Assembly of Building: 1.1. Development of Tall Buildings

CHAPTER 1
ASSEMBLY OF BUILDING
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1.1. Development of Tall Buildings

The term “tall building” is not defined in specific terms related to height
or the number of storeys. A building is considered tall when its struc-
tural analysis and design are in some way affected by the lateral loads,
particularly sway caused by such loads [1]. That said, the Council of Tall
Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) defines:
Category Height Exceeding
Tall building 50 m
Supertall building 300 m
Megatall building 600 m
It has always been a human aspiration to create taller and taller struc
tures. Ancient structures such as the Tower of Babel, Colossus of Rhodes,
the pyramids of Egypt, Mayan temples of Mexico, the Kutub Minar of
India and many more were apparently built as symbols of power. They
were monumental, protected and were infrequently used. Today, the deter-
mining factors for buildings to become higher are mainly the economic
and social factors, although human ego and competition are still playing a
role.
The history of the development of tall buildings can be broadly
classified into three periods. The first period saw the erection of buildings
such as the Reliance Building (Chicago, 1894, Figure 1.1), the Guaranty
Building (Buffalo, 1895, Figure 1.2), and the Carson Pirie Scott Depart
ment Store (Chicago, 1904, Figure 1.3). Most of these buildings were
masonry wall bearing structures with thick and messy walls. The vertical
and lateral loads of these structures were mainly resisted by the load
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2 Construction Technology for Tall Buildings
bearing masonry walls. The 17-storey Manadnock Building (Chicago,

1891, Figure 1.4) for example, was built with 2.13 m thick masonry walls
at the ground level. The area occupied by the walls of this building at the
ground level is 15% of the gross floor area. In addition to reduced floor
area, lightings and ventilations are major problems associated with thick
wall construction.
In the second period, with the evolution of steel structures, and sophis
ticated services such as mechanical lifts and ventilation, limitations on the
height of buildings were removed. The demand for tall buildings increased
in this period as corporations recognised the advertising and publicity
advantages of connecting their names with imposing high-rise office
buildings. It was also seen as sound financial investment as it could gen-
erate high rental income. The race for tallness commenced with a focus on
Chicago and New York. Among the more famous buildings evolved during
the period were the Woolworth Building (New York, 1930, Figure 1.5) and
the Chrysler Building (New York, 1930, Figure 1.6). The race ended with
the construction of the Empire State Building (New York, 1931, Figure 1.7)
which, measuring 381 m with the television antenna, was the tallest struc-
ture until 1970 [2–6].
Reinforced concrete established its own identity in the 1950’s into the
third period which is now regarded as modernism in construction history.
In contrast to the previous periods, where architectural emphasis was on
external dressing and historical style, the third period placed emphasis
on (a) reasons (b) functional and (c) technological facts [7]. This new
generation of buildings evolved from World Trade Center (New York,
1972–2001, Figure 1.8), Sears Tower (Chicago, 1974, Figure 1.9), Petronas
Towers (Kuala Lumpur, 1996, Figure 1.10), Taipei 101 (Taipei, 2004,
Figure 1.11), to Burj Khalifa (Dubai, 2009, Figure 1.12) [8].
The amount of materials needed in a tall building for the resistance of
gravity load is almost linear with its height. However, the same materials
needed for the resistance of lateral load (mainly wind load) increases as
the square of the wind speed. The Sears Tower (Figure 1.9) which is about
twice as tall as the Woolworth Building (Figure 1.5) has to resist wind
effects four times as large [9]. The third period of tall buildings saw the
transition of structural systems from rigid frame to more efficient struc-
tural systems [10]. The concept of channelling the gravity and wind loads
using two or more separate structural systems, giving rise to buildings with
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Assembly of Building 3
Figure 1.1. Reliance Building, Chicago, Figure 1.2. Guaranty Building (now

1894. called the Prudential Building), Buffalo,
1895.
Figure 1.3. Carson Pirie Scott Depart- Figure 1.4. Manadnock Building,
ment Store (now called the Sullivan Chicago, 1891.
Center), Chicago, 1904.
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Figure 1.5. Woolworth Building, Figure 1.6. Chrysler Building,

New York, 1930. New York, 1930.
Figure 1.7. Empire State Building, Figure 1.8. World Trade Center,
New York, 1931. New York, 1972–2001.
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Figure 1.9. Sears Tower, Chicago, Figure 1.10. Petronas Towers,

