oil into the wedge,
stiffen the bearing but be counter-productive in allowing rotation in either direction
or against a bearing being installed backwards. The pressure dam bearing, while
only partially stabilizing against oil whirl, can also be installed backwards with
exciting instabilities at very low speeds. A tilting pad bearing cannot cause oil
whirl. Bearing babbitts are generally in three ranges - 10 mils, 30 mils, and 60
mils (30 mils is encountered more in my experience). Thermocouples should not
imbed in contact to the babbitt (refer to API 670 - 1984 edition).
Proper bearing tools such as go-no go plug gages or mandrel pad checkers
will go a long way in proper maintenance. Note: Proper tools for fitting couplings
such as hydraulic dilation coupling hubs have also proven to better maintenance
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and mechanical performance. First, there are the hydraulic dilation oil pumps for
the dilation and the advance or draw of coupling hubs. Next, there are the plug
ring gages for checking the shaft and bore tapers. Finally, there are the stop rings
when practical, to set and limit the draw of a coupling The proper draw for one of
our 3" bore hydraulic hubs with a 1/2 degree per side taper is 344 mils (0.334").
Most large steam turbines will be equipped with babbitt-lined, pressure-
lubricated journal bearings. There are many different bore configurations, all
designed to prevent fluid-induced instabilities, elliptical and tilting-pad bearings
being the most common. Elliptical bearings are usually designated as self-
aligning, meaning that the outside of the bearing is spherical-convex and rests in a
spherical-concave cradle. The net effect of the self-aligning feature is that the
bearing can be moved so the centerline of the bearing is parallel with the centerline
of the shaft. Usually this happens without any problem unless there is insufficient
clearance between the bearing and the cradle. If the bearing is cocked in relation to
the rotor center line then the bearing system would be stiffer than it should be. The
oil flow pattern through the bearing would be disturbed, and rubbing could occur
between the bearing and the shaft at opposite ends of the bearing 180 degrees
apart. Also, the bearing metal temperature and oil drain temperature would be
higher than normal. Typical bearing assemblies can be shimmed to change their
position vertically for alignment purposes.
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D. Seals
With blading and staged pressures as well as end sealing, the need for shaft
sealing becomes important. Between stages at the shaft and around the actual
blade sections, labyrinth seals are used. While carbon seals may be used at the
turbine ends for small turbines, larger turbines will use labyrinth seals. They will
be staged in secretions, relieving to an existing lower pressure. The high pressure
end may relieve to the extraction point pressure in the first section of labyrinths,
then to a lower stage (possibly a second bleeder or extraction point), then to the
sealing steam pressure, then to the condenser, as an example. The steam inlet
valve sealing glands may leak off to one of these intermediate pressures in one or
more stages. Sealing steam is never applied to a turbine unless the rotor is rotating
or on barring gear.
Labyrinth packing can be of a straight type or staggered height which is
more effective but often difficult when allowing for thermal expansion. Labyrinth
seals where the tine or thin strip (J strip) rotates with the shaft are effective, tend to
be self-cleaning and are less restraining with less shaft heat during a shaft rub.
However, they are a pain to maintain and require more care against crimping or
crushing. They must be machined on the rotor while in a lathe.
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Figure 14. Labyrinth Seal
Blower
‘A’ P ≈ 14.2 psia
Gland
Steam Condenser
and Air
Drain
Steam
Air
Figure 15. HP Final Gland Seals
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LP Cylinder Steam Steam and Air to

From ‘A’ Gland Condenser
Steam Air
Figure 16. LP Gland Seals
1. Types of Turbine Seals
Common seals are of the fixed, spring-loaded or retractable type.

Fixed seals are usually slid into a groove and locked in place. The clearance
between the seals and the shaft is fixed, so if the shaft comes in contact with
the seal, the seal will probably be damaged. Hard contact with one of these
seals is likely to be seen in the vibration data as a rub. Spring-loaded seals
can move away from the rotor because they only have a spring and steam
pressure pushing them toward the rotor. When the rotor moves to the
position where the seal is, the seal moves away. These seals have a limited
range of motion which can be overcome by the rotor's motion. Spring-
loaded seals can also lock up in position. If these seals do lock up, there is
usually not enough clearance remaining between the seals and the rotor to
accommodate the normal range of rotor movement. Locked seals are a
common cause of rubs and at times may cause damage to the rotor. Hard
rubs of seals usually don't last long because the seals are easily worn away
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by the rotor. Another type of seal that is becoming popular is the retractable
seal. This type of seal is away from the shaft at low steam flows, as in
startup situations, then is moved toward the shaft as the steam flow gets up
to some percent of rated flow. The advantages to this type of seal is that
they should not rub during startup and, therefore, will seal better when the
unit is online. These, like any other seal, can rub if not correctly installed, or
if they lock up.
E. Couplings
Generally, couplings found on steam generation turbines will be rigid; most

will be an integral part of the shaft. Commonly, the coupling between the LP rotor
and the generator will have the turning gear sandwiched between the coupling
halves.
Figure 17. Coupling
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Trouble with couplings occurs when coupling bolts are damaged and have to
be replaced. Sometimes coupling bolts have to be drilled out and the coupling bolt
hole has to be honed. In this case, a larger diameter coupling bolt is usually
installed. This may change the balance condition of the rotor system, requiring a
rebalance. Couplings are rarely a source of trouble in themselves; if, however, the
generator is synchronized significantly out of phase, the coupling and coupling
bolts can be damaged due to torsional effects. Other damage to the turbine is likely
in this circumstance; however, the couplings are sometimes designed to be the
weak link to prevent irreparable damage from happening to the turbine.
Removable couplings (shrunk on, keyed, etc.) can be a source of rotor cracks. If
the coupling moves on the shaft, the rotor balance state can change.
F. Turning Gear.
Turning (Bull) Gear
Turning Gear Motor Turning Gear Assembly
Figure 18. Turning Gear Assembly Figure 19. Internals of Turning Gear
Assembly
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Most steam turbines will have a turning gear assembly whose purpose is to
keep the rotor turning when the turbine is shut down so the rotor does not develop
a bow. When a steam turbine is shut down, the rotor will be hot; a hot rotor can
develop a bow much more quickly than a cold rotor because of differential cooling
which takes place between the top and bottom of the rotor. Therefore, it is very
important that the rotor is put on turning gear as soon as it coasts to a stop. When
the rotor has cooled (typically below 148.9°C (300°F)), the rotor can be stopped
for an extended period of time without damage. Prior to starting a steam turbine
anytime the rotor has been stopped for more than a few minutes, it is important to
roll a rotor with the turning gear for as long as it takes to remove any bow that may
have occurred while the rotor was stopped.
A turning gear usually engages the turbine rotor through a bull gear that is
mounted to the shaft or is sandwiched between coupling halves. The turning gear
assembly is little more than a motor driving a series of gears that can engage to the
bull gear on the rotor when the rotor has come to a stop. It is always important that
the rotor is stopped before the turning gear is engaged, otherwise damage to the
turning gear assembly, bull gear or turbine shaft is likely to occur.
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Malfunction Behavior of Steam Turbines
In this section, we are going to cover the most common malfunctions seen
in a "typical" steam turbine. We will examine these malfunctions in terms of how
they affect the turbine vibration response. We want to look at these malfunctions
in terms of what causes the vibration. The vibration information can be like a
window into the machine.
A. Eccentricity (Rotor Bow)

