Training Services

Energy and Steam Systems

Energy systems is one of the most important subjects to a refinery. The primary
energy system covered today is steam. The steam system is probably the single
most important utility in the refinery. It is versatile, being used for diverse purposes
such as being a prime mover, a heating source, process input, and many
miscellaneous functions. It is universal, with a steam system in probably every
refinery in the world. It is relatively simple to produce. Despite all of this, a poorly
designed or operated steam system can cause tremendous difficulties for the
refinery.

Other energy systems include fuel and electricity. They are primarily covered in
other sections of the course, but are discussed here as well. Electricity and steam
can be interchanged as prime movers, with the decision of choosing one or the other
based mainly on economics. Fuel is ultimately the source of steam and electricity.
As such, it is the basis for comparison of steam and power.

Another energy system is the hot oil system. Hot oil can transfer heat at high
temperatures, beyond the saturation temperature of normal refinery steam.

There is tremendous energy in the hydrocarbon and flue gas streams in a refinery.
This energy is often released to the atmosphere, either directly or through a medium
such as cooling water. Conserving this energy is the key to overall refinery
efficiency.

1
 Energy Systems

„ Steam Properties
„ Introduction to Steam Systems
„ Energy Integration
„ Cogeneration
„ Energy Efficiency Checklists

The primary goals in this section are understanding of the importance of steam in
the energy balance in a refinery, the understanding of other types of energy as they
relate to steam, and an understanding of some basic ways to improve energy
efficiency in the refinery.

We will first touch on steam itself - what is steam and what are its properties. Next,
we will discuss the steam system, its source components and the end users. We will
pay particular attention to the steam used by turbines

Cogeneration, or the simultaneous production of electrical and heat energy, will lead
into a discussion on general energy integration. We will wrap up with a discussion
on energy efficiency and and some suggestions on recovery energy.

Attached to this presentation are three appendices which will not be discussed. The
first covers an example of a refinery steam study. The second covers multistage
turbines. This is a complement to the single stage turbine calculations presented.
The third appendix provides full page copies of the graphs in the presentation.
These will be easier to use on in the future if needed.

2
 Steam Properties

„ Steam Tables
„ Pressure vs. Specific Weight
„ Temperature vs. Enthalpy
„ Mollier Diagram

Also provided is an example of how to calculate the steam rate of turbines using
Mollier diagrams as well as using detailed vendor design curves.

Both full load conditions and part load conditions, which give us a more rigorous
calculation in determining the economic turbine selection, will be discussed.

Extraction turbines are one of the most important pieces of equipment when looking
at a steam system. The reason is that instead of letting steam down from on level to
another in a control valve, one can let the steam down through an extraction turbine
which provides the refinery with better efficiencies.

Elements of a steam system and some of the tools used to analyze steam systems are
discussed. Mollier diagrams and steam tables provide the necessary thermodynamic
data.

3
 Steam Properties

„ Steam Tables
– Saturation: Temperatures
– Saturation: Pressure
– Superheated Steam

The steam tables provide the basic thermodynamic properties of steam and water at
essentially all pressures and temperatures. These include specific volume, enthalpy,
and entropy. Internal energy can also be found on some tables.

The tables are set up in three main tables ( there are additional tables as well).
The first table lists the properties of saturated steam and water. It is set up based on
temperature; i.e. if you know the saturation temperature, you can get other
properties. The second table is similar to the first except that it is tabulated based on
pressure. The third table lists the properties of superheated steam given the pressure
and temperature.

The steam tables presented are from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) Steam Tables. A complete set of the ASME steam tables can be obtained
from ASME. Many boiler and turbine vendors will provide copies upon request. A
very complete set of steam properties has been prepared by Keenan and Keyes. It
has many more data points so that interpolation is often not necessary and is more
accurate when needed.

Steam tables have been computerized for quick reference. The programs are not as
accurate as the steam tables, but they should be sufficient for everyday use. The
Mechanical Engineering magazine recently listed
www.winsim.com/steam/steam.shtml as a website to get free steam table software.

4
 Specific Weight vs. Pressure

EDS-R00-1293

This graph shows the difference between the densities of saturated steam and water
over a range of pressures. Notice how, as the pressure increases, the difference is
reduced. At the critical pressure, the phase distinction between liquid in vapor no
longer exists. At this point, conventional steam drums are not used to separate
vapor from liquid.

As a measure of the effects of pressure on the force producing circulation, the chart
compares the specific weights of saturated water and saturated steam. The
differential between the specific weighs shrinks as pressure increases until, at a
pressure of 3206.2 psia, the critical point, there is no more differential.

The difference between the densities is important in the boiler. It allows the natural
circulation in a boiler and allows the separation of water and steam in the steam
drum. At the pressures in a typical refinery steam system, there is usually enough
differential to prevent any separation problems.

5
 Steam Diagram
Temperature vs. Enthalpy

EDS-R00-1267

This graph indicates temperature versus enthalpy and shows the enthalpy difference
between saturated water and saturated steam. As you can see, the horizontal
distance from saturated water to saturated liquid is reduced as the pressure and
temperature increases. This distance is equal to the latent heat of vaporization. As
pressure increases, the heat of vaporization decreases.

For example, it takes about one third less energy to change water into steam at 1000
psig as compared to water at atmospheric pressure. This difference in latent heat of
vaporization continues to decrease until the critical temperature is reached. At this
point, phase distinction between liquid and vapor is no longer possible.

6
 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.5 3.0
1600 1600

1550 1550

1500 1500

1450 1450

1400 1400

1350 1350

Enthalpy, Btu per lb.

1300 1300

lb.
per
, Btu
1250 1250

alpy
Enth
1200 1200

1150 1150

1100
1100
2.2
1050 1050
2.1
1000
1000
2.0
950
950
Critical
Starts 1.9
900 900
1.8
850 850
1.7
800 800
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Entropy

The Mollier diagram is a very useful table containing a large amount of

thermodynamic data in a very small space. Unfortunately, the compactness of the
table is countered by its inability to provide precise values, and the table can be
rather confusing. Larger Mollier diagrams are available.

At atmospheric pressure, the temperature at which water becomes steam is 212°F.

On the graph, isobars, or equal pressure lines, run diagonally from the bottom left
corner to the top right corner. The atmospheric pressure line is dashed, and the
point to look for is along the bold saturation line, just above 200°F; with some
interpolation, we can see we are at 212°F. If we read horizontally to the left or to
the right of the axis, we see the value of enthalpy is 1150 Btu/lb. If we return to our
starting point on the saturation line and read vertically up or down, we find the
entropy of saturated steam is 1.76 Btu/lb-°F.

Return to the starting point at 212°F and atmospheric pressure. Now we are going
to superheat the steam at constant pressure. To do this, we follow the dashed
atmospheric pressure line diagonally to the upper right. We continue until the
desired temperature, say 700°F, is reached. At this superheat point, the enthalpy is
1384 Btu/lb and the entropy is 2.1 Btu/lb °F. Return to the starting point at 212°F
and atmospheric pressure and move diagonally down and to the left. This region is
the subcooled vapor region. As we move diagonally to the left, the temperature and
pressure are constant, but the percent moisture increases. This is because water is
condensing.

7
 Introduction to Steam Systems

„ Overview
„ Boilers
„ Other Steam System Equipment
„ Steam Turbines
„ Other Users of Steam

Steam system includes many pieces of equipment. The steam system has
demineralizers, deaerators, boilers, bfw pumps, flash drums, blowdown drums,
steam turbines and the list goes on. The steam system is critical the operation of the
refinery. If the steam system were to fail the complete refinery would have to
shutdown.

8
 Elements of a Typical Refinery
Steam System
42.1 kg/cm2g

10.5 kg/cm2g

3.5 kg/cm2g

EDS-R00-1201

The boiler is the heart of the steam system. Even though steam is produced by
process units, the boiler controls the steam header pressure. The highest steam
pressure header is usually controlled by fired boilers. The lower pressure steam
header pressures are controlled using letdown valves or turbines. The lowest steam
header pressure is primarily controlled by limiting the amount of steam to the
header. If there is excess low pressure steam production, it is necessary to vent
steam when the refiner does not have an induction type condensing turbine that
allows him to bring in low pressure steam or a steam condenser to conserve water.

Condensate from condensing turbines and heat exchangers is then recycled and
returned to the deaerator to complete the cycle.

The steam system normally has three main levels:

High Pressure: 600 psig (or higher depending on power generation)

Medium Pressure: 125 to 250 psig - used by backpressure turbines and heat
exchangers. MP Steam is often generated in process units.

Low Pressure: 15 to 50 psig - used mainly for lower grade heating and the
deaerator.

9
 Natural Circulation Boiler

EDS-R00-1294

Boilers can be categorized many ways. For refining, we usually see circulation type
boilers. There are two main types of circulation boilers, natural and forced.
Refining applications also see kettle type boilers for smaller duties.

This is a schematic of a natural circulation boiler. The boiler feed water enters in the
steam drum and mixes with the saturated liquid. Then, due to gravity, water is
drawn down to the mud drum. The mud drum is a low velocity settling region
where any solids accumulate. The water then enters the riser, which is usually a
high flux region where the phase change takes place thus reducing the density of the
mixture. The steam and water rise into the steam drum. Natural circulation occurs
from the density differences in the downcomers and the risers.

The steam drum serves as both a storage section and a separation area. The
steam/water mixture slows down in the vapor area so that large liquid particles
disengage and fall to the water surface. This is only a crude separation, removing
droplets greater than 135 microns. The steam drum also contains cyclone or
chevron steam separators which remove virtually all the liquid droplets (to less than
10 microns). It is important to remove the droplets because the droplets have the
same concentration of dissolved impurities at the bulk liquid in the drum. If these
droplets were to enter a superheater and evaporate, they would leave a salt powder
on the surface of the tubes inhibiting heat transfer and potentially plugging a tube.
Boiler manufacturers will typically guarantee a value of 1 ppm TDS in the outlet
steam.

10
 Forced Circulation Boiler

EDS-R00-1285

The forced circulation boiler is the most common process boiler specified by UOP.
It is a waste heat recovery boiler found in a fired heater used in CCR Platforming,
Unionfining, or UOP Hydrocraking Units. In this scheme, the boiler water is forced
through the system using a pump.

Make up water enters the economizer where low level heat is picked up from stack
gases to preheat the boiler feed water before entering the drum. From the drum, the
boiler water enters the pump. The water first passes through the radiant section of
the heater and then into the convection section picking up some high level waste
heat in the flue gas. Note that in a natural circulation boiler, the economizer and
superheater functions will be the same.

UOP specifies the pump to pump 7 times the amount of water that is vaporized. A
high velocity is used to keep the tubes cool and promote mixing. The result is a
pressure drop of about 40 psi. The mixture of steam and water is separated in the
steam drum and steam purifiers and then flows to the superheater where the
temperature is raised from 50 to 300°F above the saturation temperature as required
to meet steam conditions

In the U.S., most utility boilers are of the natural circulation type. In Europe, forced
circulation boilers are common in the utility plants. One reason for this is that
forced circulation boilers can be installed vertically, using less plot space.

11
 EDS-R00-1295

The above graph is explained with the equations Q=UA∆T and Q=Aeσ∆T4. The
first equation of heat transfer is used to model heat transfer by convection, and the
second equation is used to model heat transfer by radiation. From both of these
equations, we know that the hotter the temperature and greater the surface area, the
more heat we can transfer. Unlike convection, radiation requires direct line of sight
to the object and a large temperature difference.

In this graph, the furnace and water wall absorb 50% of the total relative heat
absorbed, but only require 10% of the surface. The furnace is the hottest place in
the boiler at 2000ºF, and the flames have direct line of sight to the furnace water
wall. In the furnace, the two methods of heat transfer occur so less area is required.
Throughout the remainder of the boiler, radiation is no longer a major method of
heat transfer and convection dominates. Temperature difference is the driving
force, and as combustion gases travel through the boiler bank, superheater,
economizer, and air heater, they cool more and more. Meanwhile, the water is
heated to produce steam. At some point, the combustion gases become too cool to
produce steam and are used to preheat water in the economizer and to heat the
combustion air.

The air heater requires large amounts of surface area relative to the amount of heat
absorbed. As shown above, the air heater requires 45% relative heat transfer surface
and only absorbs 10% of the heat. Given this, air heaters are often not installed
except in applications where high efficiency is desired.

12
 Steam Generator

EDS-R00-1286

This is an example of a utility boiler producing steam using a solid fuel such as
coke, coal, or even wood. Air is injected to create turbulence and ensure complete
combustion of the fuel to minimize unburned fuel from accumulating with the ash.
A utility boiler in the refinery would most likely be burning fuel gas and/or fuel oil.
These fuel would be added through nozzles, and the stoker and ash equipment
would be deleted.

The path of the flue gas is typical for most boilers traveling through the superheater,
boiler tubes, economizer, and air preheater just as we discussed with relative area
diagram. The water wall tube appears to use considerable surface area but, because
the tubes only line the walls of the boiler, this drawing exaggerates the water wall
area.

In Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG's), radiation is not of a large concern

because of the lower temperatures associated with waste heat. As a result, there
probably will not be water wall tubes. Otherwise, the boiler will look similar.

13
 Steam Generation Auxiliaries

EDS-R00-1290

Boiling water sounds like such a simple process because we do it every day to make
tea or to cook, but the steam boiler is a chemical process and requires
instrumentation and controls. The most critical are the level controls used to ensure
there is water in the boiler. If there is no water in the boiler, how can we make
steam? A three element control system is typically specified to control the makeup
boiler feed water. The three elements include steam flow out, water flow in, and
water level in the steam drum.

Other important auxiliaries are pressure gauges, safety relief valves, and blowdown
valves. There are many valves for fuel, steam, air and water, which are all
combined in a compact area. Often people color code and label the valves to
prevent operator error, but you should always know the valve you are turning and
not believe the label.

In the U.S. and much of the world, the manufacturing of steam generators is
governed by the A.S.M.E codes. These codes regulate many of the auxiliary
equipment, as well as set the design criteria.

14
 Why Do We Blowdown A Boiler?

Steam

Chemical
Feed

Boiler
Feedwater

Blowdown

EDS-R00-1291

The dissolved solid concentrate as steam is produced and eventually crystallize.

Special chemicals are added to combine with the solids and keep them suspended in
solution so they can be removed by blowdown. Alternatively, the chemicals can
make them settle out easier so they can be removed through the mud drum. Since
chemicals have an important part in steam generation, we will discuss them briefly.

There are two types of blowdown; continuous and intermittent. As the names
imply, continuous blowdown occurs constantly, removing dissolved solids from the
saturated water in the steam drum. Blowdown is taken from the steam drum.
Intermittent blowdown is primarily intended to remove solids that have settled out.
In a natural circulation boiler, intermittent blowdown is taken from the mud drum.
In a forced circulation boiler, the intermittent blowdown is taken from a 'quiet' area
of the steam drum.

The blowdown is too hot to send to the sewer. Intermittent blowdown is sent to the
intermittent blowdown drum. The blowdown flashes, with the steam going to
atmosphere and the 212°F water going directly to the sewer if allowed or to a
cooler. The continuous blowdown is treated similarly, except that the drum is at an
elevated pressure so that the steam is sent to the LP or MP steam headers. The
water is still too hot so it is sent to either the intermittent blowdown drum for
additional flashing or to a cooler. The hot blowdown can be used to preheat makeup
water. This saves on cooling water and saves heat.

15
 Chemical Treatment

„ Oxygen Scavenging
– Sodium Sulfite
2Na2SO3 + O2 2Na2SO4
– Hydrazine
N2H4 + O2 2H2O + N2
„ Internal Treatment
– Prevent scale formation
— Phosphate - Precipitate
— Chelant - Form soluble complex
– Sludge conditioner
– Anti-foam
„ Amines

Chemicals are used to treat the water for a variety of reasons. New deaerators
remove oxygen to a level of 7 ppb (after a brief period their performance degrades
and they only remove oxygen to the 20-70 ppb levels), but even that small
concentration of dissolved oxygen can be corrosive at the elevated temperature
inside the boiler. To remove this final amount of oxygen, an oxygen scavenger is
added. These chemicals are added to the boiler feed water in the deaerator to react
with the oxygen. A slight excess of the chemical, known as a residual, is required
to ensure that the boiler is oxygen free. The two most common classes of oxygen
scavenger are sodium sulfite and hydrazine. Sodium sulfite is a salt, so it adds to
the conductivity and to the total amount of dissolved solid in the boiler. Sodium
sulfite is reserved for low pressure boiler (<1000 psig) applications where higher
levels of dissolved solids are acceptable in the water. Hydrazine is the oxygen
scavenger used at higher pressures. Unfortunately, hydrazine is a carcinogen, but
the water treatment companies have developed special chemicals that are safe at
room temperature, but decompose in the boiler to produce hydrazine and benign
byproducts. Nalco produces Eliminox and Betz produces Hydroquinone.

The dissolved minerals are often removed by clarification, zeolite softening, reverse
osmosis, demineralization, etc. These methods are known as external treatment
because they remove impurities external to the boiler. Chemicals added into the
boiler are often called internal treatment chemicals.