1974 (centre). Kuala Lumpur, 1996.
Figure 1.11. Taipei 101, Taipei, 2004. Figure 1.12. Burj Khalifa, Dubai, 2009.
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flexible exterior frames and an inner core of stiff wind-bracing frames,

reduces the building weight significantly. For taller buildings in excess
of roughly 60 storeys, the slender interior core and the planar frames are
no longer sufficient to effectively resist the lateral force. The perimeter
structure of the building, i.e. the outer core must be activated to undertake
this task by acting as a huge cantilever tube. Tubes are three-dimensional

hollow structures internally braced by rigid floor diaphragms, with the
cantilever out of the ground, such that overturning is resisted by the entire
spatial structure as a unit and not as separate elements. To improve the

shear stiffness of the framed perimeter tube, an inner braced steel or con-
crete tube may be added, the system is commonly referred to as ‘tube-in-
tube’. The interaction causes the outer tube to primarily resist the rotation
while the interior tube resists the shear (see Chapter 7 for more details).
The Sears Tower (Figure 1.9) with nine square tubes of different heights
“bundled” together is regarded as the most notable refinement of the
tube concept.
1.2. Building Performance and System Integration

Performance is the measurement of achievement against intention.
Building system integration is the act of creating a whole functioning
building containing and including building systems in various combina-
tions. The various criteria including energy conservation, functional
appropriateness, strength and stability, durability, fire safety, weathertight-
ness, visual/acoustical/thermal/lighting comfort and economic efficacy,
are only delivered when the entire building performs as an integrated
whole. Understanding the combination effect of the various systems on the
delivery of each performance is thus important.
With buildings getting taller and smarter, integration between various
aspects in physiology, psychology, sociology, economics, as well as the
available technology is needed. A building needs to perform the functions
of building enclosure against environmental degradation through mois-
ture, temperature, air movement, radiation, chemical and biological attack
or environmental disasters such as fire or flood. It also needs to provide
interior occupancy requirements and the elemental parameters of com-
fort. To achieve these performances requires good integration among all
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participants involved in the building process, from developers, designers,

building professionals, fabricators to workmen on the site.
Building professionals nowadays are often required to participate right
from the planning and design stage. In the case of design and build contract
for instance, the contractor is responsible for both the design and construc-
tion of a project. It is thus important that a building professional under-

stands the implications of these performances to the design, construction
as well as maintenance of a building. Among others, consideration should
be given to the following:
Structural Problems of Construction

– Loadbearing: stability develops during construction (except for con-
siderations of temporary works e.g. formwork).
– Frame construction: temporary provisions for stability, rigid joints,
bracing, shear walls.
– Special structure: bridges, space structures, provision for erection
stresses, sensitivity to construction or uneven loading.
Safety Margins, Construction Instability
– Safety margins: reduced by accurate design.
– Failure characteristics: e.g. in situ versus prestressed.
– Construction instability: appropriate temporary support, e.g. shell
construction, air-stabilised construction.
Settlement of Structures
– Ground conditions: flexibility of structure where settlement occurs.
– Effect on building design and detailing.
Services Installation
– Relationship to building use and structure.
– Provision of services — horizontal, vertical, ducting, ceiling spaces,
penetration of slabs, beams etc.
– Integration of installation.
Construction Accuracy
– Effect of shape and configuration on floor and wall area (Figure 1.13).
– Cast in situ versus prefabrication.
– Degree of restraint and critical dimensioning (Figure 1.14).
– Joints: structural separation between building elements to allow
independent movements.
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14
28
Floor Area of both A & B = 196 m2

14 A 7 B
Total Surface Area of walls
A = 168 m2
B = 210 m2
Assuming height = 3 m
Square vs Rectangle
Floor Area of both C & D = 930 m2

Total Surface Area of walls
C = 605 m2
D = 802 m2
C D
Simple vs Complicated
Figure 1.13. With the same floor area, due to different shapes (B versus A) and/or con-
figurations (D versus C), the wall area may be much larger. Wall area reflects better the
actual quantity of construction works which may include formwork, scaffolding, walling,
downpipes, jointing etc.
1.3. Cost, Quality and Time

The triangle involving cost, quality and time is well known with priority
between the three relying on the client’s objectives (Figure 1.15). Buildings
related to commerce such as shopping complexes may require that time be
the top priority so as to have the building commence operating before cer-
tain festive seasons, or in certain cases, to reduce financing bills etc. With a
limited budget, cost may be the top priority. Quality may be emphasised in
cases where the building itself is monumental or iconic in terms of height,
architecture, appearance and background.
It is important to note that economic buildings do not necessarily mean
unsafe or low quality buildings. Through proper design, management and
execution, an economic building can provide the required standard at the
lowest cost.
The basic resources for a building are: (1) money, (2) labour, (3) mate-
rials and (4) machinery. Labour must be employed and paid, materials
must be purchased and machinery must be bought or hired. The manner
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Types of Assembly Degrees of No. of Critical