B. Unbalance
C. Misalignment
D. Rubs
E. Fluid-induced Instabilities
F. Shaft Cracks
A. Eccentricity
When eccentricity occurs, the rotor is bowed. Therefore, when the rotating
shaft is observed by a fixed vertical probe, the rotor appears to move up and down.
The amount of up and down motion is the eccentricity value. Turbine rotors bow
(bend) when stopped because gravity pulls them downward or sometimes they bow
upward, due to thermal stratification within the turbine. A hot rotor at rest will
bow more than a cold rotor. A stopped rotor can bow and set in the bowed
condition. Rotors being shipped should have a support under the center span
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because they will be stopped for an extended period of time and be subjected to
impulses, due to bumps along the road. The only practical way to keep a rotor
from bowing is to keep it turning, or turn it over 180 degrees on a regular basis, so
it spends the same amount of time on each side. The hotter the rotor is, the more
often it should be turned.
Eccentricity
Collar
Figure 20. Bowed Rotor
When a rotor is bowed, the eccentricity value will be something other than
zero. This assumes that the eccentricity collar runs concentric with the shaft.
Since this is frequently not the case, it is wise to check this before getting worried
about a bowed rotor. If, in fact, the rotor is bowed, this will cause an increase in
the 1X amplitude and change in phase angle. On a bowed rotor, there is a mass
unbalance (the center of mass is not coincident with the geometric center). The
bow may not roll out when the unit is started up. The unbalance force caused by
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the bow may cause the rotor to bow even more. When either of these situations
occurs, there is little choice but to shut down and put the unit on turning gear until
the bow hopefully rolls out. Eccentricity or shaft bow generates a 1X amplitude
and phase change which is sometimes confused with unbalance. If a rotor is
"balanced" to compensate for bow, as soon as the rotor straightens out due to
rotation, the unit will be out of balance. In this case, the introduced balance
weights can be removed and the rotor balance will probably be right. This seems
terribly obvious, however, many units have been balanced because of bows and
had to be re-balanced because the bow went away. A rotor needs balancing only if
something happens which changes its mass or its support system, so that the rotor
response changes. Usually, these things don't happen without some other
indication of the event occurring. If such events have not occurred, then the rotor
is bowed or possibly cracked. If a unit is started and shows high 1X amplitude and
there is no record of the time the unit was put on turning gear, and for how long, it
is difficult to know if the rotor bowed because it was stopped, or if it has mass
unbalance. However, a bow should roll out. If a bow is suspected, put the unit on
turning gear for awhile and see what happens. If the eccentricity decreases, there is
a bow that is being rolled out. Don't forget, however, if a rotor is cracked, it is
most certainly bowed, so be careful.
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B. Unbalance Response
Imagine a turbine rotor spinning all by itself in space. If the rotor were
perfectly balanced, it would not vibrate unless some external force acted upon it.
This means that a change in the balance condition will always cause a
corresponding change in the rotor vibration response unless the mass change
occurred at a node point. If the rotor is not overly constrained, the change in
vibration response will be detectable.
Figure 21. Broken Blade Shroud
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A few things are universally true in relation to a turbines vibration response.

All turbines will vibrate, and that is normal. A change in the measured vibration
means that either the balance has changed or an external force acting on the
rotor has changed. A change in the forces that constrain the rotor will change
the turbine's vibration response.
When a turbine rotor is manufactured, it will never end up perfectly
balanced, it usually will have to be balanced at the factory to run properly in the
turbine. After the turbine is assembled, balancing may again be required. In both
routines, the balancing will be done to the rotor. Weight will be added to, or
removed from, the rotor. The rotor may need re-balancing for several reasons:
A. The rotor may have been damaged, and some blades may have been
replaced.
B. The rotor may have developed a slight bow, due to improper handling or
storage. It is not really proper to balance out a bow because, if the bow goes
away (as most do), then the rotor will be out of balance again, (often the
slight bow may not be detected or may be thought to be a slight runout of the
eccentricity collar). There may be a conscious decision made to try to
balance the bow out as a "temporary fix." This temporary fix method is not
desirable from an engineering standpoint, however, operational requirements
often dictate a temporary solution.
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C. The rotor may not have been well-balanced at the factory for whatever
reason, and the operating criteria require a better balance.
D. The instrumentation used at the factory was different than the

plant's instrumentation. (Is your instrumentation correct, was theirs?
Are you using the same type of transducers? Are you looking at the
same place on the shaft? Is your data compensated for slow roll
runout, was theirs?)
E. You are balancing an assembly. All of the effects of the other

rotors, the bearings and the bearing support assemblies will be
affecting the rotor in question.
F. The rotor in the factory was supported with a bearing on each end
(the factory bearings may not have been the bearings you are currently
using, which may imply a higher eccentricity ratio). Since the bearing
stiffness, and the system dynamic stiffness may be different than the
factory installation, the rotor response can be different.
External forces act on the rotor system, so that the response of the rotor to its
unbalance (internal) forces may increase or decrease as a result. For example, if a
rub occurs, causing the synchronous dynamic stiffness to increase, the vibration
amplitude, due to the unbalance, may decrease. The key is that the
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Unbalance
Synchronous Force
Response =
Synchronous
Dynamic Stiffness
Figure 22. Basic Equation From Fundamental Synchronous Rotor Response
assembly of the turbine affects how the turbine rotor responds. The rotor is
confined within a machine, so its motion (vibration) is limited by the machine
case/seals/bearings which generate external forces on the rotor. Too often we think
of any change of the turbine's synchronous (1X) amplitude and phase as relating
only to the rotor, specifically a change in mass unbalance of the rotor. What we
really need to remember when we see a change in the 1X amplitude and phase is
that the turbine's unbalance state or dynamic stiffness may have changed.
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C. Misalignment
Angular Misalignment
Driver Shaft Driven Shaft
Parallel Misalignment
Figure 23. Misalignment
A change in the rotor system's alignment in relation to bearings or seals may

generate external forces being applied to the rotor. Changes in alignment change
the system dynamic stiffness, and, therefore, change how the already existing
forces affect the systems response. It is not uncommon for a machine, which was
just aligned to experience a fluid-induced instability. This can occur
because the alignment caused the shaft to be moved to the lower eccentric position
in the bearing. In this way, a marginally stable system can become unstable.
Severe misalignments will cause bearings and seals to be worn out, and can
transfer enough force to the rotor to cause it to bend and crack. When a steam
turbine is considered to be in proper alignment, there are no excessive preloads
from bearings or seals. The rotor bearing eccentricity ratio is per design, the thrust
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bearing is properly loaded, the shaft will be running in the bottom half of the
bearings (most horizontal machines) and the orbits will be slightly elliptical.
Anytime a steam turbine is being diagnosed, anytime the measured vibration
has changed, remember that there may have been a change in alignment. The shaft
centerline plot of bearing #3, in Figure 24, shows the rotor position of a misaligned
steam turbine. The eccentricity ratio was close to zero when the steam turbine was
loaded. If properly aligned, the rotor should have been in the lower right quadrant
with an eccentricity ratio of 0.5 to 0.8.
POINT: BRNG 3 VERT DISP @50° LEFT REF: -9.91 VOLTS
POINT: BRNG 3 HORIZ DISP @30° RIGHT REF: -10.27 VOLTS
MACHINE: LP TURBINE
FROM: 03 JUN 93 07:25:34 TO 03 JUN 93 23:16:34 SHUTDOWN
(not orbit on polar plot)
UP
15
07:25:34
10 *
22:37:27
* 22:38:08
*
* 22:40:41
* 22:43:07
* 22:46:13
5 * 22:50:37
* 22:52:54
* 22:57:57
* 22:57:57
*23:03:11
*23:08:43
0 * 23:12:12
-5 0 5
1 mil/div
Figure 24. Shaft Centerline Plot Taken Over 16 Hours

In figure 25 the misaligned steam turbine resulted in a heavy radial load at or
near bearing #2 as seen in the highly elliptical orbit plot.
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POINT: BRNG 2 VERT DISP @50° LEFT DIR AMPT: 0.473 mil pp
POINT: BRNG 2 HORIZ DISP @30° RIGHT DIR AMPT: 1.42 mil pp
MACHINE: HP/IP TURBINE
03 JUN 93 22:37:40 DIRECT
UP
Figure 25. Orbit plot from a Misaligned Bearing on a Steam Turbine
0.2 mil pp/div CCW Rotation 3440 rpm
D. Rubs
Rubs occur in a steam turbine when a rotating part comes in contact with the
stationary part. Rubs are detectable in the vibration information when the rotating
part is rubbing hard enough on the stationary part to cause one or both parts to
change its motion. If we look at rubs this way, it is much easier to identify what
parts are the most likely to be involved in rubs (packing, blade tips and
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diaphragms) and how severe the situation has to be to get one of these parts to rub.
There are only two ways a rub can happen. 1) The shaft moves inside the case or,
2) The case moves toward the shaft. With either situation, there are two types of
rubs that can occur, axial rubs or radial rubs.
Figure 26. Axial Clearance
BLADE
STEAM
FLOW
DIAPHRAGM DIAPHRAGM
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1. Axial Rubs.
An axial rub means that the thrust position has changed, there is excess
differential expansion between the case and rotor or a diaphragm has warped.
Differential expansion can't happen if the turbine is operating in a steady state
condition and shouldn't happen if the warm up procedures are followed. The thrust
position can change during steady state operation if the blades are plugging or are
wearing away. However, to get a rub due to thrust position changes while the
machine is online would imply that the thrust bearing is worn away, has too much
clearance or that the thrust collar is loose on the shaft.
If there are missing or broken blades or blades plugging, there would likely
be enough radial vibration that a rub would be a secondary effect. A rub caused by
a warped diaphragm, (which usually happens online) could be quite serious. An
axial rub, due to a warped diaphragm, would show changes in axial vibration and
radial vibration. However, the classic orbits associated with light rubs may not be
present and a light rub is unlikely to cause a rotor bow due to local rotor heating
with accompanying amplitude and phase angle changes. The classic light rub
orbits are formed due to impact and rebounding of the shaft in the radial direction.
In the case of a warped diaphragm, there would be no impact in the radial direction
or significantly increased stiffness in the radial direction.
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Thrust Ring Main Bearing
Housing Housing
Thrust Collar
C
L Shaft
Orifice
Shim Plate
Shims
Thrust Ring
Figure 27. Thrust Collar - Separate
Thrust Ring Main Bearing

