Part O n e

SEPARATION
TECHNOLOGIES

The theoretical basis o f separation processes commonly used in refineries to frac-

tionate hydrocarbon mixtures was presented in Volume 2. Whatever the process,
two phases are brought into contact for mass transfer to take place between them.
They then have to be separated in order to exploit the process fully.
In this part we will first of all deal with the major contacting techniques, in par-
ticular counter-current columns. Countercurrent liquid-gas contact in distillation
or absorption columns is carried out either on plates, or trays, or on packing.
Volume 2 provides a general presentation o f fractionation columns along with
their main applications in refining. Mass and thermal balances associated with
equilibrium equations have been used to set the temperatures, pressures and flow
rates at various column locations. They have also been employed to find the Rum-
ber o f theoretical stages and the amount o f heat to be utilized to achieve the spec-
ified fractionation. These basic elements, presented in Volume 2, are used to esti-
mate column dimensions in an initial stage and then to finalize the detailed
construction design for the column with its accessories (plates or packing, noz-
zles, supports, manholes, etc.).
We will also describe countercurrent columns and other contactors used for
liquid-liquid extraction. As for the physical separation between phases, we will
discuss (Chapter 4) the techniques applicable to gas-liquid, liquid-liquid,gas-solid
and liquid-solid mixtures.
 Gas*LiquidContactors for Distillation:
Plate Columns

Jean-PaulGourlia
Pierre Trambouze

Distillation is undoubtedly the most commonly used unit operation in the

chemical and oil industries. The operating principle was covered in Volume 2
of this series. It consists in contacting a vapor with a liquid circulating counter-
currently so as to separate the components present in the feed by mass trans-
fer. The driving force depends on the difference in concentrations as well a s
the vapor/liquid equilibria occurring between the two phases. This unit oper-
ation can be ideally represented by a cascade of theoretical stages, i.e. ele-
ments where the contact between the two phases lasts long enough for the
exiting vapor stream to be in equilibrium with the exiting liquid.
Once the number of theoretical stages has been optimized, one of the prob-
lems that need to be solved when distillation columns are designed is how to
implement contact. There are two technologies:
1. With plates, the aim is to hold up the liquid locally by means of a weir
cutting across the liquid stream and t o bubble the rising vapor through
this stream. Perforations in the plate let the vapor pass.
2. With packing, the contact between the two phases becomes continuous
all along the column. Packing performance depends on its capacity to
disperse the liquid and vapor streams so as to maximize the contact sur-
face area and prevent detrimental short-circuiting of contact zones.
Several basic principles concerning contactors were mentioned in
Volume 2. They help explain concepts such as efficiency, frequently used in
simulating columns. This chapter and the following one aim to supplement
these concepts by presenting the bases for evaluating contactor performance
and sizing. For further details, the reader is advised to consult more special-
ized works, such as Kister (1992) which contains a wealth of useful informa-
tion.
In this first chapter, we will discuss plate technology and leave packing
technology for Chapter 2. Plates or trays have been used for decades and are
4 ChaLJler 1 . GAS-LIOUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS

still the chief type of gas-liquid contactor used today. Their reliability, tough-
ness and usually low cost make them unique. Their function is to contact the
vapor with the liquid phase by creating successive zones of contact and sepa-
ration for the two streams as they circulate overall counter-currently all along
the column. Although the basic principle is identical for most plates, many dif-
ferent types are proposed by builders who have imagined numerous variations
to improve performance over the years.

1.1 General Characteristics of a Plate

Before describing the operation of a plate, a number of geometrical parame-
ters that characterize it need to be defined by means of Figure 1.1 (elevation
and plan view):
D, column diameter (m)
h height of the weir that holds back the liquid on the plate (cm)
T distance between plates or spacing (m)
D width of the downcomer (m)
e height of the liquid entrance slot on the plate (cm)
hod liquid crest above the weir (cm)
AD area of the downcomer (m2)
AA active area where the gas-liquid contact takes place (m2)
Figure 1.2 gives a schematic layout for a basic plate configuration and indi-
cates several other important points, in particular:
The open section for vapor disengagement, corresponding to the cross-
sectional area of the column minus the area occupied by the down-
comer(s).
The downcomer walls, which may be of several shapes in order to vary
the area of the liquid passageway.
The liquid inlet device on the plate, which can be in the form of a weir or
downcomer pan. The device is necessary for proper distribution of the
liquid.
The plate configuration causes the streams to be handled in a cross flow.
The liquid passes through the rising vapor stream in an alternating fash-
ion, swept from right to left on one plate and then from left to right on the
following plate (see Fig. 1.3).

1.1.1 Handling Liquid and Vapor Streams

The vapor stream rises vertically in the tower going through the plate by
means of the specially designed perforations (see Section 1.2) and bubbles
through the liquid which is held back by the outlet weirs. The verb “bubble” is
undoubtedly too weak to express the highly turbulent, seething type of con-
 Chapter 1. GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 5

Liquid -
t
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I I\
Liquid

AA

Figure
1.1 Diagram indicating the chief geometrical characteristics o f a plate.

tact that takes place. Later on in the text, gas and liquid velocities will be seen
to be so high that a froth or an emulsion may be formed, the liquid may even
be completely atomized. Without considering this extreme case, it should be
noted that the vapor always entrains some liquid with it in the form of
droplets. The size of the droplets determines how rapidly they fall back into
the bubbling liquid. The spacing must therefore be chosen so a s to allow max-
imum liquid disengagement. Additionally, the vapor inevitably undergoes pres-
sure drop as it rises.
6 Chapter 1 GAS-LIOUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE C3LUMNS

j/
Right downcomer

\
7
Outlet weir
Clearance
under downcomer

j Active area

Inlet weir \
Figure
Open section 1.2 Diagram showing how plates
L are stacked up inside a column
with different downcomer wall
Sloped apron downcomer geometries.
I
_____________-_

Downcomer pan

Stepped apron
downcomer
’
I
t
The liquid stream, which moves downward by gravity from one plate to the
next, enters via the inlet downcomer, passes over the active zone and then
goes down the outlet downcomer. In the same way as the vapor leaving the
contact area automatically entrains liquid, the liquid leaving the plate is a mix-
ture of vapor and liquid whose characteristics depend on the way the plate
operates. One of the functions of the downcomer is to allow the liquid to be
degassed before it is reinjected into the plate below. The liquid therefore
requires a certain residence time in the downcomer to reach this objective.
Likewise, the average aeration factor of the liquid must be taken into account
to know the exact downcomer height occupied and thereby keep it from
becoming saturated.
 Chapter 1. GAS-LlQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 7

Figure I

Diagram showing the principle 1.3

of liquid phase circulation in a
tray or plate column.

This description of plate operation suggests that column and plate sizing
entails a compromise among all these interdependent parameters so that all
the components work properly.
Other types of design have been proposed. As shown in Figure 1.4, it is pos-
sible for example to have radial flow. This technology is used for very large
diameter columns such a s vacuum columns. Other ways of handling streams
can be found (Union Carbide/Linde plates, helicoidal plates, etc.) whose aim is
to improve the efficiency of these internals (see Vol. 2, Chapter 4). They will
not be described here.