Operation Restraint Dimensions Accuracy
0 0 Nil
No restraint The dimension of It is not critical if
in X, Y and Z X1 is not critical. the cupboard is
dimensions. slightly moved
X1
in all X, Y and Z
directions.
Cupboard on wall
1 2 Low
There is The dimensions Accuracy
1 restraint i.e. of X1 and X 2 are required in X
in X direction. critical. direction. No
tolerance in X
dimension for the
X2
X1 partition and the
opening.
Wall partitions
2 4 Medium
There are The dimensions of Accuracy
X2 2 restraints X1 and X 2 and Y1 required in X
Y1
i.e. in X and and Y2 are critical. and Y directions.
Y2
Y directions. The X and Y
X1 dimensions of the
window frame and
the opening must
Window in opening be correct.
X1 3 6 High
There are The dimensions Accuracy in X, Y
Y1
3 restraints of X1, Y1, and Z1, and Z directions.
i.e. in X, Y and and Z 2, Y2, Z 2 are The X, Y and Z
Z directions. critical. dimensions of
X2
Z2 the volumetric
Y2 unit as well as the
opening must be
correct.
Staircase lift in well
Figure 1.14. Construction accuracy required for different assembly.
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Low
Quality
Time Cost
Impossible
Expensive Slow
Quality
Figure 1.15. The three principal project goals of Cost, Quality and Time.
in which materials are incorporated in the fabrication and structure of a

building at the design stage and in which materials are handled and equip-
ment deployed on the site or in a factory all affect the degree of expenditure
of money and the overall economy of a building project.
1.4. Building Regulations and Control

Building regulations are documents laying down the minimum require
ments and standards that a building must comply with to ensure that the
safety, hygiene, stability and level of amenity are compatible with environ-
mental and social requirements at the time of construction and throughout
the lifetime of the building. They may also be enacted to promote other
performances such as energy efficiency, serviceability, accessibility to
people with disabilities, sustainability etc.
Historically, building regulations have been based on a prescriptive
approach, whereby a description of the minimum requirement was made
mandatory or contained in the so-called ‘deemed to satisfy provisions’.
This approach has been blamed as an obstacle to encourage creativity and
innovation in achieving a more efficient building. Replacing the prescrip-
tive approach in many countries in the last ten years were the performance-
based regulations. The approach is to encourage a variety of solutions for
compliance. The objective and performance criteria of each technical
requirement are expressly stated. It allows for exploration of alternative
design approaches to derive innovative and the most efficient solutions.
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Building regulations set out the scope, namely, the submission of plans
and specifications of works, the authorisation of persons qualified to submit
the same and their duties and responsibilities, the construction, alteration
and demolition of buildings with special emphasis on frontage, airspace,
lighting, air conditioning, ventilation, height, approaches, entrances and
exits, damp proofing, building materials, structural stability, drainage,
sanitation, fire precautions and provision of car parking facilities. They

also set out standards and procedures that should be adhered to by building
owners, designers, builders, certifiers, building control authorities, build-

ing materials and component manufacturers.
Other subsidiary legislations and regulations covering the following
areas must also be observed:
– Fire safety.
– Environmental sustainability.
– Rapid transit system.
– Public utilities.
– Safety and health.
Figure 1.16 illustrates the interdependency between various aspects of
regulatory control systems and other technical clearances.
Technical
Development Building
Department
Control System Control System
Clearances
Apply for planning Submit

permission Lodgement
Apply for
structural plan Fire Safety
Obtain provisional
approval Approval
permission
Pollution Control
Apply for building & Environmental
Obtain planning
plan approval Health
permission
Meter, Electricity
& Gas
Completion
Certificate & Others e.g.
Occupation roads, parks, etc.
Permit
Figure 1.16: Interdependence

Figure 1.16. Interdependence between various
between various aspectsaspects of Regulatory
of regulatory control systems and
Control Systems and Technical Clearances
technical clearances.
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1.5. Industrialisation
Industrialisation for construction is often related to prefabricating in a
plant the maximum number of building works with the appropriate equip-
ment and efficient technological and managerial methods. The greater
the number of prefabricated components that are produced in the plant,
the fewer the on-site works required. This will significantly reduce the
dependence on manual labour, the weather, the site and various other
constraints [11]. Figure 1.17 shows examples of buildings assembled using
high level prefabrication by Broad Sustainable Building (BSB): Ark Hotel