Housing Housing
Integral
Thrust Collar
C
L Shaft
Orifice
Shim Plate
Shims
Thrust Ring
Figure 28. Thrust Collar - Integral with Rotor
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2. Radial Rubs
A radial rub means that the shaft has moved toward the case or the case has
moved toward the shaft. It is important to know which component has done the
moving in order to determine the root cause behind the rub. Knowing what the
mechanism is, implies corrective measures. Steam turbine rubs can be observed
with 1X phase rolling with time when the rub is causing a localized hot spot on the
turbine shaft.
BLADE
STEAM
FLOW
DIAPHRAGM DIAPHRAGM
Figure 29. Radial Clearance
a. Radial rubs due to case motion
The case may move toward the shaft if the foundations move,
the case warps or the case is pulled off-line by piping strains. These
situations are possible because the bearing pedestals are often separate
from the turbine cases and because the shaft is supported by
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other bearings, so they can move in relation to each other, due to

mechanical or thermal effects. If the turbine foundations are decaying
or the turbine is installed on separate foundations, the turbine cases
and pedestals can move in relation to each other. When a case moves
toward the shaft there will probably only be packing rubs caused
because all the other clearances are larger in the turbine. These rubs
will most likely occur at the ends of the shafts.
Warped cases are most often caused by differential cooling due
to water induction. The mechanism in this situation is that cool water
enters the bottom of the hot turbine case, and causes the bottom side
to contract, putting a hump in the case. This can cause packing and
blade tip rubs and can cause diaphragms to warp. If the turbine was
running when the water induction event occurred, and then is shut
down, a warped case situation that was not causing any noticeable
problems at operating speed could be made worse because the turbine
rotor coasting down though its balance resonance speeds may not
have enough clearance, and could rub very severely.
b. Radial rubs due to piping or bearing pedestal movement
Piping strains can pull cases in any direction, based on the

piping configuration. If the designer or the erector made a mistake in
the design or the erection of the piping, a strain can be caused. This
may be observed in the pipe hangers when the expected hot and cold
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positions do not correspond to the actual hot and cold positions as in

Figure 30.
Bent hanger supports, fully extended or retracted snubbers or
bent piping are also common indications of a piping strain. Piping
strains will be more likely to show up after years of running because
hangers and snubbers are virtually ignored. After years of not moving
much, the hangers and snubbers can lock in position. The next time
the unit is started up or shut down, the piping will not be where it is
supposed to be and can pull the turbine out of alignment. On some
units, piping is supported when disconnected from the turbine during
overhauls. If the supports are not removed before the unit is started
up, a piping strain can happen. Also, when piping is hydrostatically
tested, the hangers are frequently “pinned” to lock them in position. If
the pins are not removed, then piping strain may occur.
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Load Indicator Showing

No Load Carried
Figure 30. Mis-adjusted Hanger
It is important to remember that before the rub occurs there will

probably be a shift in the shaft alignment. This can result in very low
vibration if the shaft is now jammed in the bearing, or can result in
high vibration and fluid-induced instabilities if the bearing is now
unloaded and the shaft has a low eccentricity ratio (shaft centered
within the bearing clearance).
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c. Radial rubs due to rotor movement
Another radial rub situation occurs where the shaft has moved
into the case to cause the rub condition. Here we deal with shaft
dynamic movements. The dynamic movements in question come
from unbalance or rotor bow which are especially severe at resonant
speeds.
An out of balance rotor is orbiting due to unbalance force and
subsequently require more clearance. If the available clearance is not
sufficient, the rub occurs. Seals will be the first part to rub because
seals are closer to the shaft in normal circumstances. This situation
can be made worse if the packing of the spring-loaded or retractable
types fails. Normally the seal is supposed to move out of the way of
the shaft; it is now locked, and what should be a light contact becomes
a hard rub. The machine's balance condition can change if a blade
shroud breaks off, a blade breaks off, a piece of deposit comes off or a
balance mass detaches. Remember that balance changes will cause a
change in the 1X filtered amplitude and phase. If you have enough
information about the balance condition of the rotor before the
element gets loose, then its possible to determine where, and how
much came off. This information, though not certain, may be able to
help you make intelligent maintenance decisions about what likely
happened.
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d. Radial rubs due to rotor bow
Figure 31. Rotor Rubbing Due to a Bow
Rotor bow is also a cause of radial rubs. The usual scenario is that a
hot rotor is stopped and begins to sag or rise in the center. Cold rotors sag,
but the action takes longer to sag the same amount as a hot rotor. When the
machine is started, and if the bow has not been rolled out fully, then as the
machine speeds up, the part of the rotor that is not rotating about its
geometric center is going to act like a big unbalance weight. This large
unbalance can start pulling the rotor, changing the unbalance state further. If
the situation is bad enough, the rotor will rub. The rub may also cause local
heating, making the situation worse. On many rotors with an HP/IP section,
there will be balance piston packing in the middle area that is now being
rubbed. If this packing is damaged, the thrust loading of the thrust bearing
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will increase. The thrust could even change to the opposite side of the thrust
bearing.
Figure 32. Resonant Speed Deflections
e. Radial rubs caused by resonant speed deflections
Resonant speed deflections are often overlooked by Operations

because the deflections aren't there all the time. In any rotor system,
when the rotor reaches a resonant speed, the amplitude of the response
is at a maximum. Things that weren't rubbing at running speed may
rub at resonant speeds. What will rub depends on clearances and the
mode shape the rotor is in at that speed. During startups, the turbine
can be accelerated quickly through the resonant
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speed ranges, however, if a rub occurs during resonance, the

amplitude can remain high longer and the phase shift delayed. This is
due to the increase in stiffness due to the rub. During coastdowns, a
heavy rub can cause the turbine to coast down more quickly than
normal, as the rub provides an additional braking torque. Having a
general idea of the time it takes a turbine to coast down normally is
useful. Conversely, if a turbine takes an unusually long time to coast
down, or doesn't seem to want to stop, then you probably have a
leaking steam inlet valve.
0.771 @-24 Hertz FREQUENCY: 5 Hertz/div 3.63 @ 24 Hertz

CCW Rotation
Figure 33. Full Cascade Plot Showing High Sub-Synchronous Vibrations
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E. Fluid-Induced Instabilities
The fluid-induced instabilities that a steam turbine can experience are oil
whirl/whip and steam whirl/whip. That's because oil and steam are the only two
fluids in a steam turbine. Either malfunction is possible anytime there is a cylinder
rotating within a cylinder in the presence of a fluid. Eccentricity ratio and lambda
(λ, fluid circumferential average velocity ratio) are the key factors in preventing
fluid-induced instabilities. Remember that eccentricity ratio is defined as the value
obtained by dividing the difference between the shaft and bearing centers by the
radial clearance. The lower the eccentricity ratio (lower bearing stiffness (Kb),
higher λ), the more likely an instability will develop. If the shaft is running in the
exact center of the bearing (or seal), then the eccentricity ratio is zero, Kb is low
and λ is high, so instabilities may develop.
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POINT: BRNG 3 VERT DISP @50° LEFT DIR AMPT: 5.83 mil pp
POINT: BRNG 3 HORIZ DISP @30° RIGHT DIR AMPT: 7.55 mil pp
MACHINE: LP TURBINE
03 JUN 93 07:25:34 SHUTDOWN DIRECT
UP
0.5 mil pp/div CCW ROTATION 3598 rpm
Figure 34. Orbit Plot, Steam Turbine With Fluid-Induced Instability
When a fluid-induced instability occurs in a steam turbine, it's not desirable

and we want to get rid of it. We need to be able to determine if the instability is oil
or steam-related. In some cases, the type of instability (oil or steam) can be
determined because oil related instabilities usually affect only one bearing at a
time, while steam related instabilities can change the vibration of the entire rotor
train and can be detected at many bearings.
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The method for identifying the source of a fluid-induced instability is by