1.1.2 Hydraulic Behavior of a Plate. Operating Zones

The preceding description underscores an initial important factor governing
plate behavior: the gas-liquid separation at the outlet of the active zone. Poor
degassing of the liquid phase or poor disengagement of the vapor phase cause
undesirable recycling of vapor to the plate below or liquid to the plate above.
This in turn considerably lowers plate separation efficiency.
The problem may seem simple for downcomers to the extent that the
“only” requirement is sufficiently large sizing so that there is enough time for
degassing to occur. However, the situation becomes slightly more complex for
the gas phase. If the diameter of the column is such that the vapor rate is very
low, the contact between the two phases will be inadequate since the vapor
kinetic energy is not sufficient to stir the liquid phase and disperse it. The
result is then a simple bubbling phenomenon, with a small interfacial area and
therefore limited mass transfer efficiency. Later on in the text, other results of
this situation will be seen. In contrast, when the vapor rate rises, the tendency
8 Chapter 1. GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS
 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTOW FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 9

to entrain droplets increases. Increased plate spacing can offset this up to the
point where the amount and size of droplets are such that they are entrained
to the plate above. This situation should obviously be avoided. In conclusion,
the diameter of the column must be selected so that the vapor rate remains
between the two qualitatively explained limits.
A second important factor is the hydrodynamic equilibrium that is gener-
ated on a plate. Each phase flow involves pressure drops which must balance
each other in order to comply with the gas overhead constraint for each plate.
A hydraulic model is generally used to carry out this analysis. Figure 1.5 shows
one of these models with the mechanisms expressed in relation to the clear
liquid.
The vapor passing through the plate and the liquid layer causes a pressure
drop (hp) which depends on the liquid and vapor flow rates, the physical prop-
erties of the two phases and the dimensional characteristics of the plate. It is
the sum of the pressure drop that occurs when the vapor passes through the
plate orifices (perforation, valve, bubble cap) and the height of clear liquid
(hCJ on the plate. It should be noted that the least pressure drop imbalance in
the orifices causes uneven distribution of the vapor stream, thereby reducing
separation efficiency.

.-.

!
!
I
A
0
Hd - - - J . hod
~ ~~
!
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

I
! I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
It \
!
!
!
!

h p = h, + h,,
Hd = h,
h
h L = h +hod + 3
2

+ hL+ h p
I .-- .-- . -
I
Liquid
.-. .-. . -. .i

-
Figure
1.5 Schematic diagram of the hydrodynamic equilibrium of a plate.
10 Chapter 1 G A S - h J l D CONTACTORS FOR D/STlLLATlON: PLATE COLUMNS

The flow of liquid on the plate depends on the weir but also on the pres-
sure drop generated by obstacles (valves or bubble caps) and vapor break-
throughs. This means that there is a liquid gradient on the plate upstream from
the weir. The liquid height at the outlet downcomer is equal to the sum of the
height (h) of the outlet weir and the height of the crest (hod). The gradient term
is added to the liquid height at the inlet.
The height of clear liquid (Hd) in the downcomer offsets the height on the
plate, the difference in pressure between the two plates a s well a s the pressure
drop due to the liquid feed system t o the plate (hs). The total height of the
vapor/liquid mixture in the downcomer is greater due to the average aeration
factor p, and is therefore equal to Hd@.p is generally considered to be close t o
0.6 during normal operation. This is why the height of clear liquid must never
be greater than 50% of the height of the downcomer.
These considerations show the interactions between the various compo-
nents of the plate. For example, an increase in the liquid flow rate causes more
liquid retention due to the crest height. As a result, there is a simultaneous
increase in the vapor pressure drop as well as in the height of clear liquid in
the downcomer. The downcomer may then overflow: the column will fill up
with liquid and separation efficiency will fall to zero.
To summarize, for a plate to operate normally, two parameters must be
controlled: vapor phase velocity and liquid flow rate or more exactly the flow
rate per unit of outlet weir length. Inappropriate choices may cause hydraulic
malfunctions that will be detrimental to performance. Without the list below
defining any order of occurrence, a distinction is usually made between mal-
functions as follows:

(a) Flooding which occurs for both vapor and liquid.

Blowing occurs when vapor flow rates are too high in relation to the liq-
uid flow. A finely dispersed mist is formed above the contact zone. This
results in a poor liquid-vapor transfer with the formation of froth and fine
droplets entrained to the plates overhead.
Jet flooding. The simultaneous increase in liquid and vapor flow rates,
common when maximum capacity is desired, is similar to the preceding
case. More liquid is then entrained to the plate above due t o the
increased liquid height on the plate, thereby reducing the vapor disen-
gagement height. Operation becomes unstable.
Flooding by excessive liquid flow, The aerated liquid flow coming from
the active area and passing into the downcomer is too high, causing
flooding. This may be due to improper vapor disengagement (foaming
system or excessively small downcomer area), too much vapor pressure
drop, too little space under the downcomer, inadequate plate spacing,
etc. Note that downcomers should be sized with two criteria in mind:
- sufficient contact time to allow vapor bubbles to disengage from the
liquid phase,
- a height greater than that of the clear liquid.
 Chapter 1. GAS-LloUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 11

-
~

Figure
1.6 Example of the acceptable operating domain for a plate.
~

@) Weeping. Sieve and valve plates are by nature not fluid-tight, so there is
always a slight liquid leakage which remains within acceptable limits and does
not affect efficiency too much. However, below a certain vapor flow rate hydro-
static thrust is no longer sufficient and the liquid flows down through the ori-
fices. This leakage, or weeping, is extremely deleterious since it causes back
mixing. It is detrimental to operate when weeping occurs as it corresponds to
vapor pressure drop through the orifices in the active area exactly equal to the
static height of liquid on the plate. Weeping does not occur with bubble cap
plates because the caps form a siphon that keeps the liquid from passing
through the orifices.
Dumping is an accentuation of the situation described above. The liquid
leaking through the orifices becomes excessive and causes a dramatic loss of
efficiency. It marks the lowermost limit of the flexibility domain for the plate.
The satisfactory operating range of a plate can be plotted as shown in
Figure 1.6. The shaded zone delimits the stability domain, i.e. the extreme flow
rate conditions under which operation is acceptable.
Plate behavior will now be discussed in various situations that deviate from
the design range of liquid and vapor flow rates in order to illustrate these def-
initions.
Higher vapor flow rate. The ejection velocity through the orifices in the
active area increases and may cause a variety of phenomena such as
blowing, greater liquid height on the plates leading to flooding and/or
more pressure drop that may cause saturation of downcomers. In any
case, excessive liquid will be entrained to the plates above, lowering effi-
ciency.
12 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS

Higher liquid flow rate. An overly high liquid flow can cause flooding of
downcomers due to insufficient disengagement. In addition, if the vapor
flow rate is low, excessive weeping may occur related to the increase in
static liquid load on the plates. Furthermore, it may result in poor liquid
distribution on the active area of the plates, once again causing lost effi-
ciency.
Lower vapor flow rate. An overly low vapor flow rate may cause weep-
ing or even dumping and a loss of efficiency related to less effective gas-
liquid contact.
Lower liquid flow rate. An overly low liquid flow rate can cause blowing
of the liquid if the vapor flow is too high or may possibly make the vapor
pass through the downcomers. Once again, the result is lower efficiency.