16
 Types of Internal Boiler Programs

„ Precipitating
– Phosphate/polymer
„ Non-Precipitating
– Chelant/polymer
– All polymer
„ Captive Alkalinity
– Coordinated phosphate - pH treatment
– Congruent phosphate treatment

These internal treatment chemicals either keep the minerals dissolved in solution, or
they bind with them to prevent them from scaling. Chemicals that bind with the
dissolved mineral and keep them in solution are known as non-precipitating. They
are often called chelants or chelant polymers.

The precipitating chemicals can be polymers, but are typically known as

phosphates. Precipitating chemicals used for lower pressure applications combine
with the dissolved solids to create a non-scaling solid that can be removed in the
blowdown. Sludge conditioners are used to keep the solids from hardening and
forming large amorphous slabs that are unable to pass through the blowdown lines.
Antifoaming chemicals are used with lower pressure boilers where the hardness
level is low, but where the dissolved solid is high.

Another type of chemical treatment is the use of amines. Amines are used to
protect the condensate system against corrosion, especially carbon dioxide
corrosion. Amines are injected into the boiler feedwater at the deaerator. The
amines are volatile and so go with steam throughout the steam system. When steam
condenses, so does the amine. The two main types of amines are neutralizing and
filming. A common neutralizing amine is morpholine. Neutralizing amines are
generally preferred but their use is expensive if there is a lot of carbon dioxide.

17
 Boiler Blowdown Example

EDS-R00-1291

In this example, the feedwater has 100 PPMW of total dissolved solids (TDS). The
boiler is producing 900,000 kg per day of steam with essentially no solids carry
over.

The goal in this example is to keep the solids level at 1000 PPMW in the boiler
water. To determine the amount of blowdown, we perform a mass balance over the
boiler. If we add 100 kg per day of solids, we must remove 100 kg per day of solid
in the blowdown. We find that 100,000 kg of water and dissolved solids must be
removed per day and, to maintain the liquid level and steam production, the
feedwater must be 1,000,000 kg per day.

In the refinery, the level of concentration of solids in the steam drum is controlled
by the operator. The American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA) sets
maximum limits of 2,000 ppm TDS for boiler drums in the 601-750 psig range and
3,500 ppm TDS for boiler drums in the 0-300 psig range. There are additional
limits on other constituents, such as silica, which may control blowdown
requirements. The lower the solids level in the steam drum water, the higher the
steam purity and so refiners often maintain lower solids levels.

18
 Boiler Blowdown Requirements

EDS-R00-1292

This is a graphical solution to the mass balance equation. It determines the percent
blowdown as a function of the feedwater. Using the example from the previous
slide, a feedwater concentration of 100 PPM with a concentration of 1000 PPM in
the boiler water results in a 10% blowdown on feedwater. Therefore, 10% of the
feedwater is removed from the boiler to keep the boiler water at 1000 PPM. When
vendors or engineers mention percent blowdown, be sure to ask on what basis
because some people will quote blowdown as percentage of steam production.

If blowdown requirements exceed ten percent, serious consideration should be given

to improving the quality of the boiler feedwater. Demineralized water will typically
require only 1 or 2% blowdown at the 600 psig steam level.

The intermittent blowdown system should be sized for 10% blowdown. The
continuous blowdown system should be designed for the maximum blowdown
levels required. Sizing the system for a minimum of 10% blowdown, even if only 2
or 3 % blowdown is normally required, is a good design practice.

19
 Solubility of Oxygen in Water

30
24
Oxygen Content, ppm
20
16
12
10 p
sig
8 8p
sig
0 psig
4 Vacuum
12 in M
ercury
0
32 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250
Temperature, °F

Oxygen dissolves in water with a concentration of about 8 ppm at room temperature

and atmospheric pressure. This dissolved oxygen is what keeps the fish alive, but it
causes corrosion in boilers at elevated temperatures. Oxygen levels need to be
reduced to below 7 ppb to avoid serious carbon steel corrosion.

Fortunately, at high temperature, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water is

reduced so, by heating the water, we can remove unwanted oxygen. We generally
heat the water to 250°F to reduce the oxygen levels to very near zero. To perform
this task, we use a piece of equipment known as a deaerator.

Note that despite the elevated temperatures and the high levels of oxygen in the
deaerator, there is no corrosion in the deaerator. This is because the oxygen can
escape.

20
 Spray Type Deaerator

EDS-R00-1212

This is a spray type deaerator. It is common in smaller steam applications. Water is

sprayed from the top, creating very tiny droplets which improve heat and mass
transfer. As the water is heated by steam injected below the water, oxygen is
removed and vented out the top with a small amount of steam.

A new and properly functioning deaerator can remove oxygen down to 7 ppb.
However, the spray valves commonly plug or fail open and reduce the deaerator’s
effectiveness. After a brief period the performance degrades and the deaerator only
removes oxygen to the 20-70 ppb levels. Chemical treatment is thus required.

21
 Tray Deaerator

EDS-R00-1213

This type of deaerator is much more common in a refinery setting and is capable of
higher capacities and turndown. In this design, the steam contacts the water through
a series of trays, and the storage section is typically below the stripping section. A
typical size for the storage section is ten minutes of water capacity.

More recently, the spray and tray type deaerators have been combined to form a
spray-tray deaerator. This type generally maintains a better deaeration capacity as
time progresses. Both the tray and spray-tray deaerators will produce 7 ppb of
oxygen when new. The spray tray deaerator will generally degrade only to the 20-
30 ppb levels.

There are a few good ways to determine how well a deaerator is working. The
easiest way, although less accurate, is to take the temperature of the water in the
storage section and then compare that to the saturation temperature at the deaerator
pressure. The temperature should be within 2-3 Fahrenheit degrees of the saturation
temperature. Other, more elaborate, ways involve actually testing the dissolved
oxygen level using calorimetric vials or dissolved oxygen meters.

The amount of steam vented should be that required to remove the dissolved gases.
The 200 lb/hr shown above should be viewed as an upper limit. One rule of thumb
says that a two foot high steam plume gives good venting. The refinery can
combine dissolved oxygen testing with visual examination of the steam plume to
produce a curve that will be an easy guide.

22
 Deaerators

How much makeup water

and steam required?
Let:
m = lb/h Makeup Water
c = lb/h Condensate
v = lb/h Vent
s = lb/h Steam In
b = lb/h Boiler Feedwater

When performing a deaerator design for a boiler, you will know the steam
conditions, the amount of condensate returned, and the amount of boiler feed water
required. To determine the proper design of a deaerator, the treated water and steam
rates must be determined. This is calculated by using a combined heat and mass
balance. The equations are very similar to those for a desuperheater, except we
have several extra streams entering and leaving the deaerator.

The picture shown above is an actual operating deaerator. Note the vent of steam
out of the top of the deaerator.

23
 Deaerators

v
In = Out
m + c+ s = v +b
c
m m = v +b− c− s
s
m = 200 + 150,000 − 85,000 − s

m = 65,200 − s
b

If we look at the deaerator as a black box and perform a mass balance, we can
reduce the equation to where the mass of the make-up water is equal to 65,200 lb/h
minus the deaeration steam. In the field, you might know the reverse values and
need to determine the steam vented from the deaerator. Excessive steam lost to the
atmosphere is a waste of heat and treated water.

24
 Deaerators

„ Heat Balance
In = Out

m x h m + c x hc + s x hs = v x hv + b x h b

(65,200-s) x 38 + 85,000 x 188 + s x 1189 = 200 x 1164 + 150,000 x 219

s = 12,707 lb/h
m = 65,000 - s
= 52,293 lb/h

The heat balance looks similar to the mass balance. Since the conditions of steam,
make-up water, vented steam, boiler feedwater, and condensate are known, we also
know their enthalpies. Using the steam table and combining all of the information,
we find the steam rate is 12,707 lb/h and the make-up water rate is 52,293 lb/h.

Often, instead of determining the amount of make-up water, one needs to determine
the amounts of returned condensate and vented steam because make- up water and
boiler feedwater are typically metered. The same method of combining a heat and
mass balance applies. It might be necessary to estimate the steam vent using
equations of flow, or assume the flow is negligible for a first pass estimation. If the
size of the steam vent orifice is known, the amount of steam vented can be
calculated.

Deaerators need to be elevated to provide NPSH for the boiler feedwater pumps.
The water in the storage section is essentially at the saturation point and so
cavitation will occur if the deaerator is not elevated to give a pressure head.

There is usually only one deaerator for a new steam system. It is reliable enough
not to require a spare. When refineries are expanded, additional deaerators might be
added to supply extra capacity. Also, more than one deaerator might be required if
different types of treated water are produced.

25
 Boiler Feedwater Pumps

„ Purpose is to elevate water pressure to high level

„ If steam is generated at different pressure levels,

multiple sets of pumps are in order

„ Include a spare pump, and have different types of

drivers

The boiler feed water pressure must be sufficient to supply water to the steam drum
at design flow rates during relief conditions. There must be sufficient head to
overcome pressure drops in the economizer, heat exchangers, control valve, etc. as
well as static head. For a 600 psig steam system, a boiler feed water pressure of 800
to 900 psig is needed.

If steam is generated at both MP and HP levels, it is often economical to install two

sets of pumps. This way, the HP boiler feed water will not need to be let down by
about 600 psi to the MP level. The extra pumps are not justified if there is only a
small amount of MP steam being generated in boilers.

Boiler Feedwater pumps should be spared. Typically, there are two normally
operating and one spare. Of the three pumps, at least one should be driven by a
steam turbine to ensure steam system reliability. Backpressure turbines allow a
supply of steam to the nearby deaerator.

26
 Control Valves/Desuperheaters

4
3

TC

EDS-R00-1211

When turbines are not used to letdown steam, control valves are used. In this
example, we start with 600 psig, 750°F superheated steam and let it down to 150
psig, controlling the temperature at 400°F. If we did not add water to cool the
steam, it would cool at constant enthalpy to 707°F. This high temperature steam
increases the design requirements for all equipment using 150 psig steam, when the
saturation temperature of steam is only 366°F. It is likely that, if we required a
temperature above 366°F, we would have used higher pressure steam or a fired
heater so, in effect, we do not require the high temperature for heat transfer and, to
minimize equipment costs, we desuperheat the steam. Process reasons sometimes
require desuperheated steam. Steam to amine regenerators is often desuperheated to
prevent the accelerated breakdown of the amine.

Power boilers or waste heat steam generation boilers produce high pressure
superheated steam and also contain desuperheaters. These desuperheaters control
the temperature of the steam header. Why not get all the heat you can from the
boiler? The reason is that there are uncertainties in design of the boiler, and
conditions, such as firing rate and excess air, influence the steam temperature from
the superheater. We also control the temperature to protect downstream equipment
from excessive temperatures and provide a temperature basis for design. The heat is
not lost because the desuperheater is adiabatic.

27
 Control Valves

„ Temperature into
Desuperheater

600 psig, 750 oF h1= 1379.2 btu/lb

2
1

155 psig, ____ oF h2= 1379.2 btu/lb „ Assume an adiabatic

valve so h1= h2
„ Using a steam table or
a Mollier Diagram, T
= 707°F

To determine the amount of water required to desuperheat steam, we must perform

a simultaneous mass and energy balance. We know the inlet conditions of our
steam because it comes from the header. Although it is not necessary to know the
temperature of the outlet stem from the control, we can easily determine it by using
a steam table or Mollier Diagram. We assume the valve is adiabatic, so the
enthalpy of the steam in is equal to the enthalpy out. For this example, we have
assumed a pressure drop of 5 psi through the superheater device so we have 155
psig upstream of the desuperheater.

28
 Desuperheaters

VENTURI

Delta P = 5-10 psi

Turndown ~ 5:1 (steam flow)
Water Pressure = steam inlet psig

ATTEMPERATOR

Delta P = 0.1 psi

Turndown ~ 2:1 (steam flow)

There are several types of desuperheaters. Two of these are shown above. The
selection of the desuperheater depends on the application. Variables include
turndown ratio, pressure drop, cost, and temperature control. Ideally, the
desuperheater will have a high turndown ratio, a low pressure drop, a low cost, and
tight temperature control.

A listing of the more usual desuperheating types, along with their typical turndown
ratio and pressure drop ( the pressure drop is the steam pressure drop; the pressure
drop of the water will be higher), is shown below.

Delta P (psi) Turndown

Venturi 5-10 5:1
Attemperator 0.1 2:1
Variable Orifice 5 50:1
Surface Absorption High > 100-1
Steam Atomizer 0.1 50:1
Mechanical Spray 0.1 40:1

29
 Desuperheaters

„ Desuperheater water calculation

(Mass x Enthalpy)Steam out = ( Mass x Enthalpy)Steam in + (Mass x Enthalpy)Water in

MassSteam out = MassSteam in + MassWater in

Combining and Solving for MassWater in

MassWater in = MassSteam in (EnthalpySteam in − EnthalpySteam out)

(EnthalpySteam out − EnthalpyWater in)
= 50,000 lb/h (1379.2 Btu/lb − 1216.5 Btu/lb)
(1216.5 Btu/lb − 376.1 Btu/lb)
= 9680 lb/h

The equations to determine the amount of water required to cool the superheated
steam are shown in this slide. The first equation is the energy balance, and the
second is the mass balance. We combine these two equations and then solve for the
mass of the water in. We substitute our known conditions. We are controlling the
outlet temperature of the steam, so we know the conditions - all we have left is to
determine the mass flow of water.

Ideally, desuperheating water should be of the same quality of the steam, i.e. no
dissolved solids. Condensate is therefore the water of choice for desuperheating.
However, condensate pumps in the refinery do not provided the high pressures
required. Separate desuperheating water pumps are required if condensate is to be
used.

Since this involves extra expense, many refiners choose to use BFW as the
desuperheating water. This is generally acceptable if the TDS of the BFW is less
than 5 wppm, although condensate is still preferred. When BFW is used, oxygen
scavengers and amines should be injected downstream of the takeoff for the
desuperheating water.

30
 Steam Distribution

„ Header Systems
„ Pressure Levels
„ Letdown Stations
„ Safety Valve Protection
„ Steam Traps

Steam is distributed throughout the refinery in main steam headers. From these
headers, laterals go into each process block to supply the steam to the users. A
single header is provided for each pressure level of steam. Sparing of piping or
circuit type piping (as with firewater) is not required.

The pressure levels of the steam system can be dictated by either the generation side
or the use side. For example, low pressure steam is often set at about 50 psig since
the saturation temperature at that pressure is good for maintaining liquid sulfur at a
good viscosity. Flange rating can also be important. For 500°F steam, the steam
pressure can not exceed 170 psig in order to allow less costly 150 pound flanges.
Note these are design values, not normal operating values.

Letdown stations have already been discussed. They should be sized appropriately
preferably to supply maximum steam requirements at the lower pressure level. As a
minimum, they should provide normal steam usage requirements if the largest
supplier of steam is out of service.

Each steam header should be provided with over-pressure protection. If each steam
generator (a boiler, steam turbine, etc.) has its own safety valve, then the safety
valve need only be sized for letdown station capacity.

31
 Steam Traps

„ Applications
„ Different Types
– Inverted bucket
– Thermodynamic disc
– Thermostatic
„ Failure Rate and Loss
of Steam

An average refinery might have 10,000 steam traps. Surveys have shown that 20%
of these steam traps are in the failed open position at any given time. With proper
maintenance, this can be reduced to less than 5%. With each failed steam trap
venting 25-50 lbs of steam per day, there is a significant amount of steam loss. This
amount is in addition to the amount that the trap normally vents. A good steam trap
maintenance program will perhaps do more for refinery energy efficiency than any
other single action.

A strainer should be installed upstream of the steam trap to protect the trap against
dirt, scale, etc.

A well known supplier of steam traps is Armstrong International. They publish

various media to provide information on steam traps (and sell their product).

32
 Types of Turbines

„ Straight Non-Condensing

„ Straight Condensing

„ Extraction

„ Induction

„ Induction-Extraction

Typically, electric motors provide the cheapest and most reliable source of shaft
work. Turbines are often used when the service is extremely large, when the service
is critical, and when the electricity supply is unreliable. Turbines are also used as
required to balance the steam system. A driver study should be made at the
beginning of any major project to assure that the steam system will be balanced
when the plant is in operation.

When choosing the best turbine for an application, capital cost is generally the
limiting factor. If possible, we would want the most efficient turbine applicable for
the widest ranges of operation; unfortunately, having these options costs money.

In this section, various types of turbines, including straight non-condensing, straight

condensing, extraction, induction, and induction-extraction are reviewed. Each is
used for different reasons and also for different applications. The types of turbine
are presented in what is essentially their frequency of use.

The photograph above is a large, straight condensing turbine. Notice the size of the
turbine.

33
 Straight Non-Condensing
(AKA Backpressure)

EDS-R00-1203

Straight non-condensing turbines are usually the least expensive and usually the
least efficient. The turbines are used in all applications but, generally, since they are
inefficient and the least expensive type, they are used as spares for critical services
or are used when they fit well into the steam balance. Because they are not very
efficient, you find few back pressure turbines large load requirements.

This type of turbine can use either high pressure steam, discharging to either the
medium pressure steam or low pressure steam headers, or medium pressure steam,
discharging to the low pressure steam header.