examining the differential phase of the instability. When the vibration signal is
filtered to the frequency of the instability, the source of the instability will lead in
phase, when compared to other monitored locations on the rotor. This method can
help locate the instability, and, by combining this information with the physical
geometry, the instability source may be determined.
There are some short term, online remedies that may be helpful in
eliminating a fluid-induced instability on a temporary basis. Oil related
instabilities may cause the rotor to be sensitive to oil temperature. Try changing
the oil temperature up or down. Do this carefully, and watch the response.
Remember that in 20% of the cases oil temperature has no effect on a fluid-induced
instability. If there is a way that the oil supply pressure can be raised or lowered,
try that carefully, and see if that affects the instability. If none of these changes
make a difference in the instability, then it may be a steam-related instability.
If a steam related instability is suspected, try varying the steam flow or
pressure. The problem with this remedy is that any change in steam flow or
pressure can usually translate to a change in the shaft eccentricity ratio. This can
be seen in a shaft centerline plot and should be watched for when changing steam
pressure or flow. In almost every case, increasing the eccentricity ratio will tend to
make instabilities go away. The most important problem with these remedies is
that they may be fixing a symptom and not the problem.
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F. Shaft cracks
Figure 35. LP Rotor Cross Section
Turbine rotors are very large forgings of alloy steel that usually contain
relatively large amounts of chromium, nickel, vanadium and molybdenum. Such
alloys are strong and tough at elevated temperatures but are brittle and are more
subject to cracking as a result of thermal shocks than in mild steel. Typical turbine
rotor alloys have a nil ductility transition temperature (the temperature below
which a brittle fracture can occur) well above ambient temperature; 121°C (250
degrees Fahrenheit) is a good approximate number. Being a massive part, turbine
rotors will take a long time to warm up to operating temperatures. If the rate of
warmup or cooldown of a rotor is in excess of manufacturers recommendations,
stresses great enough to initiate a crack in the rotor can result. Usually turbine
operators follow the manufacturers recommendations carefully. However,
operational upsets can easily exceed the recommendations and cause a cycle of
stress. Usually, the expected life of a turbine is defined by the number of, and
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severity of, the thermal cycles it is subjected to. It is obvious that thermal
transients, particularly transients that cause temperature differentials within the
rotor, are to be avoided. Any source of differential heating or cooling can be a
potential factor in a shaft crack. Steam seal piping that has condensation in it can
eject the water and quench a spot on the rotor. Seals sucking cold air in the turbine
can quench the shaft in the area of the seal. If the seals are left on uncontrolled or
there is a problem with the steam seal supply, the shaft can experience a
temperature gradient great enough to initiate a crack. Most of these types of
problems occur when the turbine is stopped or on turning gear. When a turbine is
running, the amount of stray cold air or water coming through seals will be
negligible. A major source of cool water that can enter a turbine comes from the
extraction system. Most power plants are equipped with check or non-return
valves to prevent water from entering the turbine from the extraction system.
These valves should be checked regularly, as a water induction incident of this type
can cause major damage. Thermal effects can be a major factor in shaft crack
initiation. Thermal shocks should be avoided; thermal cycles should be
minimized, or at least well controlled.
1. Mechanical Stresses
There are also mechanical factors that cause shaft cracks.

Misalignment can cause the rotor to bend. In a misaligned rotor,
every time the rotor completes one revolution, it will also complete
one cycle of stress reversal. In one 48 hour period, a 3600 rpm unit
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will have gone through 10,368,000 cycles of stress. In less than a

month, the rotor will reach the high cycle fatigue limit. The low cycle
fatigue limit will be reached even earlier.
Usually, turbine rotors are designed to minimize both mechanical and
thermal stress concentrations; keyways, pins and holes are avoided. Don't
even think of adding one of these features yourself, and question the sanity
of anyone who does.
A cracked turbine rotor will, in almost all cases, show a change
in the 1X (synchronous) vibration response with increasing crack size.
The reason is, a rotor with a transverse crack will tend to bow
because the crack makes the rotor less stiff in one direction. When the
crack is oriented perpendicularly to the force of gravity, there is less
metal to bend. Along with a change in synchronous amplitude, look
for changing phase angle, changing slow roll vector, erratic responses
to balancing, decreasing resonance speeds and sometimes strong 2X
activity at near half any resonance speed. In about 75% of the shaft
crack cases investigated, the 2X amplitude and phase angle did not
indicate a shaft crack.
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Process Effects on a Steam Turbine
The objective of this section is to examine how changes in process

conditions can affect the steam turbine vibration. The "process" is defined as those
flows and loads that affect the turbine, but are not part of the turbine or its
auxiliaries. The reason for looking at process effects is because, very often when
the measured turbine vibration changes, the first thought that comes to mind is,
"What is wrong with the turbine." This thought is natural if the indication of a
change is shown in the turbine monitoring and is not easily correlated to the
process. A person has to get into the mind-set of asking himself, "What in the
process could cause the turbine to do this." This is not always an obvious step,
particularly if you have been led to believe that 1X vibration is always unbalance,
2X is always misalignment, and so on.
In this section, we are going to look at the effects of the steam processes, the
effects of the condenser and effects of load changes. Effects coming from the lube
oil or hydraulic control system are considered to be outside the process.
A. Inlet Steam Changes
There are only four parameters of steam that can change: temperature,
pressure, chemistry and flow rate. As the operation of a steam turbine is a dynamic
process, we also want to think of changes in the steam conditions and the rate of
change in the steam conditions as factors in changing turbine vibration
characteristics.
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1. Steam Temperature
When examining the effects of temperature changes, we again

need to look at the relative mass of the rotor and the case, as well as
the amount of surface area exposed to the steam. A rotor, being
lighter and having more exposed surface area will change temperature
much faster than the case. This means that any change in steam
temperature will change the rotor length much more quickly than the
case length; this is how differential expansion occurs. This situation
could cause rubs or change the shaft position in the bearing and,
therefore, the rotor's unbalance response. Anyone who has seen a
decreased steam temperature used to cure a rotor long condition has
witnessed this effect. Another effect of a steam temperature change is
that the vibration probes (shaft observing) can observe a different
axial location on the shaft than before and can, therefore, indicate a
change in vibration. This is especially noticeable where there is a
significant change in runout between the old target area and the new
(This situation should be avoided through proper planning and
maintenance). In this case, the balance state did not change, nor did
the rotor's dynamic response. The probes are now observing a
different part of the rotor. Usually there is good temperature
indication in a power plant control room. Therefore, there is direct
cause and effect information available, but the thought of an indicated
vibration change being related to a steam temperature change has to
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occur. Other things that can cause a change in steam temperature are
load changes, attemperation (reducing steam temperature by the
injection of water in the steam line), soot blowing, change in burner
configuration, slagging, a big slag fall, or a change in fuel type or
changes in auxiliary steam source. When a change in vibration is
being investigated and operators are being interviewed, be sure to
listen for information that relates to a change in steam and other
process conditions.
2. Steam Pressure
Pressure is another of the steam parameters that can affect

turbine vibration. Changes in pressure modify the bending stresses on
the blades and the shaft position in the bearing. Usually anything that
will change steam pressure will also affect the steam temperature.
Turbine thrust position can be shifted with a change in steam pressure.
If the pressure differential between main and reheat steam supply
pressures were to change, the thrust position would change
accordingly. The difference in fuel for a multiple fuel unit often
makes a big difference in the rate at which pressure changes occur.
Changes in pressure are also directly related to output power changes,
that means shaft position and torque changes.
We're continually talking about changes, why so much talk
about changes? The reason is simple; in a power plant situation
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everythingconnectstoeverything. The measured vibration is a measure

of the turbine's response to input forces. Those input forces could
come from multiple sources and can be changed for many more
reasons. If the measured turbine vibration has changed, something
caused that change. Tracking the change in vibration back to its
source will tell you what to do about that change. Vibration is a
symptom; look for the cause.
3
Reheater
Qin
Wout HP 3 5
Turbine
HP LP T
Boiler Turbine Turbine LP
Turbine
4 4
Reheater
P4 = P5 = Preheat 2
6
5 Qout
1 6
2 Feed Pump S
Condenser
1
Win
Figure 36. Reheat Cycle
3. Steam Flow
Another parameter that may affect the vibration response of the

turbine is the amount of steam entering the turbine. Increased steam flow
will be associated with an increase in load, back-pressure and changes in
shaft position. Steam flow will usually increase when attemperating. An
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increase in IP flow, without a corresponding increase in HP flow, is possible

when attemperating only in the reheater, due to the spray water changing to
steam.
Changes in steam flow may also cause a change in thrust. There is
nothing really amazing in that statement. However, if you ask the operator
who is running the unit, he may tell you nothing has changed.
The rate of temperature or pressure change can make a big difference.
There are a couple of reasons for this. For example, anytime a rapid change
is made in steam flow demand the control system is likely to overshoot to
some degree, and temperatures or pressures are likely to overshoot. Once
again the rotor is most likely to expand and contract the most. Often, cases
don't expand or contract smoothly; a rapid change could cause a case to stick
or more likely, it will cause a stuck case to break free. That is why a trip
will sometimes result in a reduction in vibration (during subsequent
operation), the rapid temperature and pressure change (along with any
shaking pipes) will jolt the case loose, and it will move to its proper
alignment.
4. Steam Plant Chemistry
Unfortunately, there are plants that have steam purity and