1.2 Types of Plates or Trays

Historically speaking, bubble cap plates (Fig. 1.7A) were the first ones used
and they still find a few specific applications. Nevertheless, the focus of this
section will be mainly on the two types of plate that are the most commonly
seen in industrial practice today:
- sieve plates (Fig. 1.7B),
- valve plates (Fig. 1.7C and D).

A B

D
' r
'-

1 Figure
I .7 Simplified diagram of a distillation column plate.
A. Bubble cap plate. B. Sieve plate with downcomer. C. Circular valve plate.
 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 13

These two types of plate are of the same nature. They have a contact zone
on the plate where the liquid is held back by a weir while the vapor rises from
under the plate through the orifices, passing through the layer of liquid. The
liquid circulates from top to bottom of the column and from one plate to the
next by vertical downcomers. The two types of plate differ only in the pres-
ence or absence of valves that can close off the contact zone orifices. The
valves are in the open position when the column is operating at its design
capacity. They close partially or can totally come back down to seal off the ori-
fices when the vapor flow decreases, thereby limiting liquid leakage. Sieve and
valve plates have a number of common characteristics and consequently the
same sizing criteria will be applied to both. There are also sieve plates without
downcomers, but they are very seldom used.

1.2.1 Bubble Cap Plate

This is the oldest model and is still found in the oil and chemical industries. It
comprises a perforated plate, with each orifice equipped with a central riser
which serves to guide a cap attached by a stem and a counternut. Around a
hundred different shapes of cap have been designed and give varying degrees
of contact efficiency. A certain amount of liquid is kept on the plate by a down-
comer that allows the liquid to flow to the plate below.
The chief quality of a bubble cap plate is its adaptability to a very wide
range of liquid and vapor flow rates. Its use is however restricted because of
its high cost and the considerable pressure drops it generates in the column.
Another point to be mentioned is the difficulty of draining the retained liquid
in the event of shutdown despite the specially designed holes.

1.2.2 Sieve Plate with Downcomer

These plates handle the liquid stream conventionally with downcomers. In
contrast, the vapor passes through simple perforations in the plates that con-
stitute the active area.
Even though sieve plates have been on the market for a long time, they are
seldom used in the oil industry. One advantage is that they are less expensive
than other technologies since the active area is produced by simply forming
the plates and another asset is their low pressure drop. However, the major
drawback is that they lack flexibility. They do not have valves which allow the
orifice area to be regulated for the vapor phase and this restricts their operat-
ing range. An overly low vapor flow rate allows substantial weeping to
develop, while an increase in flow rate rapidly causes entrainment promoted
by blasts of vapor which are not broken as they are with other technologies.
This simple review of advantages and drawbacks suggests that the use of
this type of plate is confined to very specific applications. Despite their low
incidence of utilization, they have been the subject of a good deal of research
and sizing holds no secrets. Among other points, it is extremely important to
determine the operating range where the plate will give total satisfaction.
14 Chapter 1 . GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DIST~LLATION:
PLATE COLUMNS

The limits depend mainly on the perforation diameter, which was restricted
to 4.76 mm for a long time. Today 1/2" perforations (1.25 cm) are considered
acceptable and allow flooding limits to be extended. The ratio between plate
thickness (e,) and orifice diameter (dJ is usually between 0.1 and 0.7. The ori-
fices are laid out in an equilateral triangle pattern with spacing equal to 2 or 3
times their diameter. Under these conditions, the orifice surface area A ,
accounts for 5 to 20% of the total plate surface area.
A variation on the model is the jet plate that generates a horizontal stream
of vapor from the orifices. This solution is designed to push the liquid and
thereby handle its flow better. It helps minimize dead zones and therefore
reduces the dispersion that characterizes the liquid flow. Reducing dispersion
was seen to improve Murphree efficiency in Volume 2, Chapter 4.

1.2.3 Valve Plate

This is a compromise between the two previously discussed types of plate. It
is a perforated plate whose orifices are equipped with valves. Valve lifting
height depends on the vapor flow rate and the vapor flows horizontally
through the liquid exactly the same as with bubble cap slots. Valve plates have
gradually displaced bubble cap plates because their performance is slightly
superior and the cost is lower. There is a wide variety of valve shapes: round,
triangular or elongate. With some models (Flexitray or Ballast tray) the valve
can be weighted depending on the vapor flow rate. Each manufacturer prc

-
Figure
1.8A Norton valves.
 Chapter 1 . GAS-LIQUID
CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 15

poses his own range (Fig. 1.8A to C): e.g. Glitsch proposes the V and A series,
Norton the L and M types and Koch the A and T series. Only the Glitsch V and
A types will be described here as they are very representative of all the prod-
ucts available on the market.
V-1: standard valve for general use. Very simple construction and low
cost. The three legs fixed to the valve slide freely in the plate orifice.
Indented shapes keep the valves from sticking to the plate and insure a
minimum opening that is favorable to stability (Fig. 1.8B).
V-4: the orifice is equipped with a collar that is formed in or contoured on
the plate and serves as a venturi. This design allows a considerable
reduction in pressure drop at the entrance under the valve. The valve
may be a model V-1.
A-1: the orifice may or may not be equipped with a collar. It is covered by
a lightweight valve above which another valve of variable weight with
three legs of variable length functions as a counterweight. The whole sys-
tem moves inside a cage that serves as a guide and travel stop. The valve
opens in two stages. For low vapor flow rates, the lower valve alone is
actuated. If the flow rate increases, the upper valve lifts up. This type of
valve is recommended when the liquid flow rate is very low, whereas V
valves give at least as good performance in most other situations.
The diameter of the orifices perforated in the plate constituting the plate is
often 38.9 mm. Valve thickness is listed according to the following calibers:

Thickness
Caliber

20
18
16 1.525
14 1.875
12
10

The most common thickness ranges from 1.5 to 3.5 mm. Calibers 14 and 16
are the most widely used.
The valves corresponding to 38.9 mm orifices have a diameter of 4.79 cm
and a lifted height of about 1 cm. The layout on the plate is in an equilateral
triangle pattern 76 mm (3") on a side, or exceptionally 114 and 152 mm.

1.2.4 Plates without Downcomers

These plates consist only of simple perforated plates, so their construction is
low cost. Liquid and vapor flow counter-currently through the same orifices
(dual flow plate) that may be simple holes or fixed valves (Fig. 1.8C). Among
these models are the Sieve tray, Turbogrid and Ripple tray.
16 Chapter 1 GAS-LIOUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION. PLATE COLUMNS

Valve

Formed collar

Tray orific
Contoured collar

Model V-1 Model V-4

Travel stop

.Variable
counterweight

Light weight
orifice valve

-- Orifice collar
(optional)

Model A-1

Figure
1.8B Glitsch valves.

Liquid is retained on the plate due to the dynamic balance of liquid and
vapor flows through the holes. Liquid retention is usually low. As long a s the
flow rates d o not deviate much from design values, plate efficiencyis satisfac-
tory but low however, since the gas-liquid contact time is short. This type of
plate is reserved for use with systems prone t o fouling or producing a solid
deposit.
 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 17

Figure .'
Fixed valve
usable with or
without a down-
comer.

V-O

It must be possj le to dismantle all of these plates, which are made of car-
bon steel or steel alloy depending on product sourness. Consequently, they
are composed of elements that can pass through a manhole, i.e. with a width
of 40 to 45 cm.