34
 Straight Condensing

EDS-R00-1202

Straight condensing turbines are the most efficient type and are suitable for large
loads. These turbines are also the most expensive because the low pressure end of
these turbines must be very large to accommodate the partial vacuum conditions of
the steam.

The low pressure end must also be able to resist the pounding of any water droplets
or contaminants. Once the steam has exited the turbine, it must be condensed and,
at low pressure and high volumes, equipment sizes for the heat exchangers become
large and thus add to the capital cost. Large cooling water systems can also be
required.

35
 Extraction

EDS-R00-1204

Extraction turbines are similar in cost and use as the straight condensing turbine.
The extraction turbine, however, is flexible in that it allows removal of the steam at
a desired level. For example, a refiner may choose to generate steam at a high
pressure, say 1500 psig, to maximize fuel efficiency in the generation of electricity.
The refinery doesn't want to also install other boilers to supply refinery steam at 600
psig. The extraction turbine is able to capture work from the steam as it passes
through the turbine, and then remove steam as required to meet the refinery 600 psig
steam demand. Steam that is not required for the refinery continues on through the
rest of the turbine and is ultimately condensed. Extraction turbines can also be of
the back-pressure type.

Extraction turbines also provide a means of letting down steam from one pressure
level to another. This is a big advantage in efficiency if the only other method to
letdown steam is by using a control valve.

36
 Induction

EDS-R00-1205

The induction turbine is almost the opposite of the extraction turbine. It removes
steam from the refinery header system. Typically the induction turbine is more
expensive because the steam removed from the system is at a lower pressure. As
stated earlier, low pressure steam requires a large volume and thus increases the
capital costs of the low pressure end of the turbine and of the condenser.

The induction turbine is a good way to balance the steam system. If there is too
much medium pressure steam in the steam system, instead of letting down the steam
through a control valve, we can induct the steam into the turbine and thus create
more electricity (or minimize high pressure steam flow into the front of the turbine
if the shaft work is constant).

37
 Induction-Extraction

EDS-R00-1206

The induction-extraction turbine is the best of both the induction and the extraction
turbine. This diagram shows induction and extraction happening at the same steam
level. In a refinery, you would typically see extraction at a medium or higher
pressure, and then induction at the lower steam pressure. This maximized the
efficiency and flexibility of the steam system. The turbine itself loses some
efficiency because of the internal turbulence and obstructions created for induction
and extraction.

With most large turbines, the load is either an electric generator supplementing the
electrical system or a very large process service that is critical to the entire refinery
and has very small load changes.

38
 Heat Exchanger
1 Steam: 50 psig, 350°F

Reboiler Duty =
12.6 x 106Btu/h
„ Steam Consumption:
h1= 1207 Btu/lb @ 65 psia 350oF
h2= 267.6 Btu/lb @ 65 psia 298oF
(saturated liquid)
Steam rate = Duty/(∆h)
= 12.6 x 106/(1207-267.6)
Saturated Liquid = 13,413 lb/h
2 @ 50psig
(to condensate)

EDS-R00-1210

This is an example of how to calculate the steam rate of a steam heated exchanger.
The process duty has been given to use in this example. It should be noted the the
process side of this exchanger cannot rise above 350°F, otherwise heat transfer
would not occur. Using this fact, designers often increase the design pressure of
fractionation columns so they “pinch-out” and can reduce the size or eliminate relief
valves.

It is important to note that heat exchangers get their heat at constant temperature as
the steam is condensed. Also, almost all of the heat is latent heat. While there may
be some superheat in the steam, the percent of duty supplied by sensible heat is very
small.

There are many types of heat exchangers. The most prominent type is the shell and
tube heat exchange, but U-tube, double pipe, shell and plate, etc., exchangers also
play their role.

Another “type” of heat exchanger is steam tracing. The steam tracing system can be
the largest steam user in the refinery.

39
 Process Users

„ Safety
– Snuffing
„ Process
– Stripping
– Wet gas scrubber
„ Other
– Soot blowing
– Flare smoke control

The main users of steam in a process unit are probably heat exchangers and steam
turbines. Beyond this, steam is used in many processes for many different reasons.
Perhaps the common thread in these uses is that the steam is not turned into clean
condensate. It is either vented to atmosphere or is contaminated by sulfur.

40
 Condensate Recovery and Supply

„ Why Recover Condensate

„ Clean Condensate vs. Dirty
„ Ways to Collect Condensate
– Directly
– With a pump
„ Steam Condensers
„ Condensate Supply

Condensate has value in its heat content, its high quality (it has essentially no
dissolved solids), and its water content. Where water is expensive, there is a much
higher incentive to capture condensate.

Condensate should be recovered only if there is no oil contamination. Condensate

from steam turbines is inherently clean. Condensate from heat exchangers where
the steam pressure is greater than the oil temperature should also be clean.
Condensate from heat exchangers where the steam pressure is less than the oil
pressure is potentially dirty, that is the condensate will be contaminated if the

If condensate is at a high enough pressure, it may be returned directly to the storage

tank or the deaerator taking care to assure it is cool enough for the end point. Two
phase flow should be taken into account. Low pressure condensate may need to be
flashed in a drum, and then pumped back to the tank.

When there is an excess of low pressure steam, a steam condenser may be

warranted. The air cooled condenser should be justified economically by
comparing the cost of the condenser and the operating power requirements against
the cost of larger water treatment facilities and the value of water.

Condensate should have its own storage tank and set of pumps to supply it to the
refinery users.

41
 Extraction Turbine

EDS-R00-1208

It is possible for a multi-stage turbine to have extraction ports where steam is

removed from the turbine at the the pressure desired. This makes the turbine
somewhat less efficient than a multi-stage condensing turbine alone, but it allows
steam to be let down to lower pressures without losing the potential to perform
work.

42
 Typical Extraction Turbine
Performance Curve

EDS-R00-1240

As with the multi-stage turbine, we have an example of a turbine performance curve

that a vendor may provide. In this example, it is a multi-stage condensing turbine
with the option of extracting steam. The turbine runs at a constant load that is
typically set by a generator, and then steam is extracted to meet any process steam
demands. If we assume a constant load of 15000 kW and extract zero pounds of
steam, all the steam passing through the turbine is condensed. In the other extreme
case when a large fraction of the inlet steam is extracted, the turbine acts more like a
back pressure non-condensing turbine and very little steam is condensed.

43
 Use of Extraction Turbine for Efficient
Steam Header Balance

EDS-R00-1209

This diagram is a simplified steam system, and shows how an extraction turbine is
used to efficiently balance the low pressure steam header. For this example, we will
assume the load on the turbine is an electric generator at a constant power
production.
In case A, the spare turbines using expanding MP steam to LP steam are turned off
reducing LP steam production by 25000 lb/h. At the same time, process units
generate steam at 50000 lb/h. The heat exchanger duty remains at 80000 lb/h hour.
In order to maintain the LP steam header pressure, 30000 lb/h of steam is extracted
from the turbine.
Case B has the process unit shut down and steam is not produced. Even more steam
must be extracted to meet the 80000 lb/h heat exchanger steam demand. Notice the
steam to the condenser is also reduced, but not reduced in the amount equal to that
of the extracted steam increase. The extraction steam increased by 50000 lb/h and
the condensed steam reduced by 30,000lb/h. This is because the section of the
turbine before the extraction point produces more power per pound of steam. You
should expect this since steam expanding from 600 psig to 50 psig releases more
energy than 50 psig to 1.5 psia. However, since less steam is passing through the
whole turbine, to maintain a constant power generation, the total steam to the
turbine was increased by 20000 lb/h.
Case C shows the flexibility of an extraction turbine. The extraction rate is reduced
to 5000 lb/h; however, the steam condensed has increased to 70000 lb/h. Building
operational flexibility requires sizing exchangers for excess capacity especially
when Case A is normal operation.

44
 Energy Integration

„ Heat Exchange
„ Use of Low Temperature Heat
„ Heat Cascading
„ Air Preheat
„ Topping Cycles and Bottoming Cycles
„ Hot Oil Systems

The fundamental principle behind heat recovery is simple: capture waste heat and
transfer it to a place where it can be 1) reused as space heat, or 2) vented to reduce
equipment overheating possibility. Heat is exhausted by the equipment and is in
turn captured in a ducting system and forced to another place using extraction fans
and damper controls. By introducing a water or air cooling system similar to an
aftercooler, heat can be recovered and used to heat hot water which, in turn, can be
used as process heat, space heat, or simply hot water for washing and cleaning.

There are many different instances and configurations for heat recovery. We will
see a number of examples in the following slides.

45
 Integration for Heat Recovery

EDS-R00-1280

A familiar example is the use of additional heat exchanger surface between process
streams, preferably between interconnected steams; for example, reactor effluent
versus feed or fractionator product versus feed. The quantity of heat exchanged is
limited by any number of constraints, such as capital cost and increased pressure
drop, which raises operating costs of pumps and compressors, and reduced
flexibility and control of the process.

After a practical limit has been reached on heat exchanged between coupled or
interconnected streams, large quantities of heat may still be rejected to the
atmosphere in some systems, while other unassociated processes and offsite systems
require heat input at the useable level that is being lost. There are two choices. One
is to integrate or couple the systems together directly by running long lengths of
process piping, and the other is to use an independent vehicle such as steam
generated from the waste heat to move the recoverable heat to where it is needed.

The above example is for transferring heat from a condensing vapor to a vaporizing
liquid, as would happen in a steam reboiler. Most process heat exchangers would
probably be of the liquid to liquid type.

46
 Integration for Heat Recovery

EDS-R00-1242

There are advantages and disadvantages to these choices. For example, use of steam
requires two sets of exchangers that, in the case of equal heat transfer coefficients,
means a minimum of four times the surface area is required. When the temperatures
of the source and sink are close together, it may be impractical to use a heat transfer
fluid because the two temperature differentials become so small. The main
advantage offered by using a heat transfer fluid is unit operability. The heat source
and sink are indirectly connected by steam, water, or a hot oil system that, together
with a backup system, should be able to accommodate the shutdowns, process
changes, and turndowns that could upset directly coupled steams in unassociated
units. A heat transfer fluid scheme also facilitates distribution of heat collected
from many small sources to larger sinks.

Some compromise must be made between integration and operability. Heat

integration has been an old standard practice with Fluid Catalytic Cracking and Gas
concentration units. Circulating oil stream are used to transfer heat from the main
column, at a wide range of temperature, to the gas concentration unit where the heat
is used in strippers and fractionators.

Heat integration must be handled with care. There must be some handle so that
required processing conditions are controllable. This control is either a demand for
outside heat, or a rejection of heat from the units that can swing with process
changes.

47
 Series Integration Without
Heat Exchange

EDS-R00-1243

A different type of integration involves two process units in series, where the
product from one unit becomes the feed to the other. A common example is a
naphtha hydrotreating integrated with a UOP Platforming process unit, where the
hydrotreating naphtha is fractionated to obtain the required initial boiling point for
the platforming unit feed. The splitter column bottoms product is the feed to the
Platforming unit reactor section. Close attention to the degree of exchange between
splitter column bottoms and feed is required for maximum economy.

If the fresh feed to the Platforming reactor section is high and there is not a feed
bottoms exchanger, the temperature to the reactor products condenser will be high.
This means that more heat must be rejected to the atmosphere in the reactor
products condenser. Since it is desirable to reduce the temperature of the reactor
effluent to products condenser, it is necessary to increase the heat exchanged
between the splitter column bottoms and the feed. This not only requires additional
surface in the splitter feed-bottoms exchanger, but also more surface in the
Platforming reactor feed-effluent exchanger to compensate for the colder feed
temperature. This, in turn, could increase gas compressor capital cost as well as add
to the cost of compression of the recycle gas. The consequence of increasing the
splitter feed-bottoms heat exchange is to effect a fuel savings by reducing the
splitter reboiler duty.

48
 Series Integration With Heat Exchanger

EDS-R00-1244

Too much feed preheat can have a detrimental effect on fractionation performance
of the splitter column which can be restored only by increasing reflux. Obviously, a
balance must be found for the right amount of feed-bottoms exchange.

Careful consideration of capital cost, energy consumption, and controllability must

be made before the most efficient and profitable way is chosen to connect the two
units.

49
 Propylene-Propane Separation
Conventional Fractionation System

EDS-R00-1245

There are many instances in the process industry where large quantities of heat at a
temperature too low to be useful is rejected to the atmosphere. Much attention has
been given to the potential for heat pumping, or raising the temperature of waste
heat to a useable level. UOP has designed fractionation facilities to separate
propane-propylene mixtures where a heat pump was used, and a comparison with a
conventional fractionation system is interesting.

A conventional fraction scheme for splitting propane-propylene is shown above.

The temperature of the cooling medium available (cooling water or air) has set the
minimum allowable pressure to run the column so that the overhead product can be
condensed. This fixes the top and bottom temperatures and the relative volatility,
from which the reflux rate and number of trays is calculated.

50
 Propylene-Propane Separation
Refrigerated Condenser

EDS-R00-1246

If a colder heat sink were available, the column pressure could be reduced, which
results in an increase in the relative volatility and a reduction in the reflux rate and
number of trays. A refrigerated column scheme is shown above.

The operating pressure has been lowered from 1800kPa to 620 kPa (90 psia), the
reflux ratio is reduced from 9 to 6.5, and the number of trays reduced from 216 to
170.

51
 Propylene-Propane Separation
Classic Heat Pump

EDS-R00-1247

This scheme shows a classical heat pump scheme, where the overhead vapors are
compressed to a pressure where the propylene bubble point temperature exceeds the
temperature in the reboiler.

The operating condition of the column is the same as for the refrigerated condenser
case, but a considerable reduction in energy consumption has been achieved.

52
 Propylene-Propane Separation
“Reverse” Heat Pump

EDS-R00-1248

It is possible to design a reverse heat pump system as shown above. Here the
propane product is flashed to a lower pressure, where its dew point temperature is
lower than the bubble point temperature of the overhead vapor and is used as the
condensing medium.

The vaporized propane, after compression, supplies heat to the column. For the case
selected, this scheme shows lower power consumption than the classical heat pump
case.

53
 Comparison of Propylene-Propane
Separation Schemes

Classical Reverse
Conventional Heat Pump Heat Pump
ENERGY INPUT: 102 MW 7570 kW 7385 kW
(347.9 MM Btu/h) (10 150 hp) (9900 hp)
At 54°C (130°F)

The table summarizes the energy savings between the various schemes presented in
the last few slides. At first glance, the reverse heat pump requires the lowest
amount of utilities, but one must consider each case based on the situation. For
example, if a low pressure steam system or source of low level heat were available,
the conventional scheme may be viable.

The energy analysis must be related to what "crosses the fence". If the compressor
is motor driven, 7,750 kW can be added to the purchased electricity, which is
equivalent to about $1.8 MM/per year where power costs 3c per kW. If the reboiler
heat requirement is to be supplied by firing fuel directly in a heater, the fuel cost
would be about $6.5 MM per year where fuel costs $2/GJ. However, 54°C (130°F)
is rather a low temperature to use a fired reboiler heater. In many places throughout
the refinery, heat is rejected to the environment at temperatures greater than the
required 54°C (130°F). There may be condensing steam turbine duties that could be
switched to back pressure stream turbines exhausting at near atmospheric pressure
that would provide less expensive heat. It is impossible to say which scheme is
superior in a general sense. Each application must be considered within the
constraints and environment of a specific installation. The energy consumption and
costs are related to what "crosses the fence".

54
 Fractionation Column Integration

EDS-R00-1281

Besides compression, there are other methods available to increase the temperature
of waste heat. Perhaps the simplest way is to produce waste heat at a higher
temperature. Heat cascading distillation uses the latent heat of the fractionator
overhead vapor to reboil other associated columns in a fractionation train. In the
above example, we have three columns to reboil.

As currently shown, the column temperature is too close to use one of the process
streams to reboil or condense the others. However, we can raise the bubble point of
the overhead vapor by increasing the pressure of one of the columns. This,
unfortunately, lowers the relative volatility of the column, which means that more
reflux and trays are required. This, in turn, raises the reboiler duty. The benefit is
the other lower pressure columns are reboiled by condensing the overhead vapor
from the higher pressure column as shown in the next slide.

55
 Fractionation Column Integration

EDS-R00-1249

We have increased the pressure of the column with the duty of 67.22 MW, and
increased the duty to 102.8 MW. The overhead of the column has increased from
152ºF to 243ºF, which is now hot enough to provide thermal driving force for heat
transfer.

Steam is generated as waste heat when the cascaded reboiler duties are smaller than
the overhead condensing duty. The steam generator also provides a sink to reject
heat and maintain the heat cascade system in control.

This type of system has been demonstrated commercially by UOP in several

aromatic complexes. In general, the xylene splitter overhead vapors were used to
reboil two columns in the UOP Parex Process unit. Although particularly suited
well for aromatics processing, this technique or its variants could give significant
savings in many applications and, in fact, has shown consistently better economics
than heat pumping schemes when fractionating higher boiling materials.