chemistry that is anything but benign. Usually chemistry problems
are something that will have long term effects. That is, an upset in
boiler chemistry will not (usually) cause a blade failure the same
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week, but can start a series of problems in the long term. Where water
chemistry causes deposits on the blading, the effects of the deposits
can be manifested more quickly. When blading starts to plug, there is
usually a great increase in thrust bearing load. The reason for this is
that the turbine is designed with a specific pressure drop in mind, and
the stages and balance piston are designed to keep thrust to a
predetermined level and direction. Impulse blading normally causes
no pressure drop (by design). When pressure drops start to occur
across blading that wasn't designed for a pressure drop, the thrust can
increase dramatically enough to wipe out the thrust bearing. Deposits
have mass; if the deposits form uniformly, the balance state shouldn't
change. The presence of deposits will cause the rotor to be "different"
from a rotor dynamics standpoint. The most common cause of
problems related to deposits occurs when a chunk of deposit breaks
off. Usually the chunk breaking off will make the rotor unbalanced.
It is easy to imagine that where there is deposition, an upset in boiler
chemistry could cause a chunk of deposit to break off within a short
time of the upset. This would affect the measured vibration very
quickly. The related effects of deposition is that the boiler chemistry
is bad and stress corrosion cracking of the blades is possible in the
long term.
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B. Condenser Vacuum
Figure 37. LP Turbine and Condenser
Sometime, when a unit is starting up, watch the shaft centerline position in
the LP bearings as vacuum is pulled in the condenser. More often than not, pulling
vacuum will cause the centerline position to change. It is easy to see from this that
changes in vacuum on a unit that is running can change the measured vibration.
Some units are more susceptible than others to this effect.
What affects vacuum? Load changes, circulating (cooling) water
temperature changes, circulating water pump failures, condenser fouling,
circulating water pump suction screen fouling, Zebra mussels, algae and myriads
of other creatures that live in circulating water systems. Some of the things listed
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are obvious, a circ pump failure is easy to figure out. Suppose your cooling water
supply comes from a river or delta, and there is a major storm a few hundred miles
up river. There is a good chance that in a couple of days there will be lots of
garbage trying to find it's way into your condenser because the river is suddenly
full of dirt and debris. To tell if the condenser is fouled, you can calculate the
condenser cleanliness factor, if you have been keeping track of this number it will
help. You could look at the condenser differential pressure and temperature. Of
course, condenser vacuum would be decreased and should be indicated on the
condenser vacuum gauge.
C. Extraction System
The extraction system can also affect the turbine vibration response.
Suppose a feedwater heater is out of service, all the steam that would normally
flow to that heater is pushed downstream through the turbine, causing unusual
steam flows and temperatures (internally) for that load. Most extraction lines are
equipped with non-return valves and/or check valves along with their normal
isolation valves. If any of these valves does not open fully, the flow through the
extraction line will be affected. If you don't know of this condition, you might end
up wondering what is really happening. On many units, auxiliary steam and boiler
feedpump turbine supply steam is supplied via second or third point extraction.
Imagine that the auxiliary steam supply is switched to main steam. In this case, the
steam flow for this load would be different, and the auxiliary steam that would
normally be coming off of an extraction is going downstream.
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D. Unit Load
How much power is the turbine making? Normally, for a given electrical
load, the turbine produces a given amount of horsepower. What happens if VARS
(Volt-Amperes Reactive) are increased over normal? Changes in the load on the
generator change the torque on the shaft and can certainly change where the shaft
will run in the bearings. If the unit load is raised very quickly, the steam flow will
increase, steam temperature and pressure will decrease, and torque will increase.
The turbine vibration response may change until the temperature and pressure
come to equilibrium. Also, if there has just been a change in load that caused rapid
expansion/contraction, there is a good chance that some part will not slide fully to
where it was supposed to go, changing shaft position or alignment.
How is the steam being admitted to the turbine? Full arc or partial arc
admission? Compare the vibration level on the high pressure turbine bearings
when going from partial arc to full arc or from single valve mode to sequential
valve mode. Look at the shaft centerline position while this is happening. Often
partial arc admission will lift or move the rotor in the bearing. Vibration response
is most certainly going to change as a result of this.
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Mechanical Effects
Imagine a rotor turning just the way it's supposed to, while being supported
by two bearings. If we were to look at the 1X orbits from these bearings, we
would see something that is smooth and slightly elliptical.
Normal Steady Load Downward, Such as Gravity

Figure 38. Shaft Within Bearing Clearance
If we look at the shaft centerline plots, we would see that the rotor moved up
in the bearing and towards the up-running side of the shaft. The rotor should be
running somewhere about 30% to 40% of the way up from the bottom of the
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bearing on the up-running side. This is the ideal picture, but this is a non-ideal
world. All the mechanical forces that pull and twist a turbine end up forcing the
rotor into positions and movements that are different than the ideal picture. The
mechanical forces that come from outside the turbine and affect its vibration
response usually fall into three categories:
A. Piping Strains
B. Foundation or Pedestal Movements
C. Mechanical Misalignment
A. Piping Strains
RECOMMENDED REACTIONS RANGE ON TURBINE CONNECTIONS

REACTIONS LISTED SHOULD BE COMPARED WITH A CALCULATION WHICH
USES THE COLD MODULUS AND THE FULL EXPANSION RANGE
CONNECTION RESULTANT RESULTANT CONNECTION RESULTANT RESULTANT
#FORCE MOMENT #FORCE MOMENT
POUNDS IN-POUNDS POUNDS IN-POUNDS
Main Steam 3,500,000 Hot Reheat

25,000 EACH 6,000 EACH 600,000 EA.
Inlet Maximum Inlet
Cold Reheat 1st Point

4,000 EACH 400,000 EA. 2,000 200,000
Outlet Extraction
Figure 39. Calculated Reactions from Turbine Manufacturer’s Operating Manual
Let's examine some of the reasons that cause piping to impart strains on the
turbine. First, the piping has to be properly designed, so it has enough range of
movement to accommodate the thermal growth that both the turbine and piping
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will experience. Piping must be adequately braced to counteract the thrust forces
generated by the fluid movement. The piping has to be adequately supported, so it
doesn't start to sag and pull on the turbine or simply doesn't put too much load on
the turbine. Finally, the piping has to be properly installed. All the hangers and
snubbers have to be installed, and they have to be installed in the correct locations.
The piping has to be the right shape and size. The turbine and boiler have to be in
the correct location, so the piping will fit. If any of these things are a little off, it
can cause trouble.
Pipe Hangers
Figure 40. Turbine Piping and Hangers
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TABLE OF FREE EXPANSIONS

FLEXIBILITY OF PURCHASER’S PIPING TO ACCOMMODATE MOVEMENT OF TURBINE
CONNECTIONS FROM COLD TO POSITION AT OPERATING TEMPERATURE
CONNECTION AXIAL # TRANSVERSE ## VERTICAL ### CONNECTION AXIAL # TRANSVERSE ## VERTICAL ###
Main Steam Toward Governor Valve
Inlet 0.13 GEN. 0 0.16 Inlet Piping 0.32 0.09 0.28
Cold Reheat 1st Point

Outlet 0.78 0.10 0.32 Extraction 0.84 0 0.28
Hot Reheat 2nd Point

Inlet 1.63 0.75 0.25 UP Extraction 0.14 0 0.30
# AWAY FROM GENERATOR

## AWAY FROM CENTER LINE OF UNIT
### DOWN FROM CENTER LINE OF UNIT
} UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
Figure 41. Table of Free Expansions from Turbine Manufacturer’s Operating