1.2.5 Comparison of Plate Technologies

Sieve with Sieve without

Type Bubble cap Valve
weir weir

Capacity Average High High Very high

Flexibility Excellent Good Average Poor
Entrainment High Moderate Moderate Moderate
Pressure drop High Average Average Average
cost High = 2 to 3 Moderate = Low = 1 Low
1 to 2
Maintenance Fairly high Moderate Low Low
Plugging
tendency High Moderate Low Very low
Design Well known Well known Well known Less well
by suppliers known
Recommended Low liquid rery wide range If flexibility If plugging
applications flow rate unnecessary expected
Market share 5% 70% 25% Specific
applications
Table
Comparison o f different types of plates.
18 Chapter I GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS

Today 70% of the market share is held down by valve plates, 25% by sieve
plates with downcomers and only around 5% by bubble cap plates.
Accordingly, this presentation will focus on sieve and valve plates and all the
data required for complete calculation of a column will be given. Those read-
ers interested in bubble cap plates can refer to the previous edition of this vol-
ume (Wuithier, 1972).
Table 1.1 adapted from Kister (1992) summarizes the compared character-
istics of different types of plate and can serve as a guide in choosing the type
that is best suited to a specific duty.

1.3 Correlations for Plate Sizing

When a plate is being designed, its operating point should be situated within
boundaries defined beforehand, so it is necessary to know how to reach these
boundaries. With the exception of sieve plates without downcomers, the cal-
culation methods are sufficiently well known. Despite the apparent complexity
of the different types of plate, all of the methods resort to the same basic
hydrodynamics equations, but with different empirical coefficients assigned.
The difficulty resides in choosing the appropriate empirical coefficients whose
values, as found in the literature, vary considerably.

1.3.1 Flooding Due to the Gas Phase.

Choosing the Column Diameter
As explained earlier, the vapor velocity in the open section between two plates
must not exceed a certain limit. Most of the correlations in the literature (and
especially manufacturers’ correlations) are the follow-up of original research
done by Souders and Brown who studied plate behavior from the standpoint
of entrainment. They thus defined a capacity parameter C which is expressed
as the maximum velocity in an empty vessel corrected by a density term as
shown below:

us,= c
J PL - Pv
-
pv
where Usr is the vapor velocity (m/s) at flooding in an empty vessel.
This capacity parameter depends chiefly on the physicochemical charac-
teristics of the phases, but also on the geometrical characteristics of the col-
umn. A large number of charts have been proposed to correlate C to the flow

Figure 1.9 gives such an example. By correcting the value

of C which is read by the term (0/20)~.~,

the frequently used Fair correlation is
obtained.
 Chapter 1. GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 19

1
- - - T=36" or 90crn

-
-
2
-

-
- . -- . -.
T=24"
T=18"
T=12"
T = 9"
T = 6"
or 60crn
or 45crn
or 30cm
or 23crn
or 15crn

-.
ul
E 0.1
5

0.01
0.01 0.1 10

Fair correlation to evaluate flooding conditions due to vapor entrainment of

liquid droplets.

More recently Kister and Haas (Kister, 1992) proposed a correlation of

more general application:

dH diameter of the orifices (0.33 to 2.6 cm)

T plate spacing (> 36 cm)
h,, height of clear liquid on the plate
B interfacial tension in dyn/cm (5 < o 4 80; for 0 > 25 dyn/cm,
the authors recommend using o = 25).
This equation is valid for sieve and valve plates, but can be used only in the
domain defined in the following table:

Pressure 0.1 to 35 bar abs

Gas velocity 0.45 to 4 m/s
Liquid flow rate 1.2 x to 0.03 m3/s.m of weir
Vapor density 0.5 to 160 kg/m3
Liquid density 320 to 1200 kg/rn3
Liquid viscosity 0.05 to 2 CP
Weir height 0 to 7.6 cm
20 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS

This velocity value defining column flooding limits applies only to non-
foaming mixtures. To take this into account, the corrective term SF is conven-
tionally used t o modulate this approach. A series of values based on experi-
ence is found in the literature (Kister, 1992; Glitsch, 1993). Table 1.2 proposes
a number of values taken from these references.

System SF factor
Non-foaming 1
Depropanizer 0.9
H,S stripper 0.9
Hot carbonate regenerator 0.9
Oil absorber 0.85
Topping 0.85-1
Vacuum tower for residue 0.85-1
Amine regenerator 0.85
Caustic soda washing 0.65
Amine absorber 0.73-0.8
System giving a stable foam 0.3-0.6

1 Table 1
Performance reduction factor according to the physical system involved
LY
A position at 80%flooding, i.e. a velocity equal to 0.8 times Us, is generally
used to determine column diameter. The value is totally arbitrary and is cho-
sen so as to minimize column diameter and therefore investment, while main-
taining a safety margin to insure proper column operation. The choice can be
modified by other criteria such a s the need for good flexibility or a required
product quality, should any doubt remain as to the thermodynamic model
used for simulation. Whatever the value may be, it fixes the area of the open
section (AN) designed for vapor passage, i.e. the cross-section of the column
minus the area occupied by the downcomers. Assuming roughly 15% of the
total column cross-section is occupied by downcomers:
xD2 Qv
AN = 0.85 -= -
4 0.8U,,
where Qv is the vapor flow rate (m3/s).

1.3.2 Determining Plate Spacing

The standard way of determining plate spacing habitually depends on column
diameter. Spacing is generally assumed to be 45 cm for diameters of less than
1.2 m and 60 or 75 cm for more than 1.2 m. Spacing o f 90 cm is only seldom
necessary in zones where there is a high liquid flow rate (circulating reflux
zone, for example). However, this “standard”spacing determination should be
 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 21

checked to make sure that the two constraints guaranteeing proper plate oper-
ation have been observed, i.e.:
there is sufficient height for good liquid and vapor disengagement;
the clear liquid height in the downcomer is less than 50% of the spacing.
The spacing choice can be modified locally due to the presence of man-
holes required for inspection.

1.3.3 Nature of the GassLiquid M i x t u r e on the Active Z o n e

Depending on the vapor and liquid flow rates, the interaction of the two
phases on the plate can give rise to various regimes, as indicated in Figure 1.10
(regimes with bubbles, foam or froth, mist or emulsion), whose transitions are
difficult to anticipate. The different modes of operation influence plate behav-
ior, but this aspect will not be developed in this volume.
In contrast, it may be useful to calculate the aeration factor in order to
check that spacing is sufficient, among other reasons. The correlation below
proposes a calculation method:

a+bxU,-G
P=
a+cxU,&

U, superficial vapor velocity in the contact zone

a = 1.063; b = 2.002; c = 3.94 for valve plates
(I = 2.193; b = 2.067; c = 4.198 for bubble cap or sieve plates

is close to 0.6 in normal operation.

