Science Teaching Kit for Senior Secondary Curriculum

Force and Motion

Forces in Buildings —
A Historical
[Student notes]
Review

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Contents

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

Preamble
Learning plan i

Lesson 1 : Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

1.1 Concepts of Forces in Historic Buildings 02

1.2 Structural Systems in Historic Buildings 02

1.2.1 The ‘Step Pyramid’ in Saqqara (2600 BC) 02
1.2.2 Lion Gate in Mycenae (1200 BC) 03
1.2.3 Aqueduct in Segovia (50 AD) 04
1.2.4 Colosseum in Rome (80 AD) 04
1.2.5 Pantheon in Rome (126 AD) 05
1.2.6 Romanesque Architecture (500 -1100 AD) 06
1.2.7 Gothic Architecture (1100 -1400 AD) 07
1.2.8 Renaissance Architecture (1300 -1600 AD) 09

Summary, Key words and Further reading 13

Disclaimer
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in the project. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in these materials/events (or by members of the project team) do not reflect the
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© 2012 Hong Kong Institute of Architects
Topic 01
Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

Major teaching areas Interdisciplinary teaching areas

Physics : Chapter II Force and Motion Design and Applied Technology:
• Force and motion • Strand 2 Technological Principles
• Strand 3 Value and Impact

Learning objectives

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

• To appreciate historic buildings for the performance of their structure
• To understand how forces are transferred in basic structural elements
• To learn how ancient builders transformed basic structural elements to satisfy different needs and
requirements

Learning plan
Lesson Contents
Lesson 1 • 1.1 Review of Newton’s Laws of force and motion
Forces in Buildings — • 1.2 Principles of force and basic structural elements in ancient
A Historical Review buildings in chronological order

1 The ‘Step Pyramid’ in Saqqara (2600 BC)

2 Lion Gate in Mycenae (1200 BC)
3 Aqueduct in Segovia (50 AD)
4 Colosseum in Rome (80 AD)
5 Pantheon in Rome (126 AD)
6 Romanesque Architecture (500 -1100 AD)
7 Gothic Architecture (1100 -1400 AD)
8 Renaissance Architecture (1300 -1600 AD)

i
 Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

ii
— A Historical Review
Forces in Buildings
Lesson 1
Lesson 1
Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review
‘Passion can create drama out of inert stone.’
— Le Corbusier

1.1 Concepts of Forces in Historic Buildings

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) first published his concepts of force, motion, inertia and gravity in 1687.
Since then, Newton’s Laws of force and motion have been widely used in the physical sciences. However,
even before Newton’s theory appeared, architects, engineers and builders had long been coming up with
innovative structural solutions based on available materials and methods.

When an object is in equilibrium, the sum of all net forces equals to zero. This is true of a building as it
is for a smaller object. A stable building structure supports three types of loads, or forces: live load, dead
load and environmental load. Different structural systems — some of them quite aesthetically pleasing -—
were developed to withstand these loads in the most efficient way possible.

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

[Discussion]
1 Can you outline the three laws of motion stated by Sir Isaac Newton?
First Law:

Second Law:

Third Law:

01
1.2 Structural Systems in Historic Buildings
1.2.1 The ‘Step Pyramid’ in Saqqara (2600 BC)

The ‘Step Pyramid’ (ziggurat) in Saqqara is the first great stone step Load-bearing wall
pyramid of tomb architecture. It is 62 m high, with a base of 109 x 125 m. The walls of the pyramid are load-
A pyramid is a very efficient structure made of converging triangles. The bearing. Stone blocks were stacked
‘Step Pyramid’ is part of the UNESCO World Heritage site that also includes up to make the structure, and mortar
Egypt’s most famous pyramids. was used to ‘glue’ pieces together
for extra strength. A well-built load-
bearing wall is very effective in resisting
compressive forces, but stone is
relatively weak in tension.

Force on the load-bearing

wall

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

Counteracting
internal force
p The ‘Step Pyramid’, Saqqara
© Tentoila – Wikipedia User

Reaction force on the wall

from the earth
p Forces in a load-bearing wall
[Discussion]
1 Tilted surfaces were used to reduce the loads of the building.
In the following diagram, illustrates how the forces on the tilted
surfaces of the pyramid can be resolved into vertical and horizontal
components and transferred to the earth. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of this geometry?

02
1.2.2 Lion Gate in Mycenae (1200 BC)

The Lion Gate is the main entrance to the ancient Greek citadel at Mycenae.
It is a simple example of a load-bearing wall that accommodates an opening
of 3.10 m by 2.95 m. Two huge columns, carved of monolithic stone, flank Lintel
the gateway and are capped by an equally massive lintel of 4.5 x 2.0 x 0.8
m. (Bong, 2008)

Lintel (Beam-and-Column structure)

The lintel - the horizontal member atop the doorway - acts as a kind
of beam spanning over an opening and resting on two vertical supports
(columns). In ancient times, lintels were commonly made of stone or wood.