Manual
Assuming that the piping was correctly designed and installed, we would
expect that there should be no piping strain problems immediately. After time
passes, hangers and snubbers start to fail. Hanger springs break or get full of rust
and debris; snubbers lock up. These are fairly common phenomena, as many
people don't pay much attention to hangers and snubbers. Often there is no access
to these elements even if you do want to work on them. If the hangers or snubbers
do not allow the piping to move as it should, the stress then will be transferred to
some point where it should not be. If the stress ends up in the turbine, it can cause
the turbine's vibration response to change. Failures aren't the only things that stop
hangers from working. Suppose the unit has been hydro tested recently, have all
the pins been removed from the hangers? Are all of the temporary supports
removed? What if a hanger or snubber has been repaired or replaced, and it no
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longer works properly? Piping also gets damaged from water hammer, or sags
with time and normal creep processes. If the piping is not where it should be,
chances are that a resultant stress will be transferred to the turbine.
Figure 42. Turbine / Generator Pedestal
B. Foundation / Pedestal Movements
If the rotor system is to run properly, it has to be mounted on a foundation of

proper design so the alignment can be properly set up and maintained. Most of the
time this is done and there is no problem with foundations. A situation that you
probably won't see with a main turbine generator set, but you might on a turbine
driven boiler feed pump set, is separate foundations that can move independently
of each other. With this situation, differential movement of the foundations causes
the alignment to change markedly. In one boiler feed pump situation, the seasonal
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change in temperature could be counted on to cause an alignment shift. With the

foundation structure this weak, piping strains play a major role in alignment
changes. All of these movements can cause the vibration levels to change.
Pedestals move for many reasons. Older plants experience failure of the
pedestals, due to poor concrete or environmental damage. When the pedestals start
to crumble, the alignment will change, the turbine may not expand / contract
properly, and stress may start loading the piping. Another cause of pedestal
movement results from the ground underneath the pedestal moving or becoming
unstable. The most obvious example of moving unstable ground is an earthquake.
There should be no surprise if there was an earthquake in your area and afterward
the turbine vibration response is changed. The ground can also saturate with water
from flooding, heavy rains or a rising water table. If a water line underneath the
floor slab leaked, and washed out some dirt underneath the pedestal, the pedestal
would loose support. All of these types of movements are alignment related. If the
turbine needs major realignment every major outage, there is something seriously
wrong. The alignment should be checked at regular intervals, but frequent
realignment is a sign of serious problems.
A turbine that goes from ambient temperature to inlet steam temperature has
to be allowed to expand freely. If the turbine can't expand freely it will warp,
crack, break its foundations, pull out the sole plates or do some other equally
damaging act. In any case it's a sure bet that the alignment of the machine will
change if the machine can't expand properly. If you look in the turbine operating /
erection manual there will probably be a description of what part of the turbine is
fixed, and what should move. Both the fixed and moving parts need to be checked
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if it is suspected that the turbine is not expanding freely. As mentioned earlier, if

the foundation is deteriorating, the fixed end could have become loose. More
likely one of the parts that should slide is stuck.
Figure 43. Sliding Support
Shows Thermal Growth
These parts could stick for a variety of reasons. For example, if the keys that
should guide the expansion in the desired direction are rusted or covered with dirt
or other foreign material, these parts could stick. These keys should be lubricated
on a regular basis. Check this to make sure that the lubrication is being done, and
done properly. These keys are typically one piece. Sometimes when keys are
replaced or modified they are made from multiple pieces. This is not a good
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practice, as the multiple pieces can act like springs in the same way as multiple
shims can.
Mechanical damage to the keys or slideways could prevent the machine
from sliding. Be sure to check that all jacking bolts are backed off enough that
they will not restrict the machine's movement. Piping also may restrict the free
movement of the turbine during thermal transients.
There is an important issue that should be mentioned. Vibration increases
tend to be the only thing that some people worry about. Decreasing vibration
amplitude is just as important as increasing amplitude. If the rotor response is
changing, something is causing that to happen, and you need to know what that is.
C. Mechanical Misalignment
Mechanical misalignment will definitely affect the turbine's vibration

response. Internal alignment (steam path alignment) will change the turbines
efficiency and internal clearances, often inviting a rub. Improper alignment work,
bolt failures, grout failures, a loose or broken centering beam, a lose transverse
anchor or too many shims under the feet can cause misalignment. As a general
rule, you don't want more than three or four shims under a machine; too many
shims will act as springs. Often, as the years go on and realignments are made,
more shims get stuck underneath, and nobody keeps track of the total number of
shims under the machine. Any time there is more than three or four shims under a
machine, a single new shim should be made and installed.
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The ideal rotor system should have small overall amplitude lateral vibrations
with slightly elliptical orbits, predominately 1X vibration. All of the malfunctions
discussed here can modify the rotor systems dynamic stiffness and, therefore, its
vibrational response. None of the problems discussed previously altered the
balance state of the rotor at all; they are all external influences. It is very important
to think in terms of rotor response, and what can alter that response when looking
at the vibration information coming from the turbine.
Diagnostic Methodology
The diagnostic methodology used in this presentation is similar to that used

in the Machinery Diagnostics Course. The version presented has been customized
for power plants through years of power plant experience. We use this
methodology, however, we make no claim that it is the best or that it is flawless.
What we offer is a "plan." If the "plan" (methodology) is applied correctly, and
used consistently, the results of investigations are more likely to lead to the correct
diagnosis. If this methodology is used properly, the chances that information will
be "missed" will be reduced.
The basic diagnostic methodology consists of these steps:
1. What is the problem? What do I already know about the machine?

2. What does this information tell me?
3. Do I need additional data to prove my analysis?
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4. Does the analysis fit the symptom(s) of the machine I'm looking at?
What is the Problem? What do I already know?
Probably, you know about the machine's history, the design of

the machine, the process and the surroundings.
How did you learn of the problem? In a power plant that could be
through a work order, routine data collection, someone told you or maybe
you just noticed something strange.
What does this information tell me?
You must put all of the information concerning the machine in

logical order. This will allow proper analysis. You must be familiar
with the normal operation of the machine and be able to recognize
changes. The vibration specialist needs to be able to interpret
transient and steady state data plot formats, and be able to relate these
plots to other machine information. (e.g. temperature and pressure).
Very often, there is information about the particular problem in how
the message was delivered, who had the problem, when the problem
occurred. You probably will have an idea about what is going on just
through experience.
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Do I need additional data to prove my analysis?
Sometimes you will come to a fork in the diagnostic path you

are taking. At this point you are unsure which way to go, which
possibility is the correct one. This is where you need additional data
to prove your diagnosis. A power plant contains a tremendous
amount of data. Strip charts, computer printouts and operators with
their log sheets are full of data. There are also maintenance history
and inspection reports. Usually, people running power plants are
serious about their business, so there is a lot of data to be investigated.
Does the analysis fit the symptom for the machine I'm looking at?
Most power plant machinery is fairly well understood.

Therefore, the envelope of expected behavior is well defined, and the
behavior currently being exhibited has probably been seen before.
Using the Diagnostic Methodology
This section is applicable to any machine you are likely to

encounter. In this section, questions are asked and comments are
made that are intended to lead you to the information that you need in
order to perform diagnostics. A methodology is in order because one
can't know all the answers to all the questions one is likely to
encounter. There are too many variations to be specific for each
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particular power plant; however, the methodology used to diagnose

problems is effective for each power plant.
1.) What is the problem? What do I already know?
When you stop to think of a diagnostic problem, you often

wonder where to start. The reason for this is because there are many
things that you already know about the machine and situation(s) that
you may never have stopped to think about. The following is
intended to help you organize your thoughts and better use that what
you already know.
Start with how you learned of the problem. Was it through a

work order? Who wrote the work order? Can you talk to them? Can
you find out what they know of the problem and what they suspect
might be the cause? How did they decide there was a problem? When
did it start? What instrumentation did they use to detect the problem?
Usually the operators have a wealth of information, and like you, they
may not realize its full value. Be careful though, if your questions
sound like you are looking for someone to blame, operators will
usually not say anything.
Suppose the problem came to light as a result of routine

data collection? This is good news; it means that there is trend data
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available from which you can tell if the problem started quickly or has
been coming on gradually. Whoever has been taking the data on a
routine basis can tell you about the transducers, how the data is taken
and if there was anything different about how this data was taken.
What if you just noticed the problem as you were walking

by and suddenly you were aware that something was not right?
What tipped you off? What do you think? You have an intuitive
understanding of the problem and information already; this is very
helpful. Use this understanding. Stop and think; ask yourself what it
was that alerted you. What thoughts went along with that insight?
Your brain already processed a lot of data to come to that conclusion,
so write down those thoughts to study later; they will probably help
you. Did you hear something wrong, feel it, or smell it? That is
information, use it!
What do you already know about the machine's history?