(15 storeys in 6 days), T-30 (30 storeys in 15 days) and Mini Sky City
(57 storeys in 19 days).
The immediate benefits that can be derived from industrialisation are
obvious:
• Increase productivity with less manual labour on-site.
• Reduction in site accidents with minimal need of manual workers
on-site.
• Faster construction process.
• Higher quality of components attainable through careful choice of
materials, equipment and quality control.
Figure 1.18 shows the structural system and major components of a typical
industrialised building. In this system, horizontal units and volumetric
units which include hollowcore slabs, staircases, balcony spandrels, refuse
chutes, bathroom units and service ducts are erected first. The floor slabs
are lifted by vacuum suction lifters attached to the crawler crane and are
placed horizontally onto the ground frames or preceding floor. They are
then linked together by a tie system which includes internal, transverse
and peripheral ties. Components like staircases, balcony spandrels, refuse
chutes, bathroom box units and service ducts are hoisted by cables and
placed in position. They are aligned and secured by dowel joints and
reinforcement ties. Vertical panels like walls and frames, and internal
partitions are lifted and aligned into the correct position on the floor slab
by dowel bars. Packing mortar is applied to the joint where the panel is
located and is held vertically by temporary props. The voids of the joints
are cemented and the perimeter of the exposed joints are laid with grout
seals to achieve watertightness. Structural connections in the form of tie
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Name: Ark Hotel

Year: 2010
Height: 15 storeys
Duration: 6 days
Construction cycle:
2.5 floors/day
Name: T-30
Year: 2011
Height: 30 storeys
Duration: 15 days
Construction cycle:
2 floors/day
Name: Mini Sky City

Year: 2015
Height: 57 storeys
Duration: 19 days
Construction cycle:
3 floors/day
Figure 1.17. Tall buildings constructed using high level prefabrication by Broad

Sustainable Building (BSB).
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Landing façade
E&T duct
Staircase flight
Service duct
Partition
Household shelter
Prestressed plank/slab
Façade with beam
Integrated
Column/shear wall Hollow core beam/partition
wall
Refuse chute Beam cum cladding

Prefab bathroom
Figure 1.18. Isometric view of the structural system and major components of an indus-
trialised building.
beams are formed between vertical to vertical, horizontal to horizontal and

vertical to horizontal components. When the grout to the joints or connec-
tions has hardened, the temporary props are removed. A 50 mm reinforced
screed is then cast over the floor slab to ensure continuity. To complete
the whole building, the roof structure is erected with roof panels, parapet
walls, roof water tank beams and panels. (See Chapter 7 for more details).
1.7. Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (Df MA)

Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) refers to the application
of factory conditions to construction projects, by designing for maximum
off-site production and assembly, and with minimum assembly and instal-
lation works on site. High level prefabrication includes Prefabricated Pre-
finished Volumetric Construction (PPVC) which involves the assembly of
whole rooms or apartment units complete with internal fixtures, enables
most work conducted in a controlled factory environment, with high
productivity through automation and better quality control, much like in a
manufacturing process (Figure 1.19). DfMA enables reduction in time and
manpower, it also enhances health and safety, cost effectiveness and waste
reduction.
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Figure 1.19(a). Adoption of PPVC for Crowne Plaza Changi Airport hotel extension.
Figure 1.19(b). PPVC rooms completed in the factory with finishes, fixtures and fitting
are transported and assembled on site.
1.8. Sustainable Construction

The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)
defines sustainability as: “development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”.
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Sustainable construction applies this principle to the building and con-

struction industry with the adoption of less virgin materials and products,
with less use of natural resources and energy, and increase the reusability
of such materials and products for the same or similar purpose, thereby
reducing waste and pollution [12].
Sustainable construction also enhances the resilience of the industry

as such materials are readily available in the world market. Steel, other
metals, glass and prefabricated parts using combinations of these, as well
as recyclable substitutes for concrete are examples of sustainable materials

and products [13].
The principles of sustainable construction are [14]:
1. Reduce resource consumption (reduce).
2. Reuse resources (reuse).
3. Use recyclable resources (recycle).
4. Protect nature (nature).
5. Eliminate toxics (toxics).
6. Apply life-cycle costing (economics).
7. Focus on quality (quality).
The framework for the principles when integrated together with the
constraints of resources as well as the development phases of a project is
shown in Figure 1.20.
1. Phases of a Building/Facility
1.
1. Phases
Phases of
of a
a Building/Facility
Building/Facility
2. Resources 3. Principles
2.
2. Resources
Resources 3.
3. Principles
Principles
• Reduce resource consumption

• Land • Reduce resource consumption
consumption
•• Land • •Reuse
Reduce resource
resources
Land • Reuse
Reuse resources
resources
• Materials • •Recycle resources
•• Materials
Materials • Recycle
Recycle resources
• Water • •Protect resources
nature
•• Water • Protect
Protect nature
Water • Eliminate nature
• toxics
• Energy • Eliminate
Eliminate toxics
toxics
•• Energy
Energy • •Apply economics of life-cycle costing
• Ecosystems • Apply
Apply economics
economics of life-cycle costing
•• Ecosystems • Focus on quality of life-cycle costing
•
Ecosystems •• Focus
Focus onon quality
quality
Fig 1.20. Framework for sustainable construction