Arch
Like a column-and-beam structure, an arch spans an opening and supports
a load. However, in an arch, all the forces inside each element are resolved
into compressive stresses which serve to hold the arch together in
equilibrium. An arch tends to push outwards at the base, so an abutment
may be used to retain this outward force.

Force on the arch

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

Force on the beam
Compression at
upper part
Tension at
lower part Compression in each
structural piece
Stress point

Horizontal and vertical components

p Internal forces in a beam-and-column structure p Internal forces and load path in an arch

[Discussion]
1 Can you distinguish which part of the gate is beam- 2 Why do you think the lintel is thicker in the
and-column structure? Which part is an arch? middle?

03
1.2.3 Aqueduct in Segovia (50 AD)
“Ten Books on
The ancient Roman aqueduct in Segovia was built to channel a constant Architecture” (100 BC)
flow of clean water to the city.
In order to reach the rocky contrefort on which the city was perched the Vitruvius, a Roman architect,
builders had to erect an enormous construction of masonry 813 m in length, wrote in his Ten Books on
consisting of four straight segments and two superimposed arcades borne Architecture that a building should
by 128 pillars. At the lowest point of the valley, the aqueduct stands at a possess the qualities of ‘firmitas,
height of 28.5 m above ground. (Source: UNESCO website) utilitas, venustas’ which can be
translated as ‘firmness, usefulness
Rows of repeating arches and beauty’ or ‘structure, function
The aqueduct in Segovia was built with two tiers of arches. The outward and aesthetics’. He also suggested
forces at the base of each arch push against their neighbours to form a very that all buildings should have a
stable structure. sense of proportion derived from
the human body.

[Discussion]
1 What is the structural benefit of building repeating arches?

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

1.2.4 Colosseum in Rome (80 AD)

The Colosseum is the largest amphitheatre ever built by the ancient

Romans, a public venue that could hold tens of thousands of spectators
during events and entertainments. The structure uses vaulting and arches
to create a multi-level space that is elliptical in plan, 189 m long and with a p Aqueduct, Segovia
base area of 24,000 m2. Tiers of seating line the sides. The outer wall, which © Agamemnus - Wikipedia User
is 48 m high, is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres of
travertine stones that were set without mortar and held together by 300
tonnes of iron clamps. The building’s original perimeter was 545 m.

Vaults
A vault can be envisioned as an extruded arch (an arch that has been
multiplied or pulled to become long). It shares the same structural
characteristics of a single arch, and is a very efficient way to make structure
and enclosure at once.

p Colosseum, Rome. Section shows how vaults form hallways inside the building. (Source: “Lexikon der
gesamten Technik”, 1904) 04
 Oculus
Tension ring 7
Tension ring 6
Tension ring 5
Tension ring 4
Tension ring 3
Tension ring 2
Tension ring 1

Main wall

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

1.2.5 Pantheon in Rome (126 AD) p Section of the Pantheon. A
sphere of 43.3 m diameter could
fit inside. (Source: “Meyers
The Pantheon or ‘Temple to All Gods’ in Rome is the largest unreinforced Konversationslexikon”, 1885)
concrete dome in the world. Ancient concrete was made with volcanic
sand lime mortars, and seven tension rings were installed to withstand the
outward pushing forces at different levels and to prevent the lower support
columns from collapsing. The thickness of the wall of the dome is 6.4 m at
the base and decreases to 1.2 m at the oculus, a design feature that lowers
the overall weight of the structure without sacrificing its stability.

Dome
A dome is a hemispheric roof structure. Structurally, it can be analysed as
an arch that has been rotated around a central axis. Like an arch, a dome
enables large spaces without interior support. Tension rings can be used to
withstand the outward pushing forces of the dome. p The oculus provides the only natural
light source in the pantheon.
© Mike Hui
Compression in Force on the dome
each structural
piece

Outward pushing forces

at the base of the dome
Tension ring
The ring is in tension to
counteract the outward
pushing forces

Inner surface of a dome

p Diagrams showing the forces on a dome. 05

1.2.6 Romanesque Architecture (500-1100 AD)
Structural Elements in Romanesque Architecture

Rounded arch
Romanesque architecture can usually be recognized by its semicircular
arches. These rounded arches were used for doors and windows, for vaults
and for arcades. They were also used in naves and aisles of churches to
create tall, wide spaces.

Arcade
An arcade is a covered walkway formed of a row of arches supported by
piers or columns. In Romanesque architecture, massive piers or columns
were used to support arches. The small scale of the arcade was usually for
decoration, while larger scale elements served structural purposes.