56
 Economic Advantages of Fractionator
Heating Cascading

CONVENTIONAL HEAT CASCADE

CASE CASE
Total Fuel Fired MW 149.15 102.80
6
(10 Btu/h) (508.9) (350.7)
Steam Generated Kg/h 15100
(lb/h) (33400)
Fuel Saved in One Peta Joules 1.33
12
8000 h/a (10 Btu) (1.26)
Dollar Savings Due To Direct MM Per Year 2.66
Reduction in Fuel Use
6
Dollar Credit For Steam 10 /a 0.76
Generation
Total Dollar Savings of Heat Cascade
6
Integration Over Conventional Scheme: $3.42 x 10 /a
6
Estimated Erected Cost Differential $4.2 x 10 /a

This slide summarizes the economic advantages of the cascaded heat. The
difference between the total fuel combusted is 46 MW less than the conventional
method and waste heat in the form of steam is generated. Are there any cases
when the conventional method would be used over the heat cascaded system?

Recall, we had a special case where the temperatures of the columns were all very
close and part of a distillation train. By elevating the temperature of the largest
column, we we able to cascade the heat. If the columns must operate independently
of each other, the conventional reboilers might fit better into the processing scheme.

We also assumed the steam generated has a user and a positive value. If the steam
generated was useless, the scheme still uses less fuel and might be used however the
heat might be rejected in a cooler.

57
 Effect of Air Preheating on Heater Efficiency

EDS-R00-1250

The single largest consumption of energy in refineries is the combustion of fuel in

process heaters to transfer heat directly to process streams. Since combustion is
simply another chemical reaction, it would make sense to look closely at the
combustion of fuel with the same techniques employed for process units.

A first law, or waste heat analysis, of a fired heater usually compares heater
performance by defining a combustion efficiency:

% Eff. = Process Duty x 100 / ∆H of fuel used at 15ºC (60ºF )

Given complete combustion, the most important parameter affecting heater
efficiency is the temperature of the flue gas leaving the heat absorbing section. This
temperature is limited by the inlet temperature of the coldest fluid being heated or by
the dew point of the flue gas. If the fuel is low in sulfur, and if the primary fluid has
a high heater inlet temperature, a secondary fluid requiring heat at a lower
temperature can be used to lower the stack gas temperature. The secondary fluid can
be another process fluid, steam, boiler feed water, or the ambient temperature
combustion air.

Adding an air preheater is the most direct way to lower the fuel firing in process
heaters. Air preheaters improve efficiency without tying together unassociated
process streams or using the steam system. Also, generating steam at pressures
lower than the boiler plant pressure is not as efficient as using an air preheater. An
air preheater of any type requires a forced draft fan. This liability ( if a forced draft
fan was not already included) can be turned into an asset by providing positive flow
control of the combustion air for maximum efficiency.

58
 Comparison of Furnace Efficiency With
and Without an Air Preheating System

Without Air With Air

Operating Factor Preheat System Preheat System
Absorbed duty, million Btu/h 83 83
Ambient air (temperature) 80°F, 26.7°C 80°F, 26.7°C
Air to furnace (temperature) 80°F, 26.7°C 660°F, 349°C
Gas to air heater (temperature) 815°F, 435°C
Gas leaving air heater (temperature) 319°F, ≈160°C
Gas to stack (temperature) 815°F, 435°C 291°F, ≈ 143°C
Excess air, percent 30 15
Furnace efficiency, percent 75.7 90.2
(lower heating value) (lower heating value)

Million BTU/h fired 109.6 92.0

This is a detailed example of system in which air preheating is applied. The

absorbed duty and inlet air temperature remain constant. The amount of excess air
is reduced when fans are used because it provides a direct means of controlling the
combustion air.

The result is a tighter control on the amount of air and preheated air. The next two
slides that follow itemize the benefit in percentage point improvement in efficiency
by reducing the excess air and by preheating the air. The total percentage point
increase in efficiency in the above example was 14.5.

Note here that the furnace duty is 83 MMBTU/hr. Air preheaters are typically
economical only when the furnace duty is beyond 40 to 70 MMBTU/hr. With small
duties, you still save fuel, but the return on investment will be small.

59
 EDS-R00-1268

In the previous example, before adding the preheat system, the furnace used 30%
excess air. Compared to operating at the 10% excess air reference point, the furnace
is giving up 2.86 percentage points of efficiency. When the air is reduced to 15%,
as is the case with the air preheat system, we now only give up 0.65 percentage
points of efficiency compared to the 10% excess air reference.

If we take the difference between the 2.86 and 0.65, we find an improvement of 2.21
percentage points increase in efficiency. This 2.21 percentage point increase is the
direct result of reducing the amount of excess air. The contribution of preheating
the combustion air is shown on the following page.

60
 Approximate Improvement in Efficiency When
Heated Combustion Air is Used in Boiler Units

EDS-R00-1265

Recall that the total increase in efficiency by adding the air preheat package was
14.5 percentage points. Approximately 2.2 of those points were the result of
reducing the excess air. The contribution of preheating the air should be nearly 12.3
percentage points as determined by these charts.

The initial combustion air temperature was 80°F (26.7°C), and finding this point on
the graph by extrapolating the line, we can assume a fuel savings of zero percentage
points. Because the stack gas temperature is 815°F (435°C), we are able to preheat
the air up to 660°F (349°C). Again, we must extrapolate the line to the 660°F mark
on graph. Note that we have an approximate 12.3 percentage point decrease in fuel
use, which is a 12.3 percentage point increase in efficiency.

Air preheat is a very effective way to directly improve the efficiency of a fire heater.
However, there are some limitations that must be considered when designing an air
preheater.

61
 Limiting Tube-Metal Temperatures to Avoid
External Corrosion in Economizers or Air
Heaters When Burning Fuels Containing Sulfur

EDS-R00-1264

Often the amount of sulfur in the stack gas creates a lower limit on the temperature
of the outlet stack gas. As mentioned earlier, we want to keep the stack gas above
the acid dew point, otherwise the preheat system is subjected to a corrosive
environment.

This graph shows that a furnace using fuels low in sulfur can cool the stack gas
temperatures further than when using high sulfur fuels. You may have heard of the
term “cold end corrosion.” Cold end corrosion occurs when the colder inlet air
cools the hot stack gas below its acid dew point, usually at the inlet to the air
preheater. This is especially a problem in colder climates. To protect against this
problem, low pressure steam heating coils are used to preheat the combustion air
before the stack gas heat exchange. There is some loss in heat transfer efficiency
because of the hotter air entering the preheater but, with an extra surface area, the
same quantity of heat is absorbed.

62
 Air Preheater Application

EDS-R00-1220

The above slide is a schematic example of an air preheater application. The preheat
system includes a forced draft fan to supply the combustion air to the burners, and
the induced draft fan pulls the combustion stack gas from the furnace through the
heater and to the stack.

The induced draft fan is placed after the preheater to minimize the temperature
design requirements. In this example, the furnace fire box operates under positive
pressure. Furnaces are designed to operate if the forced draft or induced draft fan
fails by installing a full size stack capable of creating the draft required for
operation.

There are many types of air preheaters. The two main classes include the
recuperative and regenerative air heaters. In a recuperative heater, heat is
transferred continuously through stationary solid heat transfer surfaces. The most
common is probably the tubular air heater. With this, the hot flue gases pass
through the tubes while the cold air passes over the tubes. Plate and frame heaters
are also used as are heat pipes.

With regenerative heaters, heat is transferred indirectly as a heat storage medium is

alternatively exposed to hot and cold flow streams. The most common type consists
of a cylindrical shell with many radial plates. The shell is rotated slowly by a drive
motor, allowing the plates to be warmed by the flue gas and then cooled by the air.
The ducting for the air and flue gas are stationary.

63
 Producing Work as a Byproduct
in the Transfer of Heat
(1370- 1650°C)

(260- 538°C)

(-18 - 38°C)
EDS-R00-1216

Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of heat and work. As we will see, this
is generally thought of as the production of electrical power and steam. It can also
be thought of as the concept of producing work, as a by-product, whenever the
principal concern is the transfer of heat through large temperature differentials.

Although the combustion efficiency of a conventional furnace is high, the

thermodynamic efficiency is low. This is because of the transfer of heat from the
hot flame at 1400-1600°C (2500-3000°F) to a process fluid at relatively low
temperatures 260-540°C (500-1000°F). The high potential of the flame is lost
through the irreversible process of heat transfer. The concept of cogeneration
employs a heat engine to transfer heat from the flame to work on the process.

For a topping cycle, the heat engine utilizes the high temperature potential of the
flame as the heat source and the process fluid as the heat sink. For a bottoming
cycle, the process fluid is the high temperature heat source and the environment is
the low temperature heat sink.

64
 Topping
Cycles

EDS-R00-1251

In a topping cycle, the heat engine operates between the high temperature flame and
the process fluid. The heat engine is a gas turbine, diesel engine, or steam turbine as
shown above. For the steam turbine, the process fluid will be at a relatively cold
temperature.

65
 Bottoming Cycle

EDS-R00-1252

In the bottoming cycle, the heat engine operates between the process fluid and the
low temperature atmospheric sink as shown above (in the upper part of the
drawing). In this example, low pressure steam has been employed in a power cycle.
Other fluids might also be used. Since the heat may be lower level heat, the
resulting steam may be low pressure.

Those familiar with low pressure piping know that it can be quite large. As a result,
the practical matters of using the bottoming cycle depends on the temperatures of
the process fluid, which affect the ultimate size and equipment selection of the
power recover system.

66
 Processing System
with Topping and Bottoming Cycles

EDS-R00-1253

When these new elements are incorporated, the processing system takes on a new
appearance as shown above. In modern refineries, this is the typical layout.
Electrical power generation not only improves the thermal efficiency of the refinery,
but provides a reliable power source when local power systems are unstable.

In the United States, most refineries were originally built without topping cycles
because the electrical distribution system was reliable and because electrical
distribution was regulated. With the introduction of laws such as PURPA, that
required utility companies to purchase power from cogenerators, and the current
deregulation of electrical utility system, topping cycles have become and will
continue to become more popular in U.S. refineries.

The refiners will also find that, as the general public's demand for electrical power
increases, the current distribution systems become more and more inadequate,
particularly in the summer. Refineries can see large profits by providing electric
power to themselves and to the public.

67
 Simple Cycle Gas Turbine

EDS-R00-1257

Here we see a topping cycle with a simple cycle gas turbine that rejects the exhaust
gas to heat a process fluid. In this case, the gas turbine drives an electrical
generator. Gas turbines can also be used to drive large compressors.

This case uses considerably more fuel than the conventional heater without air
preheat because large amounts of excess air are required to drive the turbine. This
fuel is converted into electrical power, however, so that the overall efficiency is
improved.

An air preheater can not be used in this system. Preheating the air upstream of the
gas turbine's compressor decreases the efficiency of the turbine cycle and reduces
overall mass flow through the turbine.

68
 Simple Cycle Gas Turbine
with Auxiliary Heat Recovery

EDS-R00-1258

The stack gases in the previous example were still hot. They can be used to supply
some lower temperature heat to a different fluid. If the stack gas is cooled from
340°C (644°F) to 150°C (302°F), then 32.9 MW (112.38 MM Btu/h) will be made
available for exchange. So by adding extra heat recovery equipment, the overall
efficiency of the system increases.

In this example, we see the flue gas heating BFW before going to a steam generator
at some other location. Medium pressure steam could also be produced.
Superheated high pressure steam could not be produced because the gas temperature
is below the normal temperature of the HP steam (which is typically 750°F).

69
 Refired Gas Turbine

EDS-R00-1259

Shown above is another adaptation of the base simple cycle gas turbine. As
mentioned the gas turbine uses large amounts of excess air. This air can be used as
combustion air in a furnace to produce more heat. This refiring, sometimes call
auxiliary firing or supplemental firing, can be very efficient. For steam generators
downstream of the turbine, efficiencies of greater than 100% are common.

The gas turbine is based loaded to a point that ensures adequate oxygen availability
for the auxiliary fuel to freely swing to maintain process control. This scheme
easily accommodates the condition of continuing operation even when the turbine is
down for maintenance. A forced draft fan would probably be required.

70
 FCC Unit with Power Generation

EDS-R00-1261

An application of a bottoming cycle that has been quite successful is the power
recovery unit on a Fluid Catalytic Cracking unit. The FCC regenerator can be
thought of as the front half of a gas turbine. Air is compressed and used to burn off
the coke deposited on the catalyst. The complete combustion of the coke raises the
flue gas temperature well over 650°C (1200°F) and the hot gas is discharged from
the regenerator.

The flue gas is at such a high temperature leaving the regenerator that the recovery
of this heat, usually with steam generation, is almost universally practiced. The
steam generated is then used to drive rotating equipment such as the air blower and
the wet gas compressor. The amount of work that can be produced depends upon
the pressure and temperature of the steam. The thermodynamic efficiency of the
process is greatly improved by employing a hot gas expander ahead of the heat
recovery equipment. The expander produces sufficient shaft work to drive the air
blower thus completing the gas turbine cycle.

71
 Hot Oil System

EDS-R00-1254

We end our discussion on heat integration with a brief discussion of a hot oil
system. One central furnace supplies heat to a circulating organic liquid that
supplies the various process heat requirements to the individual exchangers.

The hot oil functions much like steam. The hot oil is generated in a single 'boiler'
and is then piped throughout the process units as required. Its advantage over steam
is its ability to provide high temperature heat (up to ~ 700°F). For steam to heat at
this temperature, the pressure would need to be over 2,000 psig (assuming that the
steam would heat using its latent heat at its saturation temperature and not sensible
heat).

In the above example, the process absorption rate is set at 36.6 MW (125 MM
Btu/h), and the circulating liquid picks up 7.3 MW (25 MM Btu/h) from waste heat
sources. The heater must supply 29.3 MW (100 MM Btu/h) to heat the oil from
260-340°C (500 to 644°F).

A commonly used hot oil is Dowtherm G, made by Dow Chemical.

72
 Cogeneration

„ What is Cogeneration?

„ Gas Turbines

„ Heat Recovery Steam Generators

„ Software

We will be discussing cogeneration, gas turbines, heat recovery steam generators

(HRSGs) and software in the next few slides.

73
 What is Cogeneration

„ Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of work

and heat
„ In common usage, cogeneration is thought of as the
simultaneous production of electricity (work) and
steam (heat)
– Is typically done with a gas turbine generator (GTG)
and a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)
„ But, cogeneration can be found elsewhere

Gas turbines have come a long way in the last 20 years. The materials of
construction, particularly for the turbine blades, have improved such that the gas
temperatures are much higher. The higher gas temperatures allow for higher
efficiencies through lower heat input rate.

General Electric, the leading GTG manufacturer, publishes the "GE Turbine State of
the Art Technology Seminar." It is an excellent source on the latest in gas turbine
technology

As we have seen, cogeneration facilities can include gas turbines with tail end
process furnaces. Other examples include:

• power plants that use regular boilers but that use backpressure turbines instead
of condensing turbines so that they can export their steam

• a diesel generator that exhausts heat to a building's heating system

74
 CO-GENERATION LAYOUT

Gas turbine generators (GTG's) and heat-recovery steam generators (HRSG's) can
now be found in virtually every chemical plant and now in many refineries. They
can be operated in either the cogeneration mode or the combined-cycle mode. In
the cogeneration mode, steam produced from the HRSG is mainly used for process
applications, whereas in the combined-cycle mode, power is generated via a steam
turbine generator.

Gas turbines have several advantages as a power source. The following are some
key advantages:

• Started up very quickly

• Power outputs can range from 1 MW to 300 MW
• Relatively easy to assemble and erect
• Efficiencies of 25% to 35% for the simple cycle itself
• Require little cooling water compared to steam condensers

The above diagram shows a typical co-generation plant layout.

In the combined-cycle mode, the power generating efficiency of the combined gas
turbine and HRSG system can be as high as 60% on the LHV basis. In the
cogeneration mode, system thermal efficiency can be 80% (or more).

75
 GAS TURBINE

The above photo is a cut-away view of a gas turbine. The gas turbine is essentially
a jet engine. There are two main types of gas turbines, aeroderivatives and
industrial turbines. The industrial turbines are more robust, with stronger materials
that provide longer lifespans. The aeroderivatives are essentially ground based jet
engines. They are light weight which allows them to have greater efficiency.
Utility companies like to purchase used jet engines to generate peak loads. Long
life spans are not as critical. For most refinery applications, however, industrial
turbines should be used.

The gas turbine is an air breathing engine that responds to the mass flow entering its
compressor. For constant speed units, the gas turbine output will generally vary in
proportion to the inlet air temperature (density). The gas turbine output may be
enhanced at high ambient temperatures and low humidity levels by application of an
evaporative cooler. This system decreases the compressor inlet temperature by the
chilling effect of evaporating water introduced into the inlet air flow upstream of the
compressor.

76
 GAS TURBINE
BLADES

Burning heavy ash fuels has occurred on numerous machines in Saudi Arabia. For
example, at one plant, 16 Frame 7E machines have run continuously on crude at a
firing temperature of 1740°F (949°C) for the past twenty years. The fuel, light
Arabian crude, has 10 to 30 ppm vanadium. It is washed on site and a magnesium
additive is introduced. Turbine base heating is normal, and the units start and stop
on the crude fuel.