I :It Flooding

Liquid flow rate

Q
L
Ld
-
22 Chapter 7 G A S - L ~ Q U ~CONTACTORS
D FOR DfSTfLLATfON: PLATE C3LUMNS

1.3.4 Downcomer Cross4Jection

The liquid that goes over the downstream weir and falls into the downcomer
is not clear, it entrains fine vapor bubbles and may be prone to a certain
degree of foaming. The downcomer volume must therefore be such that the
liquid residence time is sufficient for degassing to take place. The fraction of
vapor volume in the downcomer ranges from 0.6 at the top in the layer of foam
t o 0 at the bottom in the clear liquid. The average value is difficult to predict
a s it largely depends on system foamability.
Various correlations have been suggested t o fix a maximum value for the
liquid flow rate in the downcomer so as to let degassing occur and avoid vapor
entrainment. Some authors consider that the apparent residence time (ratio of
the liquid flow rate to the downcomer volume) should be between 3 and 7 s a s
indicated below:

Apparent
Foamability Examples
residence time (s)
~

Low Light products, alcohols 3

Average Average molecular weight 4
products
High Absorbers 5
Very high Amines or glycols 7

Other authors (Kister, 1992) prefer to specify a maximum velocity depend-

ing on the foamability and the between-plate spacing T, a s in the following

n
table:

Maximum clear liquid velocity (cm/s)

Foamability Examples
T = 45 cm T = 60 cm T = 75 cm

15-18 18-2 1
Average
Low Topping,
Light products
absorbers 12-15
9-12 12-15 15-18
High Amines, glycols 6-8

It is usually recommended to choose a downcomer cross-section greater

than 8%of the total column cross-sectional area. For very low liquid flow rates,
circular downcomers may be used. However, their cross-section must be twice
as large a s that calculated on the basis of the recommendations above. At the
bottom of the downcomer the liquid reaches the plate below flowing horizon-
tally through a cross-section A , where it undergoes a pressure drop h,:

h, = 16.5 (%
QL )
2
 Chapfer 1 GAS-LlOUlO CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 23

The linear velocity in this zone is approximately 0.5 m/s, but it must be
reduced for foaming systems. The flow area at the base of the downcomer is
generally between 1/2 and 113 of the cross-section at the top of the down-
comer.

1.3.5 Weirs. Downcomers

The flow of a liquid over a straight weir consisting of a thin plate can be dealt
with using the basic hydrodynamics equations (Francis equation). If QL stands
for the liquid flow rate in m3/s and hod the height of liquid (in cm) above the
weir of a length L, (in m), the following equation can be written:

( )
hod = 66.4 -QL 2/3

This formula is correct for the liquid in free fall behind the weir. If the liq-
uid stream touches the wall or if the liquid flow is disturbed approaching the
weir, a corrective coefficient Fd must be incorporated which depends on the
relationship between the length of the weir (L,), the inside diameter of the col-
umn (DT) and the liquid flow rate (QJ:

The upper boundary depends on the term L,/D,:

LdIDT Maximum F d

1 1.10
0.9 1.18
0.8 1.21
0.7 1.23
0.6 1.24
0.5 1.25

When the liquid flow rate is too low, the flow no longer occurs evenly along
the weir. Weirs with rectangular or sawtooth shaped edges can be used to
solve this problem. Equations 1.6 and 1.7 can be used for rectangular patterns
by calculating QL on the basis of the lower part of the cutouts, while the cor-
rective factor F, is calculated on the basis of the total length of the weir. The
sawtooth pattern is usually made up of adjacent equilateral triangles with a
height h,. Equation 1.8 can be applied when the flow covers the teeth
(hod > h,,), whereas Eq. 1.9 is valid when the teeth are exposed (hod < h,). The
ratio (L,/h,) takes the number of weir teeth into account.
QL 1
- = 7.32.10-* - [h:: - (hod - h,)2.5]
Ld h,
24 Chaoler 1 GAS-LIQUID C@NTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION. PLATE COLUMNS

h2S
QL od
- = 6.81.10-4 -
Ld h"
For circular weirs with a diameter d d in cm, the height of liquid is calculated
with the following formula:

hod = 876 ( $) 0.704

(1.10)

Weir length is calculated based on the downcomer cross-sectional area and

the number of passes selected for the plate. Since the liquid flow rate per unit
of length (QJLd) must range between 0.0174 and 0.0323 m3/s.m, the number of
passes must be chosen so as to comply with this constraint. One of the plate
configurations presented in Figure 1.4 is generally used: direct flow, double
pass, double pass and cascade or three pass. The table below gives approxi-
mate values for liquid flow rates depending on the number of passes and the
column diameter.

Diameter Liquid flow rate

Number of passes
(m) (m3/h)
0.60-1.80 7-90
1.50-4.00 90-250
2.40-5.00 200-400
4.00-6.00 4 250-450

The length of each weir depends on the corresponding downcomer cross-

section. The relations between the different elements of a circle can be used in
calculations (Fig. 1.11):

Ld
< t

Figure
1.11 1 Geometrical relations between the
differentelements o f a circle used
for calculating weir lengths and
downcomer areas.
 Chapler 1 GAS-LIQUID
CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 25

The length of a chord (Ld) can be found based on the half-angle at the cen-
ter 0:

Ld = DT sin (0) (1.1 la)

The area A D of the segment of the circle limited by the chord is found by:

D ; [ w - sin (0) x cos (w)]

AD = - (1.llb)
4
with w expressed in radians.
The height H of the segment is expressed by the equation:

H = [ l -COS (a)] -
DT ( l. llc )
2
These relations are used to calculate Hand Ld based on the required down-
comer cross-section and number of passes (NP). Tables can be found in the lit-
erature giving values of & and A D (downcomer cross-section) versus Hand DT
(Perry, 1984). The curves in Figure 1.12 can also be used to find these param-
eters. The table below gives examples of the percent of cross-section occupied
by each downcomer versus number of passes (see Fig. 1.13).

Number % of downcomer crossection

of
passes AD 1 AD2 AD3 AD4

1 100
2 50 100
3 34 66
4 25 50 50
5 20 40 40

Downcomer dimensions are often adjusted t o take the dimensions of dif-

ferent types of standard plate elements into account. Moreover, when the
downcomer cross-section is large (> 20% of the plate area), it may be advanta-
geous to reduce its cross-section at the base means of an inclined apron. As a
result, the cross-section at the base of the downcomer may be only half the
cross-section required at the top (Fig. 1.2).
The length of the liquid path on the plate (TLP) is calculated on the basis
of downcomer width and number of passes:

3
TLP= NP x(l+x(:)) (1.12)

where Hi is the width of each of the downcomers.

26 Chapter 7 GAS-LlQUlD CONJACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS

0.9

0.8
.
0.7

0.6
,,
,
I

0.5 I
I

I
I
I
I
0.4 - I
I
I
I
I
0.3

0.2

0.1

Figure
1.12 Curves giving the ratios L d D r and H/Dr versus the percent of the column
cross-section occupied by downcomers.

The value of TLP fixes the number of orifices that can be located in the
active part of the plate. TLP values lower than 40 cm are not recommended.
Weir height is often approximately 5 cm but can vary widely from 1 cm for vac-
uum columns to 15 cm for reactions in the liquid phase.

1.3.6 Liquid Gradient on the Plate

The lowest level is situated directly above the weir. In the upstream direction
a liquid gradient can be seen which depends on the flow rate, t h e geometry
and spacing density of valves a s well as the vapor flow rate from the orifices.
 Chapter 1. GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION:
PLATE COLUMNS 27

I-

Figure
1.13 Differentarrangements possible depending on the number o f passes.
28 Chapter 1. GAS-L~OUID
CONTACTORS FOR DiSTfLLATfON: PLATE COLUMNS

The liquid gradient (h,,) is usually calculated for the plate without the vapor
flow rate and then a correction coefficient is inserted, which depends on vapor
velocity and density.
Since the liquid gradient is lower for sieve and valve plates than for bubble
cap plates, it is often disregarded in calculating the vapor pressure drop.