Has this problem ever been seen before on this machine or a similar
machine? Ask around. If this has happened before, there are probably
records you can look at; those records may have names of people you
can talk to as well. Was there a modification or maintenance done to
the machine that could have caused this? There will probably be
records on the maintenance or modification. Read the reports, talk to
the people. When the work was being done, did the people notice
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anything that may be related to this? Look at previous inspection or

maintenance reports for anything that was noted that may have turned
into this problem. Was there something that was almost out of
tolerance that may have gone out of tolerance that is now causing this
problem? Check for vendor bulletins on this situation. Probably
someone else has seen the same thing with his machine. If the
problem was serious enough, there may be a vendor bulletin out on it.
Try tying into one of the inter-utility information systems for
information there. Was there a recent operational upset that could
have caused this? A trip or system upset?
What do you already know about the machine design? We

discussed machine design is some detail earlier. Hopefully, now you
have an appreciation for what type of things can affect the machine's
vibration response. Ask yourself, can the machine behave this way?
How? What would have to be true for the machine to behave this
way? Would this show up in the process? Is this necessarily bad?
When you ask yourself, "Can the machine do this?" you are asking not
only about the machine but also about the data. It's a reality check and
quite appropriate for the situation; don't let yourself be misled by bad
data.
What do you already know about the process the machine is

connected to? How could process changes cause this situation?
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Have there been any process changes that may come into play here?
Is the machine operating in the normal mode? Is the machine
operating off design; is this normal? Is the machine performing as it
should? Is the machine generating the load that you expect for this
steam flow? There is always something happening in a power plant,
something was just fixed, something that is about to break, something
that was just changed, and something that has worn out. System
control wants more load and nobody wants to shut down. All these
factors have an influence in the way the plant is operated and
maintained, and can't be counted out when you are trying to diagnose
a problem.
What do you know about the monitoring equipment used to

identify or diagnose the problem? What about the person collecting
the information? Is the monitoring system working correctly? Is it in
calibration? Are the transducers being used appropriate for the
application? Does the data collector know how to use them properly?
Do you? Is there another system or transducer that you may employ
to check your existing data? Remember that you are measuring the
machine's vibration response. The measured response is the result of
forces acting on, or within, the machine. These forces may, or may
not, be present all the time, may, or may not, be desirable and may, or
may not, be indicative of the machine condition or the process which
it's connected to. It is, therefore, wise to use all the information
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available to aid in making or confirming your diagnosis. A final, and

very important, question you must ask is what combinations of things
could be causing this? Usually, when a machine acts up there are a
combinations of factors at play, an oversized bearing, seal water
pressure too high, coupling misalignment, etc. All of which change
the system dynamic stiffness, resulting in phase and amplitude
changes.
2.) What does this tell me?
This step is best explained by example. Let's assume that you

just received a work order on a piece of equipment. The work order
says that this equipment is not operating the way it always does, and
seems to be vibrating more than normal. You are not familiar with
this piece of equipment so you look at the manual on it to familiarize
yourself with the machine and its operating specifications. Next you
go talk to the person who wrote the work order. This person said that
the machine is not operating "normally" in the work order, so you ask
why they believe that to be the case, and you find out how they judge
what normal is. In this case, there is strip chart data that shows the
abnormal operation. You ask about the increase in vibration noted in
the work order, and the operator says that it just seems to be vibrating
more.
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Now you know something about the machine, its normal

operation, the instrumentation that is connected to this machine
and that it seems to be vibrating more than normal. From here,
you can go out to look at the machine and see if it is installed the way
that the manual said that it should be installed, and can see what "high
vibration" is. Check to see if there is any signs of recent maintenance
on the machine, if the transducers that are showing the abnormal
operation appear to be properly connected and if anything else seems
wrong. In this case, the machine appears to be properly installed.
There is some noticeable vibration, but you don't know if this is high.
You notice that there are vibration transducers on this machine for
routine data collection. There are no signs of recent maintenance on
the machine. The calibration sticker on the transducers shows that last
calibration was done over two years ago. Everything else seems
normal.
Now you know that the installation is probably correct.
There may be high vibration and that there may be some
historical data to examine. There were no signs of recent
maintenance that could have changed this machine. Next, you
find the vibration data that has been taken in the past and ask for the
vibration to be measured again to see if it has changed. You go to the
instrument department and ask about the calibration of the transducers
and transducer system in question. You learn that these transducers
don't usually go out of calibration, but it would not be a bad idea to
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check it now. The information comes back to you that the vibration
that has remained unchanged for three years is now twice what it was,
and that the transducer and the transducer system are in calibration.
Now you know that there is a problem with the machine.

Because the instrumentation is correct, you can compare the
machine's output with the design information from the manual
and determine what the machine is doing differently from what it
should. From here, knowing something about the basic design of the
machine and how it is behaving, you will be able to make a judgment
about what is wrong with the machine and devise a test to prove it.
3.) What additional data do I need to prove my diagnosis?
This step naturally follows when you analyze what you already
know. What is important is that you have, hopefully, generated a
diagnosis of what may be wrong with the machine. Once you perform
your analysis, you need to determine how to confirm your diagnosis.
Start asking yourself or others "If this, then what?" types of questions.
For example, If the turbine lost a blade, how would the turbine's
response change? What tests could be conducted to check to see if the
turbine lost a blade? What would definitely not be true if there were a
missing blade?
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Start collecting the data needed to prove or disprove your diagnosis. If

in the case of the missing blade, there were no amplitude and / or phase
angle changes, you could probably rule that out.
The following case study is an actual incident from a power plant.

One of the generating units suddenly could not reach full load. The
diagnostic methodology was employed to determine what the problem was;
the following is a detail of that diagnosis.
What was already known?
1. Rated full load is 272 MW gross @ 17,375 KPa (2520 psi), 540°C
(1005°F) main steam temp, 540°C (1005°F) reheat steam temp,
63.5mm (2.5") HG absolute backpressure and 310 KPa (45 psig)
generator hydrogen pressure.
2. Current max load 250 MW gross @ 17409 KPa (2525 psi),

539.5/541.13°C (1004°F/1006°F), 66.3mm (2.61") HG absolute
backpressure, and hydrogen pressure was 296.5 KPa (43 psig).
3. No maintenance work was done on the turbine or generator
corresponding with this event.
4. No operational problems were reported.
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5. System control and plant load indication agree.
6. Full load was attained last evening.
7. The problem was reported by the Operation Superintendent.
8. Crew #3 was on shift.
9. This problem has not been seen before.
10. There was no previous indication of this problem.
This data was analyzed to see what it told.
The following was identified:
1. Inlet steam condition, generator phase, amperage and VARS, gas

temperature, core condition monitor all showed normal readings,
however, there was no mention of steam flow.
2. The load was about 10% off, which indicates a serious problem,
especially if it is caused by blade path damage.
3. No maintenance work means that recent maintenance work did not

cause the problem. Have the instruments been calibrated?
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4. Is throttle pressure indication accurate?
5. Is the load indication meter working properly. Check it against

other indications.
6. The problem happened after evening peak, so, maybe someone will
remember something of use. Talk to the operators, check the logs.
7. Talk to the operations superintendent, he's smart and may have

some insight into the problem.
8. This CRO (Control Room Operator) is a good operator, the problem

was probably not an operational error.
9. Probably a sudden failure or event.
The list showed that there was some more information that was needed
1. Steam flow is 10% off, but steam flow indication has poor resolution.
Feedwater flow seems to be about 5% down from full load conditions,
however, attemperation flow is higher than normal. One needs to see
feedwater flow with attemperation off.
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2. If there is serious damage in the turbine the vibration amplitude and

the phase angle should show a change from yesterday. The vibration
amplitude and phase was essentially the same as yesterday at full load.
3. A calibration on the throttle pressure gauge was conducted without

any indication of a problem. The computer indication of throttle
pressure agrees with the gauge and is fed from a different transmitter
so throttle pressure indication is probably correct.
4. The CRO says that everything seems normal except that he can't get
the load any higher. The unit is responding well in auto, and going to
manual doesn't help.
5. The problem is not a load indication problem, the problem is real.
6. Logs note no unusual events. Operators saw or noticed nothing

unusual.
7. The operations superintendent said he had no new ideas about what
the problem could be. He noted that steam and feedwater flow did not
correlate. The actual steam and feedwater flow match design
conditions for this load (250MW). He did not believe that there was
internal damage in the turbine due to the fact that the vibration and
shaft position hadn't changed. There were no operational problems
reported that could have resulted in turbine damage. The generator
REV C 129278
seems to be operating properly by both visual, audio and meter

inspection. The instrument and electric supervisor thinks that the
power system stabilizer is bad and isn't allowing the voltage regulator
to properly excite the field. The electricians are checking the voltage
regulator and power system stabilizer.
From the conversation with the operations superintendent, the

following was determined:
1. The generator is operating within specification.