Fig
Fig 1.20.
1.20. Framework
Framework for
for sustainable
sustainable construction
construction
Figure 1.20. Framework for sustainable construction.
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1.8.1. Embodied Energy

Embodied energy is defined as the commercial energy (fossil fuels, nuclear,
etc.) that is used in the work to make any product, bring it to market, and
dispose of it. It is an accounting methodology which aims to find the total
sum of the energy necessary for an entire product lifecycle.
This lifecycle includes raw material extraction, transport, manufacture,

assembly, installation, disassembly, deconstruction and/or decomposition.
Embodied energy may be categorised into (i) initial embodied energy

and (ii) recurring embodied energy (Figure 1.21).
The initial embodied energy in buildings represents the non-renewable
energy consumed in the acquisition of raw materials, their processing,
man ufacturing, transportation to site, and construction. This initial
embodied energy has two components:
• Direct energy — the energy used to transport building products to
the site, and then to construct the building.
• Indirect energy — the energy used to acquire, process, and manufac-
ture the building materials, including any transportation related to
these activities.
Initial embodied energy consumption depends on the nature of the building,
the materials used and the source of these materials. That explains why
data for a building material in one country may differ significantly from
the same material manufactured in another country (Figure 1.22).
The recurring embodied energy in buildings represents the non-
renewable energy consumed to maintain, repair, restore, refurbish or
replace materials, components or systems during the life of the building,
or life cycle cost (LCC) in terms of energy.
The recurring embodied energy is related to the durability of the
building materials, components and systems installed in the building,
how well these are maintained, and the life of the building (the longer the
building survives, the greater the expected recurring energy consumption).
1.8.2. Green Building Materials

Green building materials are composed of renewable resources. They are
environmentally responsible because their impacts are considered over
Tall5.indb 17 14-Jun-17 9:40:17 AM

Energy used in Embodied

making a product Energy
Is the energy
consumed once or Initial Recurring
throughout life
Embodied energy’s Life-Cycle

relationship to the Direct Indirect
building Costing
Embodied Energy
Figure 1.21. Embodied energy.
Material Embodied Energy

MJ/kg MJ/m3
Aggregate 0.1 150

Soil-cement 0.4 819
Stone 0.8 2030
Concrete (30 MPa) 1.3 3180
Concrete precast 2.0 2780
Brick 2.5 5170
Cellulose insulation 3.3 112
Gypsum wallboard 6.1 5890
Particle board 8.0 4400
Aluminium (recycled) 8.1 21870
Steel (recycled) 8.9 37210
Plywood 10.4 5720
Mineral wool insulation 14.6 139
Glass 15.9 37550
Fibreglass insulation 30.3 970
Steel 32.0 251200
Zinc 51.0 371280
Brass 62.0 519560
PVC 70.0 93620
Copper 70.6 631164
Paint 93.3 117500
Polystyrene insulation 117.0 3770
Carpet (synthetic) 148.0 84900
Aluminium 227.0 515700
Figure 1.22. Embodied energy values based on several international sources [15].
Tall5.indb 18 14-Jun-17 9:40:17 AM

the life of the product [16]. Figure 1.23 shows the overall material/product
selection criteria according to:
• Resource efficiency.
• Indoor air quality.
• Energy efficiency.
• Water conservation.
• Affordability.
Steel is an example of an excellent reusable material. Steel can be recycled

repeatedly without any degradation in terms of properties or performance
in quality. Steel construction has excellent low waste credentials during
all phases of the building life cycle. It generates very little waste, with the
byproducts of steel production widely reused by the construction industry.
Any waste generated during manufacture is recycled. There is virtually no
waste from steel products on the construction site.
Concrete from construction, renovation and demolition (CRD) of old
buildings can be recycled. However, there is difficulty in separating the
stone, known as recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), from the cement for
Green Building
Materials
Resource Indoor Air Energy Water

Affordability
Efficiency Quality Efficiency Conservation
natural, plentiful passive design water initial vs life

low toxicity
or renewable strategies catchment cycle cost
efficient minimal chemical intelligibility minimise demand vs

processing emission e.g. sensors waste supply
locally alternative
low VOC recyclability
available energy
reusable and moisture

recyclable resistant
durable
Figure 1.23. Selection criteria for green materials.
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reuse in new structural concrete components. The cement-coated aggre-

gates may weaken the new concrete if it is not treated properly. There are
new technologies around the world to separate the old cement from the
waste concrete. Nevertheless, the use of waste concrete for non-structural
concrete components such as partition walls, road kerbs, paving blocks has
been proven to be efficient and economical (Figure 1.24).
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is generated everyday and the waste is

disposed off by incineration. Incinerator ash or the MSW ash is the residual
from the combustion of domestic waste. It is expected to have a variety of

chemical species, some of which may pose environmental problems if it is
not disposed off properly. Recycling of incinerator ash into an aggregate
product involves proprietary systems to remove ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, screening, removing unburned materials, and treatment to mobi-
lise certain heavy metals. The aggregate product has been tested to be
non-hazardous and is safe for use. It has been used in diverse applications
such as trench and backfill, shore protection, land reclamation, concrete
block, base and sub-base for road construction (Figure 1.25).
1.9. Robotics in Construction