1.3.7 Vapor Pressure Drop

As it passes through the plate the vapor first undergoes contraction and then
circulates under the valve before flowing into the liquid, bubbling through it to
the surface. The pressure drop calculation can be broken down into two parts:
1. The pressure drop (h,) due to flow through the orifice, given by the stan-
dard equation:

h, = Kl + K2 (f ) u i (in cm of liquid) (1.13)

where ug is the velocity of the vapor through the orifice.

5.08
For sieve plates: K , = 0 and K, = -
G
Cv depends (Eq. 1.14) on the ratio (Red) between the plate thickness and the
orifice diameter as well as on (R,) the perforation density:

Cv = 0.59 + 0.721 x R, + 0.231 x Red - 0.164 x Rzd + 0.119 x R2d (1.14)

This expression is valid for 0.1 Red i1.2 and 0.05 < R, < 0.2. In actual prac-
tice Red is most often between 0.4 and 0.7.
In valve plates, the size of the orifice varies when the valve lifts and the
pressure drop remains constant for a range of flow rates corresponding to
gradual opening of the valve. The values of K , and K2 depend on the type of
valve and in particular on its weight. Valve plate manufacturers provide the
values specific to their products. For example, Glitsch (1993) gives two expres-
sions to calculate pressure drop through V-1 or V-4 type valves:
Partial opening: h, = 0.135 x t, - Pv U2,
PIIl + K , - (1.15)
PL PL
h, is expressed in cm of liquid
fm is the valve thickness in mm, and
U, the velocity in the orifice in m/s

Total opening: Pv U 2,
h, = K2 - (1.16)
PL

The following values of K, and K2 are also given:

 Chapter 1 GAS-LIOUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 29

Type of K , for plate thickness (mm) oE

valve K, 1.88 2.64 3.40 4.75 6.35

v-1 5.46 32 25.9 23.5 18.3 16.6

v4 2.73 18.6 18.6 18.6 - -

Valve thicknesses vary between 0.94 and 3.4 mm, while the density of the
metal they are made of (p,) can vary from 4510 kg/m3 for titanium to
11340 kg/m3 for lead. The density of stainless steel is approximately
8 000 kg/m3.
The velocity through the orifices is calculated based on the total number
of valves (NU) and the vapor flow rate:

u,= NU
- Qv (1.17)
x So
So is the equivalent cross-section of an orifice, for example 11.9 cm2 for com-
mon valves.
The maximum number of valves NU in multi-part plates with a 3" triangular
layout can be roughly assessed as follows:

Active area (m,) Number of passes Valve per m2

Less than 2 1 120

From 2 to 15 1 155
From 0.8 to 4 2 110
From 4 to 32 2 140

2. The equivalent height of liquid (hCJ that the vapor has to pass through
when it leaves the orifice:
hcl = P x h, (1.18)
P aeration factor, given by Eq. 1.4
h, average height of liquid on the plate.
h, is then calculated as follows:
h
h, = h + hod+ A! (1.19)
2
h height of the weir.
The pressure drop per plate is therefore:
hp = h, + h,, (1.20)
The pressure balance around the plate can thus be written:
H d = h, + h, + hp (1.21)
30 Chapter 1. GAS-LIOUID
CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS

Hd is the height of clear liquid in the downcomer, which must not exceed
50%of the plate spacing.

1.3.8 Entrainment
As mentioned earlier, entrainment reduces plate efficiency.Whatever the plate
regime (bubbles, jets, emulsion, froth or foam) the result is practically the
same, i.e. the formation of liquid droplets (of a variety of sizes) entrained by
the vapor. An increase in the vapor flow rate obviously accentuates this. In
contrast, entrainment passes through a minimum when the liquid flow rate
increases, and the minimum corresponds to a change in regime on the plate.
There are a number of correlations designed to estimate the entrainment ratio
Y, among which the Fair correlation (1961) which is often mentioned in the lit-
erature. The entrainment ratio, Y , expressed a s a fraction of the total liquid
flow rate, can be read in Figure 1.14.

Figure

1.3.9 Weeping
For bubble caps, a tiny amount of weeping comes from the purge holes (diam-
eter from 1 t o 1.5 cm) required to drain the column during shutdowns. This
constant leakage is not detrimental t o satisfactory plate operation. For sieve
 Chapter 1 . GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 31

or valve plates however, liquid may constantly leak through the orifices which
are not fluid-tight. This leakage, called “weeping” must remain below a certain
acceptable rate. The lower the vapor flow rate, the more weeping occurs. The
conditions for weeping to be at a minimum can be estimated by writing a force
balance around a plate orifice (Kister, 1992):
h, + h, = h + hod (1.22)
h, corresponds to the capillary pressure and is calculated as follows:
0
h, = 4.09 - (1.23)
PLd,
From this equation, Fair proposed a correlation with the following form:
h, + h, 2 f ( h + hod)
that can be expressed by the following approximate relation:

h, + h, 3
[ (ti 11+
(h + hod) 0.125 + 2.33 - - 0.1

which gives the conditions for a lack of any appreciable weeping.

0.7 (1.24)

This correlation, established for sieve plates, may also be used for valve
plates by employing the value of the valve slot surface area for A,.

1.3.10 Efficiency
Several basic plate efficiency concepts were discussed in Volume 2
(Chapter 4). As a reminder, distillation columns are usually calculated by
means of theoretical stages. It is necessary to have calculation tools that take
the reality of mass and heat transfers into account. Since the contact time
between the two phases is limited, it is impossible to reach thermodynamic
equilibrium. The concept of Murphree efficiency is conventionally used. It
compares the degree of separation really achieved with the separation that
would be accomplished with a theoretical plate. If yn stands for the average
vapor composition leaving plate R , yny1that arriving from the plate below and
y*, the theoretical composition of the vapor that would be in equilibrium with
the liquid leaving the plate, Murphree defined the vapor efficiency of the plate,
EM”, by the expression:
Y n - Yn-1
*
Y n - Yn-I
) (1.25)

The liquid efficiency of the plate could be defined in the same way. It varies
from plate to plate and is not strictly speaking the same for all the components
of the mixture being processed.
Another approach consists in defining an overall efficiency E, which is the
simple ratio between the number of theoretical plates required to represent
the operation of a column and the actual number of plates. Under certain con-
ditions, EMV and E can be related by the following equation:
32 Chaoter 1 GAS-L~OU~O
CONTACTORS FOR DiSTlLLATlON: PLATE COLUMNS