2. There have been no operational problems.
3. The problem is not with the instrumentation.
4. There is probably not any internal damage to the turbine.
5. The low steam and feedwater flow seem to be most directly related
to the problem. More investigation is needed here.
6. The power system stabilizer idea, though not seemingly possible,
needs to be checked.
There was thought to be insufficient steam flow to the turbine to make full
load, or that there was a voltage regulator problem. Both problems were
investigated. The steam flow was checked against the extraction flows at that load
to see if the turbine was indeed getting the amount of steam that correlated to the
current generator output, and to see if the extraction flows were as they should be.
If there was massive internal damage, the extraction flows downstream of the
damage should be higher than they should be. The extraction flows and pressures
REV C 129278
were just as they should be for the load point the unit was at. From that
information, it was decided to check the control valve's operation because they
would be the most likely thing to reduce steam flow if not operating properly. This
inspection showed that the number 3 control valve had a broken stem and was not
opening. The instrument and electric supervisor was still convinced that the power
system stabilizer was at fault and would not sway from this belief until the valve
stem was replaced and the unit could then reach full load. Even then, he thought
that the problem would mysteriously reappear and vindicate his position.
What is demonstrated here is a contrast between using a diagnostic
methodology and not using one. By using the methodology, the cause of the
problem was found quickly (about 4 hours). The instrument and electric
supervisor came to his theory through some form of black magic, and he wasted
both time and money as a result. At no time did he make use of the diagnostic
methodology including the fourth step which is "Does the analysis fit the
symptom for the machine I'm looking at?" This is a reality check, a way of
saying "Does this make sense?"
You can also see that this in an iterative process, sometimes the data causes
one to ask more questions and require more data. The initial information led to
more questions that needed to be answered before the next step could be taken.
What Information is Required for Machinery Diagnostics?
REV C 129278
In this section, we want to look at the types of information needed when

diagnosing a steam turbine. We are going to break this information down into
general classifications to make things easier.
The classifications are:
1. Machine information.
2. Process information.
3. External structural information.
4. Work order information.
5. Maintenance records.
A. Machine information. Information that comes directly from the

machine and any of the transducers that are connected to the machine.
The following is typically available:
1. Rotor vibration and position information.
REV C 129278
2. Slow roll and no-load data coming from shaft relative

(proximity probes) or casing vibration from case-mounted
velocity transducers.
3. Differential expansion, casing expansion and thrust position

information.
4. Bearing metal temperatures, oil supply, oil drain temperatures

and jacking oil pressure (for an indication of shaft position).
5. Eccentricity (rotor bow) and speed information.
All of this information needs to come from startups, shutdowns and steady
state trend information. For comparison, there should be baseline information
generated for startup, shutdown and steady state.
B. Process Information. This is information that comes from the

process that drives the turbine, that supports the turbine, or that the
turbine is connected to. The process information available will vary
from plant to plant, but usually you can count on the following
information, all of which is useful.
1. Steam supply conditions, temperature pressure flow &

quality.
REV C 129278
2. Load and VARS are always available, and the general condition
of the generator is usually known.
3. Condenser vacuum and the state of the extraction / feedwater

system should be available to you.
4. Where is the auxiliary steam supply coming from? How the

steam is being admitted to the turbine is an important factor that
is always available.
C. External Structural Information. This information comes from

measurements and or inspections of piping, foundations, hangers and
any of the surrounding influences that can affect the turbine. This
usually comes from some sort of visual inspection or measurement
because there are usually no transducers or recording instruments on
these materials. This is not information that you would want to gather
on a regular basis; this would be a waste of time. The important thing
is to realize that this information is available (with some work), and
may be the key to whatever problem you are seeing.
D. Work Order Information. This is the information that may have

gotten you interested in the "problem" in the first place. This includes
information you get from talking to the operators, mechanics or
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anyone else that may have some information for you. Work order
information is just what it sounds like. Someone has seen something
that they thought was significant enough to write a work order on.
The reason to give this information a category of its own is that this
information is usually the starting place for your investigation. This is
very raw information; thoughts and rough outlines of the problem and
should be treated as such. You will need to confirm and build from
this information, never take it at face value.
E. Maintenance Records. Inspection reports measurements, notes of

conditions found, and any information that is generated by the
maintenance people that can tell you what the inside of the machine is
really like. Maintenance records are often overlooked and shouldn't
be. During a turbine major overhaul, all the significant clearances are
usually checked and recorded. Blade path damage is noted, bearings
and the journals are measured. The manuals only tell you what these
dimensions should be, but you need to know what they really are.
Usually, during an overhaul, the critical dimensions are made right,
but not always. Sometimes because of time constraints or parts
availability, clearances that are not thought to be all that critical are
left as they were; sometimes mistakes are made. It is important to
know what the seal clearances are before you rule out a seal rub or
instability problem. Sometimes a note of something unusual is made
REV C 129278
that the writer did not fully understand; these notes may explain the
symptom you are now seeing.
Other Diagnostic Tools
As a diagnostician, people will ask you (usually worried, upset people) what
is wrong with their machine, and can they still operate it. These people want you
to give them the correct answer immediately, and they really don't care how you
arrive at the answer (short of violence) as long as it is the correct answer, and they
get it quickly. Usually, your analysis will be used to make operational and
maintenance decisions; the better your analysis, the better the decision can be.
What this means to you is that you will need a large set of "tools" to help you do
your job. Vibration diagnostics is a very powerful tool as it enables you to look
into the machine via its behavioral response. Vibration diagnostics is just one tool
to help you do your job effectively. Combine vibration diagnostics with your other
tools and plant knowledge, the information provided by your senses and process
information, to become an effective Machinery Diagnostics Specialist.
Combining information gives you another perspective of the machine
behavior to help confirm your analysis, help you to understand the vibration
information you're seeing, and serve as the reality check for the vibration
information you're seeing. It can also tell you if a piece of equipment needs
further monitoring or different monitoring. The other diagnostic tools are
mere bits of data that must be combined with the vibration data and all the
other data to become information that you can use. It is very important that
REV C 129278
every time you are conducting diagnostics that you use all the data available
to you; if you don't, you probably won't be able to see the whole picture.
REV C 129278

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Table of Contents

6. Using a Diagnostic Methodology 76

8. Other Diagnostic Tools 96

Steam Turbines, as a rule, are one class of machines regardless of what

STEAM TURBINE DRIVERS

Basic Steam Turbine Design

If we look at steam turbines as a general class of machines, we will see some

Figure 2. LP Rotor and Case

Figure 3. HP—IP Rotor & Case

Most steam turbines have the following components:

A) A High Pressure case is usually significantly heavier than the rotor

B) Rotors. A steam turbine may have a High Pressure / Intermediate

C) Bearings. Most U.S. manufactured machines have two bearings

D) Seals. Turbine steam seals or shaft packing can be fixed, spring-

E) Couplings. Couplings connecting individual rotors are usually the rigid

In the next section, we will look at the individual components mentioned

Main Steam Power

1) Rotor to Casing Vibration Transmission

What rotor to casing vibration transmission means to the

2) Differential expansion, HP Turbines

A turbine case, being much more massive, warms up and cools

Last Stage Blade

Turning Balance Plane

3) Differential Expansion of LP Turbines

As far as differential expansion is concerned the LP cases, in most

Figure 6. HP Rotor Cross Section

Figure 7. Dual Flow LP Rotor Cross Section

Blading is attached to the rotor. Rotor blades, from a vibration standpoint,

Figure 10. Impulse Blading

Figure 11. Reaction Blading

REACTION TURBINE - Figure 10 - indicating pressure drop in fixed and moving

Figure 12. Turbine Bearing

Figure 13. Turbine Bearing Cross Section

The manufacturer has several designs to improve turbine performance with a

Figure 14. Labyrinth Seal

Figure 15. HP Final Gland Seals

LP Cylinder Steam Steam and Air to

Figure 16. LP Gland Seals

1. Types of Turbine Seals

Common seals are of the fixed, spring-loaded or retractable type.

Generally, couplings found on steam generation turbines will be rigid; most

Turning (Bull) Gear

Turning Gear Motor Turning Gear Assembly

Malfunction Behavior of Steam Turbines

A. Eccentricity (Rotor Bow)

Figure 21. Broken Blade Shroud

A few things are universally true in relation to a turbines vibration response.

D. The instrumentation used at the factory was different than the

E. You are balancing an assembly. All of the effects of the other

Figure 22. Basic Equation From Fundamental Synchronous Rotor Response

Driver Shaft Driven Shaft

Figure 23. Misalignment

A change in the rotor system's alignment in relation to bearings or seals may

Figure 24. Shaft Centerline Plot Taken Over 16 Hours

Figure 25. Orbit plot from a Misaligned Bearing on a Steam Turbine

0.2 mil pp/div CCW Rotation 3440 rpm

Figure 26. Axial Clearance

Figure 27. Thrust Collar - Separate

Thrust Ring Main Bearing

Figure 28. Thrust Collar - Integral with Rotor

Figure 29. Radial Clearance

a. Radial rubs due to case motion