The casting, erection, jointing, connection and finishing of building com
ponents require a high level of skilled manual work on-site. The problem
with the shortage of skilled personnel and the need to increase productivity
in the industry has prompted greater demand for robotics in the construc-
tion industry.
Building automation ranges from a single task robots that can replace
simple labour activities (e.g. tile inspection, paint/concrete spraying,
high pressure water jetting, concrete floor surface finishing, reinforce-
ment laying, façade maintenance cleaning) to a fully automated systems.
Successful examples include hazardous operations from tunnelling,
deep basement excavation, underwater construction and demolition,
to a complete construction and deconstruction operation of tall build-
ings. Among the more well-known ones are Shimizu’s SMART system,
Obayashi’s Big Canopy system, Taisei’s T-Up system, Takenaka’s Roof
Push-Up Construction Method and Kajima’s AMURAD system [17].
These systems have one commonality i.e. to create an indoor factory-like
Tall5.indb 20 14-Jun-17 9:40:17 AM

1) CRD waste 2) Preliminary crushing and 3) Removal of foreign materials

removal of ferrous metals such as brick, plastics and asphalt
6) Samwoh Eco-Green Building 5) Stockpile of recycled 4) Further crushing & screening of

(First building in the region using aggregates for usage recycled aggregates into various
up to 100% of RCA) sizes
Figure 1.24. Recycling process of concrete from construction, renovation and demoli-
tion (CRD) of old buildings (courtesy: Samwoh Corporation Pte Ltd).
1) Incineration of MSW 2) Drying of MSW ash 3) Removal of ferrous and

non-ferrous metals
6) Various applications of the 5) MSW ash treatment by 4) Screening of MSW ash to

processed MSW ash proprietary system and the various sizes
processed ash is ready for usage
Figure 1.25. Recycling process of incinerator ash from MSW (courtesy: Samwoh Cor
poration Pte Ltd).
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working environment sheltered from bad weather, and equipped with

heavy transportation technology for standardised prefabricated element.
Table 1.1 shows some examples of fully automated systems attempted.
Figure 1.26 shows Obayashi’s “Super Construction Factory” which inte-
grates the concepts of factory automation into the building site for steel
structures. Building components and materials are delivered to the floor
under construction through elevators and are lifted to the exact location of
the floor by cranes. Welding and fastening are then carried out by robots.
Upon completion of one floor, the factory is jacked up through an internal

climbing system to commence work on the next floor.
Another system for reinforced concrete building named “Big Canopy”
integrates technologies of climbing canopy, prefabricated components,
automated assembly and computerised management systems (Figure 1.27).
The canopy provides protection for the floor under construction from
unfavourable weather and environmental conditions. Independent tower
crane posts are used as four columns supporting the canopy. The rise of the
canopy is performed by the climbing equipment of tower crane. Vertical
movement of materials to and from the working story is by the use of lifts
and horizontal movement by hoists. The movement of the hoists is entirely
automated to improve work efficiency.
1.10. Building Information Modelling (BIM)

Building Information Modelling (BIM) uses computer technology to
provide 3D modelling of infrastructure and allow building performance
to be simulated digitally. With accurate input of digital information at the
design, construction and operation stages of a facility, BIM has been shown
to significantly improve the level of integration across various disciplines
as well as productivity throughout the life cycle of a building (Figure 1.28).
BIM is helpful in realising the full potential of Df MA. The technology
allows designers to introduce greater modularity and repeatability. It allows
constructors to create digital mock-ups, simulate assembly sequences,
develop digital method statements and plan the capacity of hoisting equip-
ment and site logistics. Prefabricators can use the precision of geometric
data contained in BIM to aid the manufacturing process and in turn share
standard components and assembly details in the form of parametric BIM
objects with designers and constructors to generate Lego-like models.
Tall5.indb 22 14-Jun-17 9:40:22 AM

Table 1.1. Examples of attempted robotics in construction.
Product Climbing
Year Name Company Mechanism Example
1990 The SMART Shimizu A hat-truss is supported by four