(1.26)

where h is the absorption factor of the column, h = -mvM with VM,LM the molar
LM
flow rates of vapor and liquid crossing the plate and m the slope of the equi-
librium curve.
Among other hypotheses, this equation assumes a constant absorption fac-
tor. This extremely restrictive assumption has led a good many authors to seek
a formula using the variables that directly condition efficiency, i.e.:

the liquid viscosity, which influences mass transfer through the liquid-
vapor interface film;
the vapor velocity in the liquid, which acts on the contact time and the
degree of entrainment;
the liquid height that the vapor passes through in relation to the contact
time and the pressure drop;
the configuration of liquid flow on the plate;
the relative volatility of components, which governs the approach to
equilibrium: the higher it is, the better the efficiency.
For further details on this topic, the reader can consult Volume 2,
Chapter 4, where the influence of types of liquid and vapor flow is considered
in particular.
It is widely accepted that viscosity is the determining factor and the
O’Connell correlation (Kister, 1992) is often used:
E = 0.492 ( j ~ ~ ~ t ) - ~ . ~ ~ ~ (1.27)
where pL is the viscosity of the liquid expressed in centipoises, and a the rel-
ative volatility of the key components at the mean column temperature. This
correlation is based on data obtained with bubble cap plates and undoubtedly
underestimates the efficiencies achieved by valve plates.
Recently Jacimovic et al. (1996) proposed a simple correlation to calculate
the Murphree efficiency emphasizing the importance of the absorption
factor h:

EM = 0.726 x h-0.299
exp (1.28)

Other more complex formulas have also been proposed based on a theo-
retical analysis of mass transfer on the plates as well as vapor and liquid flows
(AIChE, 1960). However, they give rather optimistic efficiency values (Kister,
1992). The values utilized for efficiency should always be compared with the
experimental ones obtained with a similar physical system. Generally speak-
ing, efficiency can be considered to always remain lower than 50% in absorp-
tion, due to the high viscosity at low temperature. Meanwhile, it is usually
 Chapter 1 GAS-LlQUlD CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 33

higher than 50%in distillation. Efficiency also depends on plate operating con-
ditions, particularly the vapor flow rate. Maximum efficiency is reached at
around 30% of flooding.
Plate efficiency can obviously be related to mass transfer coefficients and
interfacial area. Even though columns are usually calculated on the basis of
theoretical plates (see Vol. 2), it may be useful to have the interfacial area and
mass transfer coefficients for certain applications, for example when a chemi-
cal reaction takes place at the same time in the column. A number of correla-
tions can be used to assess these parameters (Trambouze et al., 1984), but
they must be employed with care because they were obtained with small diam-
eter columns and particular systems. Only approximate values for these
parameters are given below:
2 x 10-2 < k , < 10-1 (m/s)
1.5 x 1 0 - ~< k , < 4.5 x 1 0 - ~ (m/s)
100 < A,, < 350 (m- '1

1.4 Calculating Plate Dimensions

The method is identical for all types of plates and assumes that the fractiona-
tor has been calculated beforehand plate by plate as indicated in Volume 2. To
begin with the plates with the highest vapor and liquid loads are identified in
the different parts of the column, at the top and bottom in particular. At this
stage the physical system involved also has to be characterized with respect
to its foamability so as to assign a corrective flooding factor (SF).First the
plate spacing is chosen as indicated in Section 1.3.2. Then the plate diameter,
downcomer cross-section, number of passes, weir lengths and liquid crest
height are calculated. After this, calculation of the specific plate characteris-
tics is based on the fact that the liquid height in the downcomers (Ifd) must
offset all the vapor pressure drops and allow the liquid to flow.
Plate operation should then be checked for the minimum flow rate consid-
ered in order to make sure that the plate does not leak excessively. These dif-
ferent specific elements allow the chosen plate to be checked to see that it is
capable of fulfilling its function properly. A sieve plate can be considered sta-
ble when it works at between 50 and 80% of the maximum flow rate at flood-
ing.
A distinction is made in most columns between the stripping section and
the rectifying section located on either side of the feed inlet. In these sections
vapor and liquid flow rates and the slopes of operating lines differ consider-
ably, so column diameter calculations understandably have to be repeated for
each section. A different diameter must often be chosen for the rectifying sec-
tion and the stripping section. As a general rule, whenever a column has inter-
mediate feed inlets or draw-offs, flooding calculations must be repeated for
each of the sections.
34 Chapter I GAS-LlOUlD CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION:
PLATE COLUMNS

The choice of working pressure, along with product corrosivity and various
constraints such as wind effect, will dictate the shell thicknesses at different
heights, the grade of steel to be used and whether inner plating is required. An
example of sieve plate calculation is given below along with the equations
employed.
A bottom plate is chosen in a depropanizer processing 1000 kmol/h of feed,
60% of which is withdrawn at the top and 40% at the bottom. The plate with
maximum liquid and vapor flow rates is selected. The flow rates and proper-
ties of the phases on this plate are given below:

Liquid Vapor Units

Mass flow rate 84 111 58 564 kg/h

Density 435.6 57.9 kg/m:'
Volume flow rate 193.1 1011.5 m3/h
Viscosity 0.113 CP
Interfacial tension 2.84 mN/m

The selected plate characteristics are:

sieve plate with a weir 5 cm high,
plate thickness: 0.6 cm,
perforation density: lo%,
hole diameter: 1.27 cm,
plate spacing: 60 cm.
A system factor SF= 0.9 will be chosen by referring to Table 1.2 for this type
of distillation.
Calculating vapor flooding

Fair's correlation:
G
In Figure 1.9, C = 0.36 can be read for 60 cm plate spacing.
The flooding rate 4,can be found based on Fair's equation:
Us, = 0.36 x 0.3048 - (
;)O.Z( PLP,PV 10.5

At 80% of the flooding value, the maximum vapor velocity is found:

U,,, = 0.8 x S F x 4,= 0.183 m/s
This can be compared with the slightly higher value that Eq. 1.2 would pro-
vide, i.e. Umax= 0.206 m/s. To be on the safe side, the more conservative first
value will be chosen.
The vapor area can then be readily calculated:
 Chapter 1 . GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 35

Q" = 2.13 m2
Vapor area = -
~ m a x

Taking the system into account, a linear velocity will be selected for the
liquid of 7 cm/s in the downcomers. The total downcomer cross-section
should therefore be:
QL
Liquid cross-section = - = 0.77 m2
0.07
The total column cross-section will be 2.90 m2. The diameter is then easily
calculated : D, = 1.92 m.
Subsequently, weir dimensions are calculated assuming one single pass.
Since the surface area occupied by the downcomers is 26.5% the correspond-
ing Ld/DT and HID, ratios can be read in Figure 1.12:
L,/D, = 0.925 i.e. L, = 1.78 m
HID, = 0.31 i.e. H (downcomer width) = 0.60 m
Following this, the liquid flow rate per meter of weir is calculated:
QL
- = 0.0302
Ld
which is compared with the uppermost recommended limit of 0.032 m3/m.s.
Since the calculated value is very close to the limit, it is unquestionably better
to have two passes. The dimensions of side weirs are calculated in the same
way using 13.25%of the column cross-section. Here the result is L,/D, = 0.784
and L, = 1.51 m. The side downcomer width is H , = 0.36 m. The central down-
comer can be readily calculated, since the length is 97.7% of the diameter, i.e.
L, = 1.88 and H2 = 0.41 m. The flow rate per unit of weir length is then 0.0178
on the sides and 0.0143 in the center. The results are located at the bottom of
the recommended range (0.017 to 0.032). A choice is therefore possible, but
two passes are preferable given the column diameter.
The length of flow paths (TLP) can easily be calculated:
TLP = (DT - H , - H2/2) = 0.58 m
i.e. higher than the lowermost recommended limit of 40 cm.
Then the residence time in the downcomers is calculated:
Section x T x 3600
ts = = 8.6 s
QL