The above photo shows the gas turbine blades. Note how they get larger as the gas
expands

77
The above is the fuel combustor which reduces nitrogen oxide (NOx) and carbon
monoxide. These are often called “cans”. There might be 10-12 cans around the
circumference of the gas turbine's combustion section.

The multiple nozzles will enter into operation as needed based on gas turbine load.
At full speed no load conditions ( i.e. when the gas turbine is running but not
producing any power), perhaps a third of the nozzles will be used. Control valves
regulate the flow of fuel to the nozzles.

78
 GAS TURBINE MAINTENANCE

Maintenance is a large part of gas turbine design. The rotor design is a bolted
construction made up of forged compressor and turbine wheels, distance pieces,
spacers, and stub shafts. The most critical component in this rotor are the turbine
wheels, because of the combined conditions of elevated temperatures, and the
requirement for strength and toughness.

Further, unlike the aircraft gas turbine, these 4 wheels are of very large diameter and
sectional thickness. For this reason, extensive use of steel wheels has been made in
heavy-duty gas turbine design.

79
 WATER INJECTION
TO CONTROL NOx

Water injection is an effective way to reduce NOx exhaust emissions. There are two
areas of caution in the design of this system which must be considered. First is the
dynamic effect that water injection has on the combustion zone in terms of flame
stability and dynamic pressures. Inadequate design could adversely affect hardware
life. Also, the rate of CO emissions increases with the rate of water injection. It is
also not effective in reducing organic NOx emissions and may actually contribute to
it.

The characteristics of gas turbine emissions must be considered for each application,
since each is unique to the turbine, installation, fuel, and operation. All of these
factors are important in matching the gas turbine to the job.

Steam can also be injected to control NOx. Further large amounts of steam can be
injected to augment power generation. A gas turbine has its highest generating
capacity in the winter when the air is cold and dense. In the summer, the air is warm
and not as dense so that the turbine's mass throughput is reduced. Steam makes up
for the mass deficit to keep power loads constant. Steam injection can also be used
in winter, up to the turbines power limitations which are usually dictated by the shaft
thickness.

Steam injection is an alternative to the evaporative cooler discussed earlier. One

nice feature about steam injection is that the cold climate refinery does not have as
large of a steam load in the summer so that steam is available.

80
 Heat Recovery Steam Generators

„ Essentially, a high efficiency utility boiler

„ Forced draft fan is the GTG

„ Supplemental firing

The HRSG can be a major part of the steam system. In many locations, HRSG
steam represents the majority of the utility steam production.

The HRSG generates steam from energy in the exhaust of the gas turbine. The
exhaust is hot enough, usually, to generate refinery HP steam. Additional HP steam
can be made with supplemental firing. A set of burners is placed in the ducting
between the GTG and the HRSG to fire the GTG's excess air.

In most places, the GTG and the HRSG are operated as a single train. Some plants
have the capability of producing steam when the gas turbine is shutdown. This is
done using a separate forced-draft fan along with a burner to generate hot gases,
which are then used to generate steam. An isolating damper system(by-pass
damper) with seal air fans is required in these units to ensure that hot gases do not
leak to the fan when the gas turbine is running and that maintenance can be
performed on the gas turbine when the fresh air is operating.

Other plants have the capability of running the GTG when the HRSG is out of
service. Similar damper systems are required, with either extra ducting or a
separate stack. Steam generators are subject to downtime due to local inspection or
mechanical problems like tube failures.

If power generation or steam generation is a necessity, serious thought should be

given to adding the extra equipment described.

81
 Finned Tubes of LP Superheater Elements in HRSG

Extended surfaces such as the finned tubes of LP superheater elements in HRSG are
widely used. They are also used in other superheaters, evaporators, and
economizer. The reason is the large surface area required in these systems as a
result of the low pinch and approach points and the low log mean temperature
differences at the various heating surfaces. Extended surfaces make the HRSG
design very compact.

Lower gas pressure drops can be achieved with extended surfaces than with bare
tubes. For evaporators and economizers with clean gas streams, such as exhaust
from natural gas fired gas turbines, fin densities of 5 fins per inch are recommended.
Fin heights can vary from 0.5 inches to one inch. The fin thickness is typically from
0.05 inches to 0.075 inches. A low fin density is recommended for superheaters due
to their low tube side heat transfer coefficient.

82
Today, most plants utilize some type of software package either for the
planning/design and/or the operation of a cogeneration plant. The above example
shows a cogeneration plant operated at a university. The key components are
shown on the screen. Usually, the key flowrates, pressures, and temperatures are
shown. If more detailed information is required, separate screens can be brought up
for flow rates as well as temperatures.

This cogeneration system is producing high pressure, medium pressure, and low
pressure steam. The generation of steam at two or three pressure levels increases
overall efficiency but increases total installed cost and operating complexity. Most
refinery based HRSG's produce steam at only a single pressure level.

GTPro/GTMaster is an example of a software package for the planning/basic design

of a cogeneration plant. It is a powerful tool, with the capability to model
essentially every gas turbine on the market.

83
 GAS TURBINE
FOUNDATION

COMPLETED HRSG
FOUNDATION

The above photograph shows the gas turbine foundation in the background and the
completed HRSG foundation in the foreground.

84
 STEEL CHIMNEY
SECTIONS

STACK FOUNDATION

The above photos show the stack foundation and the steel chimney sections which
will be mounted on the stack foundation.

Air flow and combustion gases in steam generating units require a supply of proper
amounts of combustion air and to remove the gaseous combustion products. This
flow, confined to ducts, boiler settings, heat exchangers, flues, and stacks is created
and sustained by stacks and fans. Either the stack alone or a combination of stack
and fans must produce the required pressure differential for the flow. Draft is
designed static pressure in a furnace, air or gas passage, or stack. There are four
categories of draft:

Forced Draft - By use of a force draft fan

Induced Draft - By the use of an induced draft fan

Balanced Draft - Point in the system when the draft is zero

Natural Draft - A pressure differential caused by gravity. In this case, a difference

in density between the hot gas in the stack and the colder air of the surrounding
atmosphere results in a negative pressure, or natural draft at the stack entrance.

85
The above diagram is a power generation facility. This facility produces power
from both a gas turbine, HRSG, and boiler/steam turbine production. The #6 fuel
oil is being used for the boiler, while the gas turbine is utilizing natural gas from a
pipe line.
Boilers hang from reinforced steel joists in the boiler house which are like big
hollow boxes. The boiler house is 220m long, 60m high, and 55m wide. The boiler
walls are formed by 51 kilometers of 6.25cm bore tubing. Inside these tubes,
extremely pure water is converted by heat into steam at high pressure. The steam is
then super-heated to 568°C. A modern 500 MW boiler can consume over 200 tons
of coal per hour and is capable of delivering 1,522,727 kgs of steam per hour at a
pressure of 1967 x 10-4 Pascal's.
To transfer large quantities of steam from the boiler to the turbine, the steam must
travel at very high speeds (200-300 Km/hr). In case of problems, the steam flow
must be halted immediately. This is done by placing a valve close to the turbine.
The valve's hydraulic systems ensure that it can close in a fraction of a second,
ensuring that the turbine does not over speed.
As temperatures rise and fall, the pipes expand and contract and, therefore, cannot
be too solidly enclosed. To allow expansion, pipes must be shaped so that internal
stresses do not cause buckling. This can be done by providing loops in the pipe.
The amount by which a pipe expands depends on its length. A 100m pipe, having
its temperature increased by 500°C would expand by approximately 0.5 meter
(1/200th of its length).

86
 Energy Benchmarking

Energy systems is one of the most important subjects to a refinery. This section
includes a description of a refinery steam system, actual determination of steam
turbine efficiency of both a single-stage and multi-stage turbine, thermal analysis of
major energy equipment, energy optimization and determining the cost of fuel and
steam.

Electricity is mostly produced in power stations, using large generators usually

powered by steam. The steam is raised by burning coal, oil, and gas or from the
heat of nuclear reactions. Some generators are driven by gas turbines or diesel
engines, others by water and wind power. A generator is a machine which produces
electricity from mechanical energy when a magnet is turned inside a fixed coil of
wire. In a power station, the generator used is a powerful electromagnet (a rotor)
which is turned inside a “coil” of copper bars (a stator).

The generator is turned by the turbine, the blades of which are driven by jets of
steam provided by a boiler. After passing through the turbine, the steam is
condensed (turned into water) by passing it over pipes of cold water in the
condensers. The condensed steam (water) is pumped back to the boiler to be turned
back into steam. The water for the condenser comes from a river or the sea and is
cooled in cooling towers pumped directly back to source without cooling.

87
 How is Process Energy Benchmarked ?

„ Benchmarking is typically done using an “Energy

Index” (or EI).
„ It is a numerical number that indicates the overall
efficiency of a site relative to a standard.
„ The basic formula is….

Actual Energy Consumed

--------------------------------------- x 100 =
EI
Benchmark Energy - Calculated

„ Gives numbers in the range of 80 - 120 for typical

refineries.

It is key to design for energy efficiency during the early stages of a project.
Benchmarking is typically done using an energy index. It is a numerical number
that indicates the overall efficiency of a site relative to a standard. Most refineries
fall within a range of 80-120.

88
 How is an Energy Index Calculated ?

„ Basic Formula AcutalEnergyConsumed , MMBTU / h *100 = EI

BenchmarkEnergy, MMBTU / h

„ Actual Energy Consumed (MMBTU/h) = Sum of the following...

– Energy of
– Natural Gas Import (MMBTU/hr basis)
– Refinery Fuel Gas and FO Burned (MMBTU/hr
basis)
– Imported Electricity (MMBTU/hr basis)
– Energy of Other Fuels Burned (MMBTU/h basis)
(includes FCC Coke, Refinery Fuel Oil, etc.)
– Any Imported Energy (steam)

The energy index is calculated by adding the energy of natural gas import, refinery
fuel gas and fuel oil burned, imported electricity and other fuel burned such as FCC
Coke, Refinery Fuel Oil, etc.

89
 How is EI Calculated ?

„ Basic Formula AcutalEnergyConsumed , MMBTU / h *100 = EII

BenchmarkEnergy, MMBTU / h

„ Benchmark Energy (MMBTU/h) = Sum of the following…

BenchmarkEnergy = ∑ FeedRate * Pr ocessFactor

All Pr ocessUnits

The above formulas should be used to calculate the EI for either a process unit or
for the whole refinery.

90
 How is EII Calculated ?

Benchmark Energy = ∑ Feed Rate * Pr ocess Factor

All Pr ocessUnits

Process Unit Process Energy

„ Each Process has its
own “Process Factor” Crude 200
Vacuum 55 Units =
„ Multiply “Process Reformer 1 200 kBTU/
Factor * Actual charge Reformer 2 100 bbl
NHDS 40
rate and sum the Coker 190
answers. DHDS 40
H2 Plant 80
Hydrocracker 330
Sulfur 30
Utilities & Offsites 80

The following table shows standard energy for a number of process units. This
chart shows that the hydrocracker uses about six times the amount of energy that a
vacuum unit uses per barrel of feed to the unit.

91
 Overall Energy Index

Energy of all Utilities Consumed, MMBTU/hr

----------------------------------------------------------- x 100 = EI
∑ (FeedRate* Pr ocessFactor) , MMBTU/hr
All Pr ocessUnits

The overall energy index is calculated by summing all of the process energy factors
multiplied by the feed rate.

92
 Industry Standards for Energy Indices
Solomon Energy Intensity Index “EII”

„ Solomon EII is a worldwide accepted metric for a

refinery’s energy efficiency
„ Intent of these indices is to have a consistent basis
for comparison Energy Performance between
refineries
„ Refinery-wide basis
„ Cost Focused over Energy Focused
„ Based on data over the past 25 years

Solomon EII is the worldwide accepted metric for a refinery’s energy efficiency.
The intent of these indices is to have a consistent basis for comparison energy
performance between refineries.

93
 Can an EI be Calculated
On a Per Unit Basis?
„ Yes (Note that for comparisons it is generally less accurate
than site wide EI, but still useful.)
„ Use the same basic equation
– (Actual Energy / Benchmark Energy) *100
AcutalEnergyConsumed (unit ), MMBTU / h
*100 = EI (unit )
BenchmarkEnergy (unit ), MMBTU / h

– Actual Energy = (Fuel + Elec + STEAM ) used in the unit

– Steam is considered unlike site wide EI
– Use a Fuel equivalent basis
– Benchmark Energy = Process Factor (kBTU/bbl) * Feedrate

EI can also be calculated on a per unit basis as shown above.

94
 Example – Diesel Hydrotreater

„ Basic Equation
AcutalEnergyConsumed (unit ), MMBTU / h
*100 = EII (unit )
BenchmarkEnergy (unit ), MMBTU / h

„ Actual Energy Consumed

– 1448 kW Elec*(.00909 MMBTU/kWh) +
– 1.34 MLB Steam/hr * (1.21 MMBTU/MLB) +
– 46.6 MSCF Ref FG/hr *1.208 MMBTU/MSCF = 71.1 MMBTU/h
„ Benchmark Energy
– 997 bbls Feed/hr * .085 MMBTU/bbl = 84.7 MMBTU/h
„ EI (Diesel Hydrotreater)
– (71.1/84.7)*100 = 83.9

This is an example of a diesel hydrotreater. Since the EI is 83.9 the unit is running
very good since 100 is considered the standard.

95
 Benchmark Energy per Unit

Energy Consum ed per Process (estimates)

Benchm ark Actual

1000

800
Total Energy, MMBTU/hr

600

400

200

Utilities
Hydrogen Plt**
Crude Unit

Vacuum Unit

NHDS

Sulfur Plant
DHDS
Reformer #1

Reformer #2

Hydrocracker

Coker**
Light Ends

Calciner
Unit**

„ Sum units to get total Energy Benchmark

The above chart shows the benchmarked energy to the actual energy consumed in a
number of process units. The red is the benchmarked energy and the blue bar is the
actual energy.

96
 What Type of Things will Impact EI ?

„ Any change in the plant that directly or indirectly reduces

the Fuel or Electric or Steam / bbl of Feed will reduce EI.
„ Examples of issues that can raise EI
– Operating at low capacities
– Fouled Heat Exchangers
– Over Refluxing Columns
– Recycling products
– High heater O2’s
– Improper turndown
– Excessive Fluctuation in feedrates.
– Poor Controls
– Cold Transfers
– Low efficiency equipment

The above are examples of issues that can raise EI.

97
 Estimating the Cost of Steam and Power

„ Basis
– Relate the cost of fuel to the use of fuel
in generating steam and electricity
– Steam generation at 610 psig, 700°F
– Fuel oil = $23.00/bbl
– Gross heating value = 150,000 Btu/gal
– Boiler efficiency = 0.85 (Gross)
– Boiler feedwater temperature = 250°F

A recurring theme when conserving energy is that energy conservation costs capital.
To justify the capital, a refiner must know their utility costs. It is easy to know the
cost when the utilities are purchased from an outside provider. Electricity is the
most common utility purchased, but refineries typically produce their own steam,
cooling water, instrument air, etc.

When performing energy audits and studies, we must determine the costs of
internally generated electricity and steam (as well as other utilities, but here we
focus only on steam and power), and use these costs as the economic drivers for
energy conservation. The following slides makeup an example that can be applied
to your site, allowing you to determine your steam and power costs.

98
 Boiler Duty

h of steam = 1349 Btu/lb

h of BFW = 218
∆h = 1131 Btu/lb steam = Boiler Duty
for 1000 lb Steam:
Boiler Duty = 1,130,000 Btu/1000 lb Steam

EDS-R00-1228

To determine the cost of generating steam, we require the amount of energy

required to convert boiler feed water into steam. This is generated from the
properties found in the steam tables.

99
 Estimating the Cost of Steam and Power

„ Fuel Fired

Duty/Efficiency = (1,130,000 Btu/1000 lb) ÷ 0.85

= 1,330,000 Btu Fuel/1000 lb Steam

„ Cost of Fuel

$23/bbl x (bbl/42 gal) x (gal/150,000 Btu) = $3.65/106 Btu Fuel

We know that we cannot transfer 100% of the energy of combustion to the boiler
feed water, so we must adjust the energy requirement based on the efficiency of the
boiler. There are several ways the efficiency of the boiler is determined. Be sure
you are using the efficiency that determines the amount of fuel per pound of steam
generated. Some efficiencies may be sited as total boiler efficiencies that include
energy expended for forced draft or induced draft fans that may use steam turbines
as their drivers.

The cost of fuel is typically the purchase price for the fuel on a lower combustion
heat basis. If the fuel being used is not purchased, often an equivalent heating value
is determined based on the local market and the cost of fuel in that local market.
Alternatively, the fuel cost can be set equal to the sales price of the refinery
produced fuel being burned in the boiler that would have otherwise been sold on the
world-wide market.

The difference between lower heating value (net) and higher heating value (gross)
of the fuel should be taken into account. In this example, the difference is taken into
account in the boiler efficiency.

100
 Estimating the Cost of Steam and Power

„ Cost of High Pressure Steam

1,330,000 Btu Fuel/1000 lb Steam x $3.65/1,000,000 Btu Fuel

= $4.85/1000 lb Steam(High Pressure)

From the fuel required and its cost to produce the steam, an incremental cost for
high pressure steam is determined. This cost does not consider raw water treatment,
pumping, and any capitalized costs.