System jacking towers, operated by
(the Shimizu hydraulic jacks. The hat-truss is
Manufacturing jacked up to working height for the
System by construction of the first storey and
Advanced repeat [18].
Robotics
Technology)
1990 Roof Push-up Takenaka Push-up floor or roof floor (RF)
is first constructed. Push up RF,
construct the 1st floor, then push
up the roof floor, construct the 2nd

floor and repeat [19].
1990 ABCS Obayashi Super Construction Factory

(Automated (SCF), a working space on a
Building pre-assembled roof, supported on
Construction building under construction [20].
System) See Figure 1.25.
1992 T-Up System Taisei and With the building core as the
(Totally Mitsubishi support, the production platform
Mechanised is elevated with hydraulic jacks
Construction to the desired floor along guide
System) columns [21].
1995 The Big Obayashi With four external tower masts

Canopy and a gigantic canopy at the top.
Gantry cranes are fixed to the
underside of the canopy operated
by remote control. The canopy is
jacked up two storeys per lift. See
Figure 1.26.
1996 AMURAD Kajima Building top floor down, starting

(Automatic from roof and top floor and
Uprising working down until the ground
Construction floor. Lower floor levels as the
by Advanced construction factory, build the roof
Technique) floor first, push up using hydraulic
hacks by one level, allowing work
to begin for the next floor, push up
and repeat [22].
1997 FACES Penta- A steel frame unit as a canopy
(The Future Ocean housing a computer control centre,
Automated crane robots and automated
Construction equipment, all attached to the
Efficient ceiling of the structure. The frame
System) is lifted along the pillars of the
building to the next floor level and
repeat [23].
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Tall5.indb 24

Figure 1.26. An example of robotised construction — a control centre (top left), automatic storage and delivery system (bottom left), SCF —
14-Jun-17 9:40:25 AM
a super construction factory (right) (courtesy: Obayashi Corporation).

Tall5.indb 25
Canopy Assembly Excavation Work
The delivery system is installed under the The canopy preserves the excavation site
canopy. from weather changes.
High stories
Low stories
Skeleton, Equipment and Finishing Work Canopy Disassembly Construction Completion
The construction processes are carried out in A high-quality building is completed.

a stable pace. The canopy is disassembled on the top of
the building, the external frame is lowered
synchronously and then safely disassembled
on the ground.
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Figure 1.27. An example of robotised construction — Big Canopy (courtesy: Obayashi Corporation).
Component
Suppliers
Designers Contractors Operations &

Maintenance
1. Digital Mock-Up 2. Design Validation 3. Process Simulation 4. Project Mgmt. 5. Facility Mgmt.
Fabricators
1. The Digital Mock-Up (DMU) is 2. The Design Validation phase is 3. The construction process is 4. For Project Management the 5. The As-Built Virtual Building
the full 3D building model of the based on the integrated DMU, simulated and visualised for DMU with BIM data is tied to model is synchronised with Facility
building. The DMU will facilitate encompassing the structural, optimisation of logistics, crew and resources, tasks, issues and Management systems to create a
building environment simulations mechanical and electrical plans. traffic. The result is an optimised documentation needed to living data-set with history. Change
and provide accurate visualisations Development parties identify and work breakdown schedule for complete the project. In the of use or alternations are updated
for the following phase resolve issues throughout this construction. construction phase the DMU and as they occur, contributing towards
validation phase. BIM data is coupled with resource a highly informative and optimised
planning systems to actively life-cycle.
monitor the project
Figure 1.28. Benefits of BIM and integration of various disciplines with refinement of
digital information throughout a building life cycle.
References
[1] B. S. Taranath, Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Buildings, CRC
Press, 2011.
[2] J. S. Foster and R. Greenor, Structure and Fabric, Part 1, 7th Edition,
Longman Scientific & Technical, 2006.
[3] L. Hudson, Chicago Skyscrapers, Arcadia Publishing, 2004.
[4] P. Goldberger, The Skyscraper, 3rd Edition, Knopf, 1983.
[5] L.  S. Beedle, editor-in-chief, “Second Century of the Skyscraper”, Council
on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988.
[6] E. Nash and N. McGrath, Manhattan Skyscrapers, 3rd Edition, Princeton
Architectural Press, 2010.
[7] G. H. Douglas, Skyscrapers: A Social History of the Very Tall Building
in America, McFarland & Co., 2004.
[8] J. Dupre, Skyscrapers: A History of the World’s Most Extraordinary
Buildings, Black Dog & Leventhal, 2013.
[9] M. Salvadori, Why Buildings Stand Up: The Strength of Architecture,
WW Norton, New York, Reissue Edition, 2002.
Tall5.indb 26 14-Jun-17 9:40:26 AM

[10] W. Schueller, The Vertical Building Structure, Van Nostrand Reinhold,

1990.
[11] R.  E. Smith, Prefab Architecture: A Guide to Modular Design and
Construction, Wiley, 2011.
[12] Wren & Bell, “Sustainability”, http://www.sustainableconstruction.co.uk/
sustainability.htm. Retrieved March 2011.
[13] BCA, “Sustainable Construction — Materials for Buildings”, Building

and Construction Authority, Singapore 2007.
[14] C.  J. Kibert, Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and
Delivery, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2007.