Barrel vaults
In Romanesque churches, barrel vaults - simple arched vaults - were often
built flanking the central nave. They could support the structure of the Counteracting
central space against lateral forces, while also providing covered space for force
the congregation.

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

Wall and buttress
Wall in Romanesque buildings were relatively thick because they were load-
bearing. Buttresses were often added outside to support the walls against p Load-bearing wall with additional
lateral forces. buttress support

p The Duomo in Pisa features arches on the interior and the p The rounded vault at Speyer Cathedral, Germany.
exterior. The construction of the church begun in 1030.
Its depth is 134 m, with nave 33 m tall and 14 m
wide internally.© Berthold Werner -Wikipedia User 06
1.2.7 Gothic Architecture (1100-1400 AD)
Structural Elements in Gothic Architecture

Gothic architecture further transformed the basic structural elements of Romanesque architecture to
improve the spatial quality and natural lighting of the interiors.

Pointed arch
The rounded arch so characteristic of the Romanesque period was replaced by the pointed arch.

Ribbed vault
A ribbed vault is formed when two vaults intersect at right angles. Adding ribs at the lines of intersection
offers extra structural stability, making a lighter-weight ceiling possible.

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

p Decorative ribbed vaults at York Minster, Yorkshire (Left & Right)

[Discussion]
1 What is the advantage of the pointed arch over the rounded arch?

F
F

𝜃 𝜃

07
 Typical buttress
Flying buttress

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

p Combination of flying and typical buttresses in the Canterbury Cathedral, Kent. The space underneath
the flying buttress is enclosed to form the aisles on the two sides of the nave. Buttresses at the ground
level need not be massive.
Flying buttress
The flying buttress was invented to transfer lateral force overhead from the main hall structure to the side
structure.

[Discussion]
1 Discuss why a flying buttress is better than the typical buttresses and barrel vaults used in earlier times.

p Different solutions for lateral forces: typical buttress, barrel vault and flying buttress (left to right)

08
1.2.8 Renaissance Architecture (1300-1600 AD)
Characteristics of Renaissance Architecture
• Symmetry
• Proportion
• Geometry
• Regularity of parts

u The courtyard of the Palazzo Strozzi in Florence employs simple

geometric shapes - semi-circles, circles and rectangles - that were Courtyard of Palazzo Strozzi,
Florence
thought to echo the perfection of God.

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

St Peter’s Basilica in Italy (1506 AD)
The enormous St Peter’s Basilica is the seat of the Papacy and the Catholic Church. It was designed by
Michelangelo in Renaissance style, with the addition of a later colonnade and piazza designed by the
prominent Baroque architect and sculptor Bernini.

p St Peter’s Basilica and its piazza p The cylindrical wall at the base of a dome is called the drum. It serves
to hold the dome’s base in tension. This drum is 20m high with 16
windows© Mike Hui

09
 [Discussion]
1 Churches are built as tall as possible so as to reach the heaven. Why
two layers of dome were built in St Peter’s Basilica?

q Michelangelo’s symmetrical design for

St Peter’s Basilica has five domes.

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

q Section of St Peter’s Basilica

120 m

Outer dome
For visual expression
from exterior

Inner dome
For visual expression
from interior

Drum
The cylindrical wall at
the base of a dome

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Perspective Expressions Affecting the Structure of the Dome

Exterior view
Interior view

1 When a single perfect dome was built...

Perspective plan Visual Expression

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

Perfect dome

2 When a drum was added...

Perspective plan Visual Expression

Drum

3 When a taller outer dome was added...

Perspective plan Visual Expression

Outer dome

p View points from distance (Left) and visual expressions (Right) of three cases of dome structure
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 [Discussion]
1 What are the common building materials used in ancient and historic buildings? What are their
structural strengths and limitations?

2 How does the arch work with the structural limitations of these materials? What other structural
systems are derived from the arch?

3 What are the downsides of the arch? What did architects, engineers and builders do to solve these
problems?

4 How do modern buildings deal with structural challenges?

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

12
Summary
1. Before Newton’s theory of force and motion, architects, engineers and builders had already been
finding solutions for structural stability, based on their intelligence, experience, and available
materials and technology.
2. The form of the structural systems transformed continuously to enhance structural stability, spatial
experience and building aesthetics.
3. Structural systems commonly found in historic buildings are load-bearing walls, beam-and-column
systems, arches, vaults, buttresses and domes.

Key words
Load-bearing wall
Beam-and-column
Arch
Vault

Science | Forces in Buildings — A Historical Review

Buttress
Dome
Abutment

Further reading
1. Ching, Francis D.K. Building Construction Illustrated, 4th ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2008.
2. Bong, Wun Chok. The Gods’ Machines: From Stonehenge to Crop Circles. Berkeley, California: Frog
Books, 2008.
3. Semper, G. Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts; or, Practical Aesthetics. Los Angelos: Getty
Research Institute, 2004

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