This method only determines the fuel component to the steam cost. A more detailed
incremental cost could be determined if the pumping and treating costs were known.
These costs typically are around 10-25% of the total steam cost.

101
 Estimating the Cost of Steam and Power

„ Cost of Electricity
– Assume steam turbine generators
– Average air temperature = 80°F
– Average condensing temperature = 125°F @
3.95 inHga
– Turbine exhaust = 4.2 inHga

The next step is to determine the cost of electricity. Assume that a steam turbine
generator with an air temperature of 80°F and a condensing temperature of 125°F is
being used for this refinery.

102
 Estimating the Cost of Steam and Power

„ Theoretical Steam Rate

600 psig, 700°F, → 4.2inHga = 7.95 lb Steam/kWh

„ Actual Steam Rate

(7.95 lb steam)/kWh ÷ 0.76 (overall turbine efficiency)

= 10.5 lbs steam/kWh

Cost of electricity = 10.5 lb steam/kWh x $4.85/1000 lb steam

= $0.051/kWh

First, determine the theoretical steam rate. The efficiency of the turbine is then used
to adjust the theoretical steam rate to that of the actual steam rate. It would be
possible to determine these directly from the instrumentation in the field, but it is
good engineering practice to check the values with an alternate method.

We have ignored the cost of cooling water and other associated utilities. The refiner
should, however, reflect all utility costs in determining the cost of power.

In this example, we calculate the cost of power assuming that the power is generated
on site with condensing steam turbines. Obviously, the cost of power is known if it
is purchased from an outside source. If power is generated on site with gas turbines
or some other driver, the equations will be different.

103
 Cost of 50 psig Steam if Extracted
or Let Down in a Multistage Turbine

„ Theoretical Steam Rate

600 psig, 700°F → 55 psig = 16.6 lb/kWh

„ Actual Steam Rate

16.6 lb kWh
= 24.8 lb kWh
0.67

If we produce low pressure steam by letting it down through a turbine, the cost of
steam is actually less than high pressure steam because we were able to extract work
from the steam, instead of using electricity. As done previously, the theoretical
steam rate is determined and, from the efficiency, the actual steam rate is found.

Note that here we use a lower efficiency. While the efficiency difference is
probably not exact, it reflects qualitatively that condensing turbines are more
efficient than backpressure turbines and that the very large turbines used to make
electricity are more efficient than the smaller turbines used in the process portions
of the refinery.

104
 Cost of 50 psig Steam is Extracted
or Let Down in a Multistage Turbine

„ Work Recovered as Electricity (or Equivalent

Shaft Work) per 1000 lb Steam

1000 lb Steam
= 40.3 kWh
24.8 lb kWh

From the actual steam rate, the energy extracted in kWh per unit of steam
(1000lb/h) is determined. In the above example, extracting steam at 55 psig for a 50
psig header from a 67% efficient turbine starting at 600 psig produces 40.3 kWh of
electricity or shaft work per 1000 pounds of steam.

105
 Cost of 50 psig Steam is Extracted
or Let Down in a Multistage Turbine

„ True cost of 50 psig steam from turbine exhaust

– For 1000 lb of steam

Cost of high pressure steam = $4.85

Electricity (or shaft work) recovered:

$0.051
x 40.3 kWh = ($2.06 )
kWh

True cost of 50 psig steam = $4.85 - $2.06

= $2.79/1000 lb 50 psig steam

The cost of high pressure steam and electricity is known. Using these the values,
the work extracted is determined. The reason for the electricity comparison is, if
steam were not available, we would have used electricity as the energy source for
the shaft work.

So, for an equivalent amount of shaft work, there is $2.06 worth of electricity saved
per 1000lb of extracted steam. This $2.06/1000lb is then subtracted from the cost of
high pressure steam to determine the value of low pressure steam at 50 psig. This
analysis can be repeated for all the steam pressures in the refinery.

106
 Annual Utility Costs

„ 1000 lbs/h High Pressure Steam

$4.85 8760 h 1000 lb
× × = $42,486 per year
1000 lb Year HR

„ 1000 lbs/h Low Pressure Steam

$2.79 8760 h 1000 lb
× × = $24 ,440 per year
1000 lb Year h

„ 1 kw Electricity
$0.051 8760 h
× = $447 per year
kWh Year

The cost of using one cost unit of utility for one year, assuming 8760 hours per year
is shown above. At first glance, it looks as though electricity is extremely
inexpensive compared to steam.

However, if steam is used as a condensing service to heat a process, for each 1000
pound of high pressure steam condensed, 1.083 MM Btu (0.273 MMkcal) of energy
is transferred. To transfer the same amount of heat using electricity required 317.4
kWh. The result is electricity used for heating for one year costs $141,876 per year.

107
 Appendix 1

Energy Efficiency Checklist

108
 Energy Efficiency

„ Checklists for Thermal Efficiency

„ Checklists for Process/Electrical Energy Conservation
„ Checklist for Fuel and Product Energy Conservation
„ Estimating the Cost of Steam and Power

109
 Energy Efficiency Checklist
for Thermal Energy Conversion

„ Increase Fired Heater

Efficiency
– Preheat combustion air
– Generate steam
– Design for less excess air
– Use combustion analyzers

In this section, we will discuss an energy efficiency checklist for thermal energy
conservation. The list provides ideas and areas for you to focus on energy
conservation in your particular plant.

The above photograph shows the convection section of a fired-heater.

110
 Energy Efficiency Checklist
for Thermal Energy Conversion

„ Recover Additional Waste Heat

– Generate steam
– Use closer heat-exchange approach temperature
– Drive absorption refrigeration system
– Integrate larger heat train groups

Another way to recover additional waste heat is to generate steam instead of air
cooling the stream. By integrating large heat train groups together, such as the
crude and vacuum unit, the refiner can increase thermal energy efficiency.

Before integrating, the refiner needs to look at startup and shut down scenarios very
closely. Additional equipment may be needed for startup.

111
 Energy Efficiency Checklist
for Thermal Energy Conversion

„ Consider Applications for Gas Turbines With

Heat Recovery
– For large gas compressor drives
– For high horsepower pump drives

„ Increase Steam Generation Efficiency

– Consider use of reheat cycles
– Generate steam at higher-pressure level

As discussed previously, cogeneration should also be considered. Cogeneration is

using gas turbines and heat recovery steam generators for large users or to generate
electricity for the refinery. As shown, cogeneration is much more efficient than
using steam turbine drives alone.

112
 Energy Efficiency Checklist
for Thermal Energy Conversion
„ Reduce Heat Losses From Equipment
– Increase vessel and piping insulation
thickness
– Improve quality of applied insulation
– Insulate more storage tanks
– Insulate flanges and valves
– Optimize steam tracing design
– Maintain steam traps
„ Improve Building Energy Conservation
– Reduce heating/cooling loads
– Integrate building with plant

Additional ways to reduce heat loss from equipment are practical ones. For
example, increasing the piping and vessel insulation thickness reduces heat loss.
When designing storage tanks, the decision to insulate and not to insulate depends
on the cost of the installation and the cost of the steam to heat the storage tank. But,
if trying to maximize thermal efficiency, insulating the last few tanks may be
necessary.

Many times the heating and cooling of buildings is a big energy consumer. We often
overlook building as a source of energy savings. A very real source of saving can
be found by designing buildings to conserve energy. If possible, try to integrate the
heating and cooling system with excess heat in a refinery.

One interesting story from UOP is that the administration Building A at the Des
Plaines campus is heated only by electric heat. Management wanted to save energy
and decided to have the lights throughout the building turned off at night. It was
discovered that no real energy saving occurred because the heat generated from the
lighting system supplied heat for the building in the winter months. Building
systems are complex and should not be overlooked, or thought of too simplistically.

113
 Cost Evaluation of Tank Insulation

Side 2-inch 3-inch 4-inch 5-inch

Roof 2-inch 2-inch 2-inch 2-inch

Heat loss from side, 106 Btu/hr

At -20ºF (-28.9ºC), 90 h/a 1.063 0.732 0.559 0.427
At 50ºF (10ºC), 4000 h/a 0.928 0.651 0.490 0.375
At 85ºF (29.4ºC), 4670 h/a 0.852 0.589 0.450 0.344
Heat loss from roof, million Btu/a
At -20ºF (-28.4ºC), 90 h/a 0.591 0.580 0.573 0.566
At 50ºF (10ºC), 4000 h/a 0.500 0.495 0.490 0.485
At 85ºF (29.4ºC), 4670 h/a 0.418 0.416 0.444 0.442
Total still air heat loss, 106 Btu 11,932 9,496 8,197 7,200
Heat loss at 10 miles/h wind 12,767 9,876 8,525 7,637
Installed insulation cost $125,000 $130,500 $136,000 $142,500
Two year fuel cost at $2/106 Btu 73,000 57,000 49,000 44,000
Total two year cost $198,000 $187,500 $185,500 $186,500

One method of conserving energy, which is often assumed or overlooked, is

insulation. Insulation for its very name saves energy. However, because we live in
an economically driven society, we have limitations on how much insulation is
practical.

There is a balance between cost of insulation and the cost of energy. This tank
example shows that 4 inches of insulation on the sides of the tank and 2 inches of
insulation on the top of the tank minimize the total cost.

Deciding whether to insulate or not is the simple question. It is more difficult to

determine how much insulation is economically optimum. To determine this, you
must know the local labor costs, material costs, and fuel costs.

114
 Energy Efficiency Checklist for Process
and Electric Energy Conservation
„ Recover Potential Energy
From Process
– With hydraulic turbines
– With gas expansion
turbines
„ Use More Efficient Rotating
Machinery
– Pumps
– Compressors
– Steam turbines
– Gas turbines
– Electric motors

Using more efficient rotating equipment can reduce the overall power requirements.
This relates to pumps, compressors, steam turbines, gas turbines, and electric
motors.

There have been a number of articles written recently regarding high efficiency
electric motors. The high efficiency motors may be 5 to 10 percentage points more
efficient. If operated full time, these motors have a payback period of about two
years. Additionally, the motors have a much longer life.

115
 Energy Efficiency Checklist for Process
and Electric Energy Conservation

„ Optimize Power Utilization for Process Cooling

– Use air coolers where temperature permits
– Consider two-speed motors for fan drives
– Minimize cooling water circulation
— Use maximum allowable outlet cooling
water temperature
— Consider reuse of cooling water

While reducing cooling water circulation rates will save energy, the refiner needs to
be aware that heat exchanger minimum velocity requirements and maximum
cooling water temperatures must still be met.

If a certain heat exchanger heats cooling water from only, say, 90°F to 100°F, then
the cooling water still has about 20 Fahrenheit degrees of cooling ability left. Use
this water to cool another process service. The second process service will need to
be one that does not need to be cooled to as low a temperature.

116
 Energy Efficiency Checklist for Process
and Electric Energy Conservation

„ Minimize Electrical Distribution

Losses
– Consider optimization of system
power factor
– Optimize plant lighting system
„ Increase Steam Utilization
Efficiency
– Use more efficient steam drives
– Minimize amount of letdown
steam

Minimizing electrical distribution losses can be substantial in electrical system

design. Using a more efficient lighting system can reduce total electrical needs in a
refinery. Increasing steam utilization by a more efficient turbine (such as a
multistage rather than a single stage) can increase efficiency. The above photo is a
13.8 kV high voltage switch gear.

117
 Energy Efficiency Checklist for Process
and Electric Energy Conservation

„ Reduce Losses with Properly

Designed Instrumentation
Systems
– Police pressure-drop basis
used for sizing
— Control valves
— Orifice meters
– Consider use of an annular
averaging element in place
of orifices
„ Reduce Instrument Air
Consumption

Not allowing more pressure drop in the lines will make the refinery more energy
efficient. As discussed in a separate section, reducing instrument air consumption is
an easy way to increase energy conservation.

118
 Energy Efficiency Checklist for Fuel
and Product Energy Conservation

„ Fuel/Products Conservation
– Reduce product losses with proper instrumentation
— Maintain product quality with process analyzers
— Use feedforward and adaptive control systems
— Use relief valve isolators and protectors

The above shows how to reduce product losses with proper instrumentation. This
includes using on-line analyzers which may be IR. Also, feed forward controls may
result in less reblending of products which will ultimately save energy.

119
 Energy Efficiency Checklist for Fuel
and Product Energy Conservation

„ Fuel/Products Conservation
– Use floating-roof tanks
more extensively
— Recover storage tank
breathing losses
— Recover relief valve
discharges
— Recover loading-
station vent losses
– Maximize slop oil recovery
in treating facilities

As discussed in the tankage seminar, using floating roof tanks can save a lot of
product. This savings is due to the fact that the emissions are about 95% less than in
a cone roof tank.

120
 Energy Efficiency Checklist for Fuel
and Product Energy Conservation

„ Environmental Systems
– Optimize pollution abatement
process design
— Sour water strippers
— Tail gas treating units
— Waste water treating facilities
– Monitor overall energy
conservation during preparation
of environmental impact reports

The above photo shows a sour water stripper.

UOP has many processes which will optimize pollution abatement design.
Monitoring overall energy conversation will help reduce environmental discharges
from the refinery.

121
 Appendix 2

Pumps and Compressors

122
Pumps and Turbines

„ Pump Calculations

„ Turbine Steam Requirements

„ Selection of Turbine

123
 Pump Horsepower

„ Pump Rated Brake Horsepower (rated bhp)

rated bhp = gpm x ∆P(psi) / (1714 x efficiency)

rated kW = m3/h x ∆P(kg/cm2) / (36.71 x efficiency)

„ Pump Normal Brake Horsepower (norm bhp)

norm bhp = rated bhp x [(norm gpm + design gpm)/(2 x

design gpm)]

Note: This is a good approximation for

estimating purposes.

The above slide is a review of how to calculate the brake horsepower of a pump
given the flow rate, pressure rise, and pump efficiency.

To get a normal brake horsepower from rated brake horsepower, the above equation
is a good method for approximation.

124
 Pump Horsepower

„ Pump and Single Stage

Turbine Example

Pump: Rated flow = 433 gpm (98.33 m3/h)

Normal flow = 325 gpm (73.81 m3/h)
Makeup
Delta Pressure = 259.1 psi (18.22 kg/cm2)

Efficiency = 72 %

In this example, water is being pumped from the treated water tank to a deaerator at
the other side of the refinery. Using pump data sheets, you can determine the
efficiency of the pump at the flowing conditions. In this case, assume the efficiency
is 72%, and the differential remains constant, independent of the flow rate.

Note that the ∆P here is not typical for the service, but is contrived to get a 100 HP
load for the turbine example to follow.

125
 Review of Pump Calculation

„ Pump for Single Stage

Turbine Example

rated bhp = gpm x ∆P(psi)/ (1714 x efficiency)

= 433 x 259.17/(1714 x 0.72)
Makeup rated bhp = 90.9 hp (67.8 kW)

norm bhp = rated bhp ( normgpm+ design gpm)/(2 x design gpm)

= 90.9 x (325 + 433)/(2 x 433)
norm bhp = 79.6 hp (59.4 kW)

Substituting our flow rate and pressure rise for the pump, calculate the rate and normal
brake horsepower requirements.

The expression below is the previous equation substituting the values for normal and
rated flows. This equation approximates a pump curve when one is not available.

norm bhp = rated bhp x [(norm gpm + design gpm)/ (2 x design gpm)]

90.9 x (325 + 433)/(2 x 433)

If we were selecting a motor driver, we would do so as follows:

1) Take the pump's rated bhp and add ten percent to get the minimum motor size.
2) Round the result up to the next available motor size.

The power usage is then

Power Usage = ( Rated bhp / Motor η) x 0.746 kw/hp

126
 Turbine-Pump System
540 psia (37.97 kg/cm2 a)
600 oF ( 316 oC)
Pump:
Rated:
Turbine:* 90.0 hp (67.1 kW) @ 3600 rpm
Turbine Pump
Rated: 433 gpm (98.3 m3/h)
100.0 hp (74.6 kW) @ 3600 rpm Normal:
____lb/h 79.6 hp (59.4 kW) @ 3600 rpm
Normal: 325 gpm (73.8 m3/h)
79.6 hp (59.4 kW) @ 3600 rpm
____lb/h
65 psia (4.53 kg/cm2 a)
____oF

*Note: It is good practice to size the turbine (or motor) for 10%
more load than expected (90.9 x 1.1 = 100hp).
EDS-R00-1207

This schematic shows the turbine coupled to the pump. Shown are the steam header
conditions. The reason the steam outlet temperature is unknown is that the outlet
temperature of a turbine is related to its efficiency.

The ultimate goal is to determine how much steam is required at rated and normal
operation. By performing these calculations, the outlet steam temperature will also
be known.

127
 Simplified Steam Rate Calculation for
Single Stage Turbines

(The steam rate determined from these calculations

is a quick approximation, accurate to within + 5 pct.
It is based on Elliott turbines, but is representative
of other vendor turbines.)