[15] Canadian Architect, http://www.canadianarchitect.com/asf/perspectives_
sustainibility/measures_of_sustainablity/measures_of_sustainablity_
embodied.htm. Retrieved January 2016.
[16] CalRecycle, “Green Building Materials”, http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/
greenbuilding/materials/default.htm#Resource. Retrieved January 2016.
[17] T. Bock, T. Linner and C. Georgoulas, “Site Automation”, Cambridge
University Press, 2016.
[18] J. Maeda, “Development and Application of the SMART System”,
Automation and Robotics in Construction XI, 1994. http://www.iaarc.
org/publications/fulltext/Development_and_application_of_the_SMART_
system.PDF. Retrieved May 2016.
[19] M. Morita, E. Muro, T. Kanaiwa and H. Nishimura, “Study on Simulation
for Roof Pushup Construction Method”, IAARC, 1993. http://www.
iaarc.org/publications/fulltext/Study_on_simulation_for_roof_pushup_
construction_method.PDF. Retrieved May 2016.
[20] Y. Ikeda and T. Harada, “Application of the Automated Building Con
struction System using the Conventional Construction Method Together”,
https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB12388.pdf. Retrieved May 2016.
[21] S. Sakamoto and T. Kumano, “Research & Development of Totally
Mechanized Construction System for High-Rise Buildings”, http://www.
iaarc.org/publications/fulltext/Research_and_development_of_totally_
mechanized_construction_system_for_high-rise_buildings.PDF. Retrieved
May 2016.
[22] T. Sekiguchi, K. Honma, R. Mizutani and H. Takagi, “The Development
and Application of an Automatic Building Construction System using
Push-Up Machines”, Proceedings of the 14th ISARC, 1997, http://www.
iaarc.org/publications/proceedings_of_the_14th_isarc/the_development_
and_application_of_an_automatic_building_construction_system_using_
pushup_machines.html. Retrieved May 2016.
[23] H. Nakagawa, “Sheltered and Automated Construction System”, http://
www.housingauthority.gov.hk/haconf2002/download/papers/pkp0103.pdf.
Retrieved May 2016.
Tall5.indb 27 14-Jun-17 9:40:26 AM

Assembly of Building: 1.1. Development of Tall Buildings

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Assembly of Building: 1.1. Development of Tall Buildings

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CHAPTER 1

1.1. Development of Tall Buildings

Category Height Exceeding

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bearing masonry walls. The 17-storey Manadnock Building (Chicago,

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Figure 1.1. Reliance Building, Chicago, Figure 1.2. Guaranty Building (now

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Figure 1.5. Woolworth Building, Figure 1.6. Chrysler Building,

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Figure 1.9. Sears Tower, Chicago, Figure 1.10. Petronas Towers,

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flexible exterior frames and an inner core of stiff wind-bracing frames,

this task by acting as a huge cantilever tube. Tubes are three-dimensional

spatial structure as a unit and not as separate elements. To improve the

1.2. Building Performance and System Integration

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participants involved in the building process, from developers, designers,

tion of a project. It is thus important that a building professional under-

be given to the following:

Structural Problems of Construction

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Floor Area of both A & B = 196 m2

Floor Area of both C & D = 930 m2

1.3. Cost, Quality and Time

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Types of Assembly Degrees of No. of Critical

Staircase lift in well

Figure 1.14. Construction accuracy required for different assembly.

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in which materials are incorporated in the fabrication and structure of a

1.4. Building Regulations and Control

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sanitation, fire precautions and provision of car parking facilities. They

owners, designers, builders, certifiers, building control authorities, build-

Apply for planning Submit

Figure 1.16: Interdependence

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high level prefabrication by Broad Sustainable Building (BSB): Ark Hotel

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Name: Ark Hotel

Name: Mini Sky City

Figure 1.17. Tall buildings constructed using high level prefabrication by Broad

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Façade with beam

Refuse chute Beam cum cladding

beams are formed between vertical to vertical, horizontal to horizontal and

1.7. Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (Df MA)

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1.8. Sustainable Construction

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Sustainable construction applies this principle to the building and con-

Sustainable construction also enhances the resilience of the industry

as recyclable substitutes for concrete are examples of sustainable materials

• Reduce resource consumption

Fig 1.20. Framework for sustainable construction

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1.8.1. Embodied Energy

This lifecycle includes raw material extraction, transport, manufacture,

Embodied energy may be categorised into (i) initial embodied energy

1.8.2. Green Building Materials

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