which is much higher than the recommended time for such a system, i.e. 5 s.
The residence time can be shortened by inclining the flat walls of the down-
comers so that the cross-section at the base is half that at the downcomer top.
As a result, the residence time is brought down to 6.4 s, which is more than
enough.
Now the pressure drop across the plate has t o be calculated. The liquid
height above the weir is found by using Eqs. 1.6 and 1.7, i.e. h,, = 4.63 cm on
36 Chapter 1 GAS-L~QU~D
CONTACTORS FOR DlSTlLLATlON: PLATE COLUMNS

the side weirs. The aeration factor is given by Eq. 1.4: = 0.595. The clear liq-
uid height is then found:
h,, = p(h + hod) = 5.73 cm
The orifice coefficient Cv is calculated by means of Eq. 1.14: Cv = 0.78. The
pressure drop through the orifice is calculated by relation 1.13:
h, = 4.59 cm of liquid
The overall pressure drop in cm of liquid is then easily found:
h,, = h, + h,, = 10.26
Now the pressure drop (h,) can be calculated at the bottom of the down-
comer where it narrows down to 1/3 of the top cross-section:
h, = 0.73 cm of liquid
The liquid height (H,,) in the downcomer is found by Eq. 1.21, i.e. 18 cm and
consequently much lower than one-half of the plate spacing. The last point is
to check that weeping is not excessive by using Eq. 1.24:
0
h, = 4.09 -= 0.021
PL x do

h, + h, = 4.61
The second member of Eq. 1.24 is easy t o calculate = 1.9. Inequality 1.24 is
thus more than verified, indicating that the weeping ratio is negligible.
Plate efficiency is then calculated using Eq. 1.27:

E = 0.492 @L x = 0.67

The plate that was calculated above can be represented a s in Figure 1.15.
This type of calculation lends itself well t o being performed with a spreadsheet
such a s Excel, so that it can be repeated with varying operating conditions to
find the best solution.

1.5 Other Parts of a Column

In addition to the plates which cause the gas-liquid contact to occur, it is nec-
essary to incorporate other devices designed to let the fluids into the column
and withdraw the products after or during separation. The following points are
crucial:
the physical state of the injected fluid;
this fluid must be properly mixed with the liquid and vapor streams
inside the column;
 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION:
PLATE COLUMNS 37

I I
I H, I
-1

Diagram of the plate defined by the

example calculation.

inlet piping must not be an obstacle to circulation on the plates;

the injected fluid must be distributed proportionally to the active areas
for plates with several passes.
Accordingly, there are specially designed plates for feed inlet that will dif-
fer depending on whether the feed is liquid, mixed-phase or vapor and
whether the plate has one or more passes. Figure 1.16 gives a few examples of
different configurations. The reflux is often let in on the uppermost plate a s
indicated in Figure 1.17. Above the top plate a sufficient disengagement height
is required t o reduce liquid entrainments in the overhead vapor line.
Consequently, a distance of 1.5 x T, with a minimum of 1 meter is usually left
between plate and the head weld.
Some plates may be designed for intermediate liquid withdrawal as indi-
cated in Figures 1.18A and B. Meanwhile, the bottom draw-off is taken directly
from a downcomer coming out in either the center or the side wall (Fig. l.lSC)
of the column bottom. The velocity in draw-off piping must not exceed 0.7 m/s.
The volume of liquid at the bottom of the column must provide residence
time commensurate with the draw-off control system, the same as for a drum.
Residence time may be 2 min when the product is sent to storage simply with
a level controller. In contrast, if relative stability of the withdrawn liquid flow
rate is desired, the residence time can vary from 5 to 15 min depending on how
necessary it is to achieve a constant flow rate.
38 Chapter 1. GAS-LlOUlO CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS

$
. - . - .- .

Figure
1.16 Diagrams showing differentdesigns for feed inlet inside a column.
A. Liquid feed inlet on a single-pass plate. B. Vapor feed inlet on a single-pass
 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS 39

Downcomer Downcomer
width
Inlet
weir \ weir \

Downcomer
width
I Dowr
vidth

1 Figure
1.17 Examples o f design for reflux inlet on a plate.

I
~~

C
...........- .

i
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -
From
reboiler

Liquid

I Draw-off
To
reboiler
Bottom
draw-off

Diagrams showing different configurations o f liquid phase withdrawal from a

column.
A. Side draw-off from a single-pass plate. B. Central draw-off from a double-
pass plate. C. Withdrawal from the bottom o f the column.
40 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION: PLATE COLUMNS

At the feed inlet, plate spacing is generally greater than that used for the
rest of the column, even if only to have a manhole located at this level. A
change in the number of passes, often related to a draw-off or an inlet, also
requires increased spacing of up to around 1 meter.
Sections with different diameters are interconnected by means of a trun-
cated cone with a 30” angle.

1.6 Comparison of Different m e s of Plates

It is hard to answer the question: “What is the best type of plate?” Given the
variety of desired specifications, great care is required in choosing a plate.
Bubble cap plates have been known and used for a long time. With time, man-
ufacturers of this type of plate have continued systematic hydrodynamic
research in order to improve its capacity, efficiency and cost price. The wealth
of literature on the subject bears witness to this concern (Wuithier, 1972).
Today the safety margin is reduced to a strict minimum and the maximum
capacity stated by the manufacturer can not usually be exceeded. Most of the
other types of plate have a greater capacity than the bubble cap plate. This is
because the lack of bubble caps allows more surface area to be devoted to ori-
fices. The increase in flow rate can reach 20 to 40% in some cases. In vacuum
distillation, plates have been designed to increase capacity even more.
For columns working at atmospheric pressure or higher, the differences
observed in pressure drop values per plate are negligible generally speaking.
However, for vacuum or superfractionation columns, either sieve plates or
special plates should be preferred.
The sourness and deposition tendency of distilled products are further cri-
teria to be taken into consideration. Unless costly special steels are used, car-
bon steel sieve plates have a low tolerance for corrosion as orifice diameters
get larger, thereby modifying plate characteristics. Additionally, if the orifices
are small diameter, they may become partially or totally plugged by deposits.
Lastly, one of the determining factors in choosing a plate is its cost, includ-
ing initial investment and maintenance. A good study will not be confined to
comparing the prices of plates of the same diameter. Instead, it will take into
consideration capacities, efficiencies and flexibility in order to determine the
overall price of the column.

References
AIChE Research Committee (1960) Tray efficiencies in Distillation Columns.
Fair J.R. (1961) Petro. Chern. Engr. 33, 10, 45.
Fleming P.E. et al. (1996) Pay attention to reflux/feed entry design. Chemical
Engineering Progress, Jan. 1996, 56-64.
 Chapter 1 GAS-LIQUID CONTACTORS FOR DISTILLATION:
PLATE COLUMNS 41

Jacimovic B.M., Genic S.B. (1996) Use a new approach to find Murphree tray
efficiency. Chemical Engineering Progress, Aug. 1996, 46-51.
Kister H.Z. (1992) Distillation - Design. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Perry R.H., Green Don W. (1984) Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 6th Edn.
McCraw-Hill Book Co.
Trambouze P. et al. (1988) Chemical reactors design, engineering, operation.
Editions Technip, Paris.
Wuithier P. et al. (1972) Le pe'trole : Raffinage et Ge'nie Chimique. Editions
Technip, Paris.