„ Step 1 - Determine steam properties

„ Step 2 - Determine theoretical steam rate (TSR)
„ Step 3 - Determine base steam rate (use curves
based on TSR, turbine speed, and turbine type)

The method of using vendors curves is accurate and useful when the curves are
available. Often these curves are not available and other methods can be used. The
Cameron Hydraulic Data Book, Section 5, is a good source for approximate turbine
efficiencies. The Gas Processors Suppliers Association Engineering Data Book,
Section 15, also has good information.

Single stage turbines are regularly available up to 2500 HP. Above the 800 to 1000
HP level, however, a multistage turbine is usually more economical.

128
 Simplified Steam Rate Calculation for
Single Stage Turbines

„ Step 4 - Determine the horsepower loss (use curves

based on turbine speed, exhaust pressure and
turbine type
„ Step 5 - Determine the superheat correction factor
[use curve knowing superheat (ºF) and TSR]
„ Step 6 - Determine corrected steam rate

Corrected Steam Rate =

 Base Steam Rate   ( hp + hp loss ) 
  
 Superheat Correction Factor   hp 

Step 5 corrects the steam rate base on the amount of superheat in the steam.

Step 6 determines the corrected steam rate based on the base steam rate and the
superheat correction factor as well as the horsepower and horsepower losses.

129
 Step 1: Steam Properties

„ Inlet Conditions
540 psia, 600°F: h1= 1295.7 Btu/lb, s = 1.5485 Btu/lb °F
„ Outlet Conditions
65 psia, °F: h2 = ______, s = 1.5485 Btu/lb °F
(Although not shown, units for enthalpy are in Btu/lb and for entropy are Btu/lb °F)

In two phase region of Mollier Diagram:

Saturated liquid: h = 267.63, s = 0.4344
Saturated vapor: h = 1179.1, s = 1.6375
„ By Interpolation
h2 = 1111.67 s = 1.5485

Step 1 requires knowledge of the inlet and outlet conditions. The inlet steam is
coming from the steam header; therefore, the temperature and pressure are known.
Using a steam table or Mollier Diagram, the enthalpy and entropy are determined.
On the outlet side, we only know the steam pressure.

The assumption of isentropic expansion helps determine the theoretical path the
steam takes and is used to determine the theoretical outlet enthalpy. We note that
the actual turbine does not produce an isentropic expansion and so the above outlet
conditions only represent the ideal case.

Assuming isentropic expansion, we have theoretically started to condense some of

the steam to water and, as a result, we are in the two phase region as shown on a
Mollier Diagram. This allows us to introduce the concept of steam quality.

130
 Outlet Steam Quality

„ Percent Moisture
– Let L be weight fraction liquid

h2 = L x hsat. liquid + (1- L) x hsat.vapor

1111.7 = L x 267.63 + (1-L) x 1179.1

L = 0.074

Vapor Fraction = 1 - 0.074

= 0.926

Because the theoretical steam path ends in the two phase region, it is possible to
calculate the theoretical amount of liquid and vapor in order to avoid water
condensing in the low pressure end of the turbine. Water droplets act like rocks
when traveling through turbine blades. Significant blade damage can occur.

In a condensing turbine, droplets are almost always formed (hence the name). A
maximum of perhaps 10% liquid is acceptable. On backpressure type turbines, a
maximum of perhaps 1-2% liquid is necessary, although preferably no water will
results. The steam turbine can be equipped with moisture separators to remove
droplets. Moisture is usually a problem with only multi-stage turbines.

131
 Step 2: Determine TSR

„ Theoretical Maximum Work Recoverable

∆h = 1295.7 - 1111.67
= 184.03 Btu/lb steam

„ Theoretical Steam Rate (TSR)

Using the conversion 1 kW= 3413 Btu/h

TSR = (3413 Btu/kWh)/(184.03 Btu/lb steam)

= 18.55 lb steam/kWh

The theoretical steam rate (TSR) is determined by taking the enthalpy difference
between the starting and end points. Often we compare the amount of steam
required to the electricity demand, and have pounds of steam per kilowatt hour aid
is the comparison.

Theoretical steam tables have been published. Their use saves some calculations
time.

132
 Step 3: Determine BSR from TSR
Using Vendor Curves
„ Base Steam Rate (BSR) @ 3600 r/min

BSR AYR-14”= 47 lb/hph

BSR DYR-28”= 28 lb/hph

The base steam rate (BSR) is then determined by reading the vendor curves as
shown on the next slide. We are looking at two different turbine wheels to examine
the differences and then select the optimal wheel.

The above drawing is a picture of a low pressure turbine shaft.

133
 Base Steam Rates

AYR-14” Wheel
70
Theoretical Steam Rate (LB/KW-HR)

5000 4000 3000 RPM 2000

60
1750
50

40 6000

30

20

10
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Base Steam Rate, LB/HP-HR

EDS-R00-1284

Start at the theoretical steam rate of 18.55 lb/kWh and read across the graph until
the 3600 rpm point is reached. Interpolation between 4000 and 3000 rpm is
required but, after doing this and reading down, the base steam rate is
approximately 47 lb/hp-h.

134
 Base Steam Rates

DYR-28” Wheel
70
Theoretical Steam Rate (LB/KW-HR)

3000 2000 RPM

1750
60

50

40
4000

30
5000
20
6000
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Base Steam Rate, LB/HP-HR

EDS-R00-1271

The same is done with this slide, taking 18.55 lb/kWh, reading across and
interpolating between 4000 and 3000 rpm, then reading down to 28 lb/hph.

Why is there a difference between the two? A 14 inch wheel required 47 lb/hph and
the 28 inch wheel required 28 lb/hph. Based on the steam rates, the 28 inch wheel is
more efficient (66% as a base); however, as we will see, it has greater losses.

135
 Step 4: Determine Horsepower Loss
Using Vendor Curves
„ Horsepower Loss

Loss AYR-14”= 2.2 hp

Loss DYR-28”= 40 hp

Next, the losses associated with the turbine are determined using vendor curves.

The above drawing is an inspection of a multi-stage turbine. Note this is much

larger than 100 Hp!

136
 Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1273

Using the back pressure of 50 psig (65psia), the horsepower loss is determined to be
2.2 hp. The losses include internal bearing resistance due to friction, but a large part
is windage caused by the turbine spinning against the internal steam.

137
 Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1276

Using the back pressure of 50 psig (65psia), the horsepower loss is 40 hp.

Summarizing the last five slides, the larger turbine requires 28 lb/hph and has losses
of 40 hp. The smaller turbine requires 47 lb/hph and has losses of 2.2 hp.

Even though the larger turbine has greater losses, it is more efficient for most of the
horsepower applications for which they would be used. At what horsepower are the
efficiencies of the two turbines equal?

138
 Step 5: Superheat Correction

„ Saturation temperature @
540 psia = 475°F
Superheat 600 - 475 = 125°F
Using the table for superheat
correction factor of 1.04

The superheat correction factor is used because the turbine could operate at different
levels of superheat. Instead of the vendor testing the turbine at every possible steam
pressure and temperature, the venders produce curves. The curves simplify the
calculations with the values reflecting the relationship of the enthalpy at the
superheated condition versus by the enthalpy of the superheated vapor. In practice
and in theory, the superheat added to steam is extracted as work. The graph shows
that more saturated steam is required over superheated steam for a given theoretical
steam rate.

139
 Step 6: Corrected Steam Rate

Corrected Steam Rate =

(BSR/Superheat Correction)[(hp+hpLoss)/hp]

For AYR 14" Turbine Wheel

= (47/1.04) x (100 + 2.2)/100
= 46.2 lb/hph
For DYR 28" Turbine Wheel
= (28/1.04) x (100+ 40)/100
= 37.7 lb/hph

In Step 6, we determine the Corrected Steam Rate (CSR) which gives us the actual
pounds of steam required per hour, per horsepower. The larger turbine is more
efficient because it only required 37.7 lb/hph instead of 46.2 lb/hph.

140
 Total Rate Steam Consumption

„ Total Steam Consumption

For AYR 14” Turbine Wheel
= 46.2 lb/hph x 100 hp
= 4620 lb/h (2100 kg/h)
For DYR 28” Turbine Wheel
= 37.7 lb/hph x 100 hp
= 3770 lb/h (1714 kg/h)
lb/hph Btu/lb Btu/lb Theoretical Efficiency
AYR 14" 46.2 55.1 ÷ 184 = 30.0
DYR 28" 37.7 67.5 ÷ 184 = 36.7
Recall: theoretical maximum work recoverable was 184.0 Btu/lb

To determine the total steam consumption, multiply the steam rate by the
horsepower required. From the steam rates, we can determine the efficiency and, as
suspected, the larger turbine is more efficient.

However, if the horsepower load required was smaller, then which turbine is
efficient, and at what horsepower are the efficiencies equal? At around 54 hp, the
steam rate and efficiencies are equal, so it is crucial to size and select the proper size
turbine for each application.

141
 Part Load Turbine Example

„ Part Load Steam Consumption

– Assume the AYR 14” turbine will be used
– Find the normal steam consumption

R1 = (Full Load Steam Rate x rpm)/100000

= (46.2 lb/hph x 3600)/100000
= 1.66
R2 = (Norm bhp/rated bhp of turbine)
= 79.6/100.0
= 0.796

Since the turbine selection was based on the design flow rate, we must consider
what happens at the normal flow rate. Again, use vendor curves that adjust the
design information.

142
 Turbine Example

From part load chart: C = 0.82

– Norm Steam Flow = Rated Flow x C
= 0.82 x 4620 lb/h
= 3788 lb/h

– Use the same method for the DYR:

Normal Flow = 3325 lb/h

Using the Part Load Graph that follows, the value of C is determined and applied to
the design steam rate. When vendor charts are unavailable, the difference between
the normal and design can be reconciled by using the ratio of the design horsepower
and the normal horsepower. The method is not completely accurate, but should be
adequate for fieldwork analysis when vendor data is unavailable.

143
 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

The above diagram is to determine the part load correction factor. First, determine
R1 and go up the chart to the correct turbine wheel size. From that point, read
horizontally to R2 and then directly down to obtain the part load correction factor.

144
 What is the Exhaust Steam Temperature?

„ AYR turbine driving the pump at normal GPM

∆h = h1-h2

∆h = (79.6 hp x 2545 Btu/hph)/3788 lb/h

= 53.5 Btu/lb (Recall theoretical 184.03 Btu/lb)

h1 = 1295.7 @ 540 psia, 600°F

h2 = h1- ∆h
h2 = 1295.7 - 53.5
= 1242.2 Btu/lb @ 65 psia

Before performing an economic comparison of the two turbines, the outlet steam
pressure temperature must be determined. Since the inlet steam conditions and
outlet steam pressure are known from the design procedure, we are able to calculate
the actual work extracted from the steam per pound passing through the turbine.
Using this value, we can determine the actual path the steam takes and its final point
on the Mollier Diagram.

Subtract the work extracted from the inlet enthalpy. If we assume a turbine is
adiabatic, then the outlet enthalpy of the steam is the difference. Since the outlet
enthalpy and pressure are known, use a steam table or Mollier Diagram to determine
the temperature.

145
 Outlet Steam Temperature

„ From Steam Tables

65 psia: 400°F h = 1232.7 Btu/lb
450°F h = 1257.9 Btu/lb

„ By Linear Interpolation
h = 1242.2 Btu/lb

= 400 + (1242.2-1232.7)(450 - 400)

(1257.9-1232.7)
= 419°F

Because steam tables do not have every conceivable combination of steam

temperature and pressure, we are required to interpolate. The equation shown is a
typical method to perform linear interpolation.

In the field, it is possible for us to work backwards to determine the turbine

efficiency. Often we will know the inlet steam temperature and pressure, and we
will know the outlet steam pressure. By taking a temperature measurement of the
steam at the outlet of the turbine, it is possible to determine the actual steam path
and efficiency. Once the efficiency is known, the steam rate can be determined
without performing the detailed design. If you know what is happening on the
process side of your pump, you can model the pump and pump efficiency in a
simulator. Then, knowing your steam conditions, you can quickly and easily
determine the efficiency and actual steam rate.

146
 How to Decide on Which Turbine to Use

„ Based on normal horsepower, should the AYR

14” or the DYR 28” be used?

We must perform an economic analysis.

Turbine Class Rating for Cost Estimating

MAX INLET MAX INLET EXHAUST
CLASS PSIG °F PSIG
I 250 500 75
II 600 600 75
III 250 750 75
IV 850 750 75

Based on our original process design, which turbine should be used? We know the
large turbine is more efficient, but a large turbine also costs more to build and
install. The costs of turbines in general are related to their design conditions, mainly
the temperature and pressure of the steam. The above table is an example of turbine
classifications. Recall our steam conditions were 525 psig and 600°F which means
our turbine is of the Class II type.

147
 r e
ressu
32,000
, 105
psig
b ack-p Steam
eel
n wh
28,000 18 i
Turbine Cost
24,000
, 75
psig Comparison
28 in
20,000 22 in
, 75
psig
5 ps
ig (1999 Prices)
Cost, $

n, 7
18 i
16,000 psig
, 75
14 in

12,000

8,000
For Class I construction
Prices are based on NEMA Class A governor,
constant speed of 3,500 r/min, directly connected
4,000 (without base plate or coupling)
For Class II 1.2 x Class I
For Class III 1.4 x Class I

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200

Turbine rating, hp
Approximate costs for single-stage steam turbines.

EDS-R00-1237

This chart shows approximate costs of turbines. It shows that larger turbines are
more expensive and that the class ratings for higher temperatures and pressures
increase the cost as well. Using the table, we find the cost for a Class I 14 inch
turbine is $14,000 while the cost of a Class I 28 inch turbine is $20,800.

148
 Economic Justification When
Selecting Single Stage Turbines
„ Assume
– Cost of steam = $3.50/1000 lbs
– Operating time = 8000 h/a

Steam Used Steam Cost Capital Cost

Turbine lb/h $/a $ (Class II)
AYR-14" 3788 106,064 1.2 x 14,000 = 16,800
DYR-28" 3325 93,100 1.2 x 20,800 = 24,960

Payout = ∆ Capital Cost/∆ Annual Operating Cost

= ($24,960 - $ 16,800)/($106,064 - $93,100)/a
= 0.63 years

From the previous graph, we determined the approximate Class I costs. Since we
have Class II turbines, we are required to adjust for the more severe conditions.
This increases the cost by a factor of 1.2. Turbine cost is only part of the total
economic analysis. We must also consider the cost of steam. Later in this
presentation, we show how to determine the cost of steam, but for now, let us
assume the cost is $3.50 per 1000 pounds of steam. We also must choose a time
period for our analysis. We will assume 8000 hours per year of operation.

Now that we have our basis, we determine the steam costs to run the turbines for
one year and then the simple payback time. The payback time is the time it takes to
recover the extra capital costs incurred by purchasing the more expensive turbine
instead of the less expensive one. We find that it takes a little over a half-year to
recapture our added capital expense, so the rest of the year we are saving money by
running a more efficient turbine.

149
 Summary

„ The Simplified Steam Rate Calculations

established that, for most applications, the
DYR 28" turbine offers the lowest corrected
steam rate; the AYR 14", the highest.

„ The AYR 14" is the less expensive turbine.

However, the reduced steam usage of the DYR
28" turbine justified the selection of the more
efficient turbine.

How would the outcome change if the operation time were less? Suppose we need
this turbine only as a spare. The turbine runs once a week in order to test it and then
when routine maintenance occurs on the normal motor driven pump. Let us assume
it only runs 80 hours per year. Now it take 100 times as long to pay out the
additional capital cost and the less efficient, less costly turbine should be selected.

150
 Appendix 3

Multi-Stage
Turbine Calculations

151
 Multistage Turbine Example
Given: Compressor Turbine
rated Bhp = 7000 7700
rated r/min = 6000 6000
norm Bhp = 6300 6300
norm r/min = 5400 5400

Turbine steam conditions:

Inlet = (600 psig, 750ºF), Exhaust = 4 inHga = 1.96 psia

In a multi-stage turbine, the expansion of the steam is a staged steady-state

expansion creating a more efficient turbine than the conventional single-stage
turbine. Multi-stage turbines, because of their high capital cost, are reserved for
large load applications, where a motor would be impractical, or when process
conditions required the operational flexibility and reliability of a turbine. Often a
process will produce waste steam and that steam can be reused efficiently in a
turbine so the turbine fits well into the overall energy system of the refinery or
chemical complex.

In this example, we have 7000Bhp load and, as before, we are going to design for
110% of the expected load. For this turbine, we will assume there is a condenser
operating at 4 in Hga.

152
 Multistage Turbine
Efficiency

EDS-R00-1238

This is another vendor curve for several steam condition and turbine sizes and will
use it to illustrate the multistage condensing turbine.

The inlet pressure steam is 600 psig, 750°F. Move down to our outlet steam
pressure of 4 in Hga. Now, move horizontally to the right until we reach the 4500 to
7500 rpm line, and then down to the to the 5000 to 15000 hp line. Finally, reading
horizontally to the left, we find an efficiency of approximately 76%.

153
 Multistage Turbine Example

„ Find the normal steam consumption

– TSR (Theoretical Steam Rate)
– Use Mollier Diagram

h1 = 1379 Btu/lb @ 615 psia, 750°F

h2 = 932 Btu/lb @ 1.96 psia (s1 = s2)

TSR = (3413 Btu/kWh)/(1379-932) Btu/lb

= 7.64 lb steam/kWh

We can perform the same analysis using the Mollier Diagram as we did with the
single stage turbine. We assume isentropic expansion and, knowing our inlet and
outlet conditions, we can determine the TSR.

154
 Multistage Turbine Example

„ Efficiency at rated conditions

– Efficiency ≅ 76 pct
– Corrections for normal hp and speed:
norm bhp/ turbine rated bhp = (6300/7700)
= 0.82

Using the table: f1 = 1.035

(norm RPM)/(rated RPM) = (5400/600)

= 0.90
Using the table: f2 = 1.05

From the efficiency chart, we found this turbine is nearly 76% efficient at the rated
conditions. However, we must now adjust for normal operation using part load
vendor curves that follow. At the beginning of the example, we were given the
normal break horsepower and the normal rated horsepower. Using ratios of the
normal and the rate operation parameters, we use the vendor curves.

155
 Part-Load/Speed Correction Curves

EDS-R00-1239

The above chart determines the part-load and the speed correction factor based on
the percentage of speed or percentage of horsepower.

156
 Multistage Turbine Example

„ Normal Steam Consumption

Steam rate = TSR x 0.746/efficiency x f1 x f2 x normbhp

= 7.64 lb/kWh x 0.746 kW/hp/0.76 x 1.035 x 1.05 x 6300 hp
= 51344 lb/h

Using the values of 1.035 for the load correction and 1.05 for the speed correction,
the normal steam consumption is 51344 lb/h.

157
 Appendix 4

Refinery Steam Study

158
 Refinery Steam Study

„ Introduction
„ Goals
„ Data Collection
„ System Description
„ Results

Now that we have learned the tools for performing an energy conservation study, we
will look at an actual site survey.

159
 Refinery Steam Study
Goals

„ Produce Schematic Drawing

„ Develop Computer Model
„ Determine Utility Costs
„ Identify Operating Changes
„ Identify Capital Projects
„ Perform Economic Analysis

The initial goal of the energy survey is to produce an actual schematic drawing of
what equipment and lines currently exist.

The final goals are to identify operating changes and capital projects for the refinery
that will reduce steam consumption, improve thermal efficiency, and ultimately
improve refinery profitability.

160
 Refinery Steam Study
Data Collection

„ Header Drawings
„ Piping and Instrument Drawings
„ Equipment Data
„ Refinery Staff Input
„ Walks Through Refinery
„ Audit

In an energy survey, the data collection is normally the most difficult and the most
time consuming, but probably the most important step for the survey. The data
required for an energy survey include the header drawing directing the high
pressure, medium pressure, and low pressure steam headers. The P&ID must also
be developed as to what is currently in the refinery. Equipment data, refinery staff
input, walks through the refinery, and audits are all required.

161
 Refinery Steam Study
System Description

„ Primary Sources of Steam

– High pressure
(1030 psig, 890ºF)
(72.4 kg/cm2g, 477ºC)
— CO boiler
— Utility boilers

The above photo shows a cogeneration plant which includes both the gas turbine
and HRSG. The primary source of steam is high pressure which is produced in
utility boilers and a CO boiler.

162
 Refinery Steam Study
System Description

„ Primary Sources of Steam

– Medium pressure
(170 psig, 540ºF)
(12.0 kg/cm2g, 282ºC)
— Extraction
— Turbine exhaust
— Process generation
— Letdown

The primary source of steam in the medium pressure level is from extraction
turbines (like the one above) and back pressure turbine exhausts, process generation
from the Platforming unit, NHT, FCC, CDU, and VDU.

163
 Refinery Steam Study
System Description

„ Primary Sources of Steam

– Low pressure
(50 psig, 360ºF)
(3.5 kg/cm2g, 182ºC)
— Extraction
— Process generation
— Letdown

The primary source of steam for the low pressure header is from extraction turbine,
process unit generation, and letdown from the medium pressure header.

164
 Refinery Steam Study
Extraction Turbine

EDS-R00-1208

The steam system survey we did for a large refinery had four large extraction
turbines. The extraction turbines were not used effectively. The reason for this is
that a considerable amount of steam was letdown through control valves.

One result of the study was to shut down one of the four extraction turbines and
utilize the others at near full load.

165
 Refinery Steam Study
Integration of Steam and Electrical Systems

EDS-R00-1229

The above diagram shows how the steam system is integrated into the electrical
system. Importing electricity costs are related to what time of the day it is and what
day of the year it is - a very complicated cost structure, but common in the industry
today.

The electricity for the plant is supplied by 2 x 11.2 MW extraction turbines, a 16

MW extraction turbine and 3 MW FCC Power Recovery Turbine. A refinery wants
to optimize the electrical system and may purchase power or generate their own
power, whichever is cheaper.

166
 Refinery Steam Study
Results

„ Schematic Flow and Heat and Weight Balance

– Identified all steam users and producers
– Incorporated ongoing changes
– Showed expected flows for both high and low
throughput cases
– Helped to identify where flow scheme changes
would be advantageous
– Valuable aid to future planning

The results of the study is to identify all steam users and producers in the refinery.
In addition, ongoing changes in the refinery, such as a new process unit expansion,
should be included. We want to show expected flows for a number of controlling
cases.

167
 EDS-R00-1229

The above schematic is a section of the steam system. Notice how complicated the
system is for a refinery. This diagram is similar to the one shown earlier, but this is
a real operating refinery.

168
 Refinery Steam Study
Refinery Steam Balance High Throughput Case
(Including Approved Changes)

Above is a spreadsheet showing the refinery steam balance for the high throughput
case. This steam balance is based on both mass and weight balance so it was
balanced thermodynamically.

169
 Refinery Steam Study
Utility Cost Philosophy

„ “Marginal” (incremental) vs “average” costs

„ Basis: Determine how much fuel is used in

generating steam and electricity

„ Apply second law of thermodynamics

One important point during a steam study is that of marginal or incremental against
the average cost. It is really the marginal or incremental cost rather than the average
cost we are concerned about in a steam study. This is because the equipment has
been purchased, so we want to see what the impact of that extra kg of steam to the
system will do to the economics.

170
 Refinery Steam Study
Average vs. Marginal Efficiency

EDS-R00-1267

As the above chart shows, the average efficiency for the steam rate is 75%. When
we look at the marginal steam rate, it is 98%. Therefore, once a steam turbine is
operating, the incremental increase in efficiency is much higher. This indicates that,
once a turbine is in operation, it is best to run the turbine up to its peak rate before
turning on the other turbines.

171
 Refinery Steam Study
Marginal Costs of Steam and Electricity

Btu of Fuel US Dollars

1000 lb 1000 lb
High Pressure Steam 1,320,000 4.26
Medium Pressure Steam 804,900 2.60
Low Pressure Steam 526,800 1.70
Electricity:
Btu of fuel/kWh 9622
US Cents/kWh 3.11

Basis: Fuel oil price of $3.23/106 Btu = $20/barrel

Shown above are the marginal costs of steam and electricity determined for a
refinery. As you can see, the high pressure steam is valued at $4.26 per 1000
pounds of steam, whereas the low pressure steam is valued at $1.70 per 1000 pounds
of steam. The electricity cost is 3.11 cents per kWh based on a fuel oil price of $20
per barrel.

172
 Refinery Steam Study
Load Allocation for Extraction Turbines

Problem: There are an infinite number of ways of allocating

load among three machines. Only one way is
optimum.
Solution: Linear programming
EDS-R00-1231

During a steam study, to produce the electricity, there are an infinite number of
ways of allocating the turbines. The Linear Programming (LP) used is similar to
those used for the whole refinery. PIMS is one common LP model many refineries
use today.

173
 Refinery Steam Study
Example
Optimal
Audit Using All Shutdown
Results 3 Machines EG-3

Throttle Flow (T/h)

EG-1 44 80.1 87.5
EG-2 61 27.3 53.0
EG-3 45 40.6 0
TOTAL 150 148.0 140.5 Different

Electrical Load (MW)

EG-1 5.2 11.2 10.6
EG-2 7.8 3.1 6.7
EG-3 4.3 3.0 0
TOTAL 17.3 17.3 17.3 Equal

The above shows the result of the optimal using all three machines. As you can see,
the shutdown of EG-3 provides the optimum results. This is quite different than
what the current situation of the three turbine generation is operating at now.

174
 Refinery Steam Study
Example

Optimal
Audit Using All Shutdown
Results 3 Machines EG-3

MP Steam Recovery (T/h)

EG-1 0 0 34.0
EG-3 34.0 34.0 0
TOTAL 34.0 34.0 34.0 Equal

LP Steam Recovery (T/h)

EG-1 44.0 80.1 53.5
EG-2 57.5 21.4 48.0
TOTAL 101.5 101.5 101.5 Equal

The above example shows that the medium pressure steam and the low pressure
steam headers are in balance.

175
 Refinery Steam Study
Imported vs. Internally Generated Power

„ The marginal cost of internally generated

electricity is 3.11 cents/kWh. The marginal
cost of imported power is as follows:

US Cents/kWh
Summer Months
(May-September)
88 h/week 0.80
80 h/week 2.35 Cheaper To Buy!
Winter Months
(October-April)
88 h/week 0.80
60 h/week 4.67
20 h/week 6.20 Cheaper To Make!

One interesting result which came from the study was that of imported versus
internally generated power. The marginal cost of internally generated electricity is
3.11 cents/kWh. Therefore, during the summer months, it was cheaper to buy than
to generate the power. In the winter months, we found the power was actually
cheaper to make.

Once this is determined, one could bring the results to the utility company and
possibly negotiate a better contact.

176
 Refinery Steam Study
Automatic Control of Extraction Rates

„ Recommendation
– Eliminate any steam letdown through control
valves by controlling header pressures with
extraction flows

„ Problem
– Turbine vibration

„ Solution
– Maybe controller gain is too high

The recommendation of the study was to eliminate any steam letdown through the
control valves by controlling header pressures with extraction flows. The only
problem with this was the turbine vibration which occurred. The solution was to
have a controller with less gain.

177
 Refinery Steam Study
Improved Performance of EG-2
Improved Performance of EG-2
Water washing
Check instrumentation
Instrument CO boiler MP superheat coil cooling steam

EDS-R00-1232

Another recommendation was to have improved performance of EG-2. This would

be to inject some steam for cooling when necessary for the CO Boiler MP
superheater coil.

178
 Refinery Steam Study
Recovery of Flash Steam from Process
Area Condensate

EDS-R00-1282

One common place for energy efficiencies is to recover flash steam from process
area condensate. Rather than dumping the condensate down the sewer, a good
practice is to put in a collection drum where the condensed is flashed and the
flashed steam goes to atmosphere, but the relatively clean condensate can go back to
makeup.

179
 Refinery Steam Study
Recovery of Flash Steam from Process
Area Condensate
LP Steam
Proposed:
S20-D2

Process
Condensate

Makeup
Alternative: Send condensate directly to deaerator.
EDS-R00-1233

Another solution is to flash the steam to the deaerator and have the condensate set
back to the deaerator directly. This is actually a little better energy efficiency wise
than the last example. The only problem is if the condensate is contaminated with
oil and one sends it directly to the deaerator.

180
 Refinery Steam Study
Boiler Blowdown vs. Condensate Exchanger

EDS-R00-1234

Another area for energy recovery is in the boiler blowdown. Since 5% of the boiler
water feedrate is continuous blowdown, there is a lot of potential for energy savings.
One such example is to exchange it against steam condenser condensate which is
relatively cool.

181
 Refinery Steam Study
Tank Farm Improvements

„ Estimated Costs Due to System Deterioration

Steam Loss (33,000 lb/h) $500,000/Year
Water Loss (55,000 lb/h) 183,000
Heating of Makeup Water 127,000
Total $810,000/Year

Tank farm improvements is another potential savings. As shown above, the saving
can be in the order of $810,000 per year. This sounds good, but there is a lot of
capital investment involved as well as the potential for the condensate to become
contaminated with oil.

182
 Refinery Steam Study – Solutions

Ultimate solution
Repair
EDS-R00-1235

One possible solution is the ultimate repair of some of the piping. In addition, it
may only be worthwhile to collect the condensate from the large tank heaters.

183
 Refinery Steam Study
Economic Analysis
Operational Changes
Estimated Annual
Estimated
Savings
Investment
($/a) ($)

Optimize the load allocation for the

three extraction steam turbine generators 164,000 none

Shutdown EG-3 781,000 none

Eliminate imported electricity during

periods when it is cheaper to generate
power internally 187,000 none

Automatic control of extraction rates 64,000 none

The above chart shows the economic analysis of the savings versus cost. As you
can see, all of the four investments have no capital cost associated with them and,
therefore, the payback is immediate.

184
 Refinery Steam Study
Capital Projects

Estimated
Annual Estimated Payback
Savings Investment Period
($/a) ($) (a)

Improve the performance of EG-2 304,000 Unknown ?

Instrumentation for the CO boiler

MP superheat coil cooling steam 96,000 10,000 0.10

Recovery of flash steam from process

area condensate
Using flash drum and pump 108,000 80,000 0.74
Without flash drum and pumps 108,000 16,000 0.15

The capital projects shown above have an estimated investment but, in all cases,
they have less than a year payback. This is extremely good for a refinery
investment.

185
 Refinery Steam Study
Capital Projects

Estimated
Annual Estimated Payback
Savings Investment Period
($/a) ($) (a)

Steam turbine generator condensate

versus blowdown exchanger 25,000 10,000 0.40

Tank Farm Improvements

Separate steam system to
permit condensate recovery 310,000 300,000 0.97

System repair 800,000 Unknown ?

The above list some additional capital projects. All seem to be worthwhile except
the system repair, which the estimated investment could be quite high.

186
 Appendix 5

Full Size
Charts and Graphs

187
 Base Steam Rates

AYR-14” Wheel
70
Theoretical Steam Rate (LB/KW-HR)

5000 4000 3000 RPM 2000

60
1750
50

40 6000

30

20

10
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Base Steam Rate, LB/HP-HR

EDS-R00-1284

188
 Base Steam Rates

AYR-18” Wheel
70
Theoretical Steam Rate (LB/KW-HR)

3000 2000 RPM

1750
60 4000

50
5000

40

30
6000
20

10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Base Steam Rate, LB/HP-HR

EDS-R00-1269

189
 Base Steam Rates

CYR-22” Wheel
70
Theoretical Steam Rate (LB/KW-HR)

3000 2000 RPM

1750
60
4000
50

40 5000

30

20
6000

10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Base Steam Rate, LB/HP-HR

EDS-R00-1270

190
 Base Steam Rates

DYR-28” Wheel
70
Theoretical Steam Rate (LB/KW-HR)

3000 2000 RPM

1750
60

50

40
4000

30
5000
20
6000
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Base Steam Rate, LB/HP-HR

EDS-R00-1271

191
 Base Steam Rates

BYRH-18” Wheel (High Backpressure)

70 4000 2000 RPM
Theoretical Steam Rate (LB/KW-HR)

3000
60
1750
50
5000
40

30
6000
20

10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Base Steam Rate, LB/HP-HR

EDS-R00-1272

192
Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1273

193
Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1275

194
Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1273

195
Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1274

196
Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1275

197
Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1276

198
Horsepower Losses

EDS-R00-1277

199
 Superheat Correction
Temperature of Dry and Saturated Steam
To obtain superheat in degrees F, subtract temperature given in tabulation below from total initial temperature.

Saturation Saturation Saturation Saturation

psig Temp F psig Temp F psig Temp F psig Temp F

0 213 150 366 300 422 450 460

5 228 155 368 305 423 455 461
10 240 160 371 310 425 460 462
15 250 165 373 315 426 465 463
20 259 170 375 320 428 470 464

25 267 175 378 325 429 475 465

30 274 180 380 330 431 480 466
35 281 185 382 335 432 485 467
40 287 190 384 340 433 490 468
45 293 195 386 345 434 495 469

50 298 200 388 350 436 500 470

55 303 205 390 355 437 510 472
60 308 210 392 360 438 520 474
65 312 215 394 365 440 530 476
70 316 220 396 370 441 540 478

75 320 225 397 375 442 550 480

80 328 230 399 380 444 560 482
85 328 235 401 385 445 570 483
90 331 240 403 390 446 580 485
95 335 245 404 395 447 590 487

100 338 250 406 400 448 600 489

105 341 255 408 405 449 610 491
110 344 260 410 410 451 620 492
115 347 265 411 415 452 630 494
120 350 270 413 420 453 640 496

125 353 275 414 425 454 650 497

130 356 280 416 430 455 660 499
135 358 285 417 435 456 670 501
140 361 290 419 440 457 680 502
145 364 295 420 445 458 690 504

200
Superheat Correction

EDS-R00-1278

201
Multistage Turbine
Efficiency

EDS-R00-1238

202
Part-Load/Speed Correction Curves

EDS-R00-1239

203
Typical Extraction Turbine
Performance Curve

EDS-R00-1240

204
 Limiting Tube-Metal Temperatures to Avoid
External Corrosion in Economizers or Air Heaters
When Burning Fuels Containing Sulfur

EDS-R00-1264

205
EDS-R00-1268

206
EDS-R00-1229

207
Refinery Steam Balance High Throughput
Case Including Approved Changes

208