Explain the subsequent , 1- Ontology, 2- Epistemology, 3- Pragmatism, 4-

Positivism, 5- Realism, 6- Interpretivism, and 7- Axiology.

Ontology:
Ontology refers to assumptions about the character of reality. Although this
might seem abstract and much faraway from your intended scientific
research , your ontological assumptions shape the way during which you see and
study your research objects. In business and management these objects include
organizations, management, individuals’ working lives and organizational events
and artifacts. Your ontology therefore determines how you see the planet of
business and management and, therefore, your choice of what to research for
your scientific research . Imagine you wanted to research resistance to
organizational change.
For an extended time, business and management scholars made the ontological
assumption that resistance to vary was highly damaging to organizations. They
argued it had been a sort of organizational misbehavior, and happened when
change programmers went wrong. Consequently they focused their research on how
this phenomenon might be eliminated, trying to find sorts of employee that
were presumably to resist change and therefore the management actions that
would prevent or stop resistance. More recently, some researchers have began
to view the concept of resistance to vary differently, leading to a
replacement strand of research.
Ontology in business research are often defined as “the science or study of being”
and it deals with the character of reality. Ontology may be a system of belief that
reflects an interpretation by a private about what constitutes a fact. ontology
is related to a central question of whether social entities should be perceived as
objective or subjective. Accordingly, objectivism (or positivism) and
subjectivism are often specified as two important aspects of ontology.

Epistemology:
Epistemology concerns assumptions about knowledge, what constitutes acceptable,
valid and bonafide knowledge, and the way we will communicate knowledge to
others (Burrell and Morgan 1979). Whereas ontology may initially seem rather
abstract, the relevance of epistemology is more obvious. The multidisciplinary
context of business and management means differing types of data – starting
from numerical data to textual and visual data, from facts to interpretations, and
including narratives, stories and even fictional accounts – can all be considered
legitimate.
Consequently different business and management researchers adopt different
epistemologies in their research, including projects supported archival research
and autobiographical accounts (Martí and Fernández 2013), narratives (Gabriel et
al. 2013). However, it's important to know the implications of
various epistemological assumptions in reference to your choice of
method(s) and therefore the strengths and limitations of subsequent research
findings. for instance , the (positivist) assumption that objective facts offer the
simplest scientific evidence is probably going to end in the selection of
quantitative research methods. Within this the next research findings are likely to
be considered objective and generalisable.
Epistemology has many branches that include essentialism, historical perspective,
perennialsm, progressivism, empiricism, idealism, rationalism, constructivism etc.
Empiricism and rationalism are often specified because the two major
constructing debates within the sector of epistemological study that relates to
business studies. Empiricism accepts personal experiences related to observation,
feelings and senses as a legitimate source of data , whereas rationalism relies on
empirical findings gained through valid and reliable measures as a source of data .
Pragmatism:
Pragmatism asserts that concepts are only relevant where they support action
(Kelemen and Rumens 2008). Pragmatism originated within the late-nineteenth–
early- twentieth-century USA within the work of philosophers Charles
Pierce, James and Dewey . It strives to reconcile objectivism and subjectivism,
facts and values, accurate and rigorous knowledge and different contextualised
experiences. It does this by considering theories, concepts, ideas, hypotheses and
research findings not in an abstract form, but in terms of the roles they play as
instruments of thought and action, and in terms of their practical consequences in
specific contexts . Reality matters to pragmatists as practical effects of ideas, and
knowledge is valued for enabling actions to be administered successfully.
For a pragmatist, research starts with a drag , and aims to contribute practical
solutions that inform future practice. Researcher values drive the reflexive process
of inquiry, which is initiated by doubt and a way that something is wrong or out of
place, and which re-creates belief when the matter has been resolved (Elkjaer and
Simpson 2011). As pragmatists are more curious about practical outcomes than
abstract distinctions, their research may have considerable variation in terms of
how ‘objectivist’ or ‘subjectivist’ it seems to be. If you were to undertake
pragmatist research, this is able to mean that the foremost important
determinant for your research design and strategy would be the research
problem that you simply would attempt to address, and your research question.
Pragmatism research philosophy accepts concepts to be relevant as long as they
support action. Pragmatics “recognize that there are many various ways of
interpreting the planet and undertaking research, that no single point of view can
ever give the whole picture which there could also be multiple
realities”. consistent with pragmatism research philosophy, research question is
that the most vital determinant of the research philosophy. Pragmatics can
combine both, positivist and interpretivism positions within the scope
of one research consistent with the character of the research question.
Positivism:
Positivism relates to the philosophical stance of the naturalist and entails working
with an observable social reality to supply law-like generalisations. It promises
unambiguous and accurate knowledge and originates within the works
of Bacon , Comte and therefore the early twentieth-century group of
philosophers and scientists referred to as the Vienna Circle. The label positivism
refers to the importance of what's ‘posited’ – i.e. ‘given’. This emphasizes the
positivist specialise in strictly scientific empiricist method designed to yield pure
data and facts uninfluenced by human interpretation or bias .
Today there's a ‘bewildering array of positivisms’, some counting as many as 12
varieties (Crotty 1998). Epistemologically you'd specialise in discovering
observable and measurable facts and regularities, and only phenomena that you
simply can observe and measure would cause the assembly of credible and
meaningful data (Crotty 1998). you'd search for causal relationships in your
data to make law-like generalisations like those produced by scientists (Gill and
Johnson 2010).
Positivism depends on quantifiable observations that cause statistical
analyses. it's been noted that “as a philosophy, positivism is in accordance with the
empiricist view that knowledge stems from human experience. it's an atomistic,
ontological view of the planet as comprising discrete, observable elements and
events that interact in an observable, determined and regular manner”
Realism:
It is important to not confuse the philosophy of critical realism with the more
extreme sort of realism underpinning the positivist philosophy. The latter,
sometimes referred to as direct realism (or naïve empirical scientific realism),
says that what you see is what you get: what we experience through our senses
portrays the planet accurately. against this , the philosophy of critical realism
focuses on explaining what we see and knowledge , in terms of the underlying
structures of reality that shape the observable events.
Critical realism claims there are two steps to understanding the planet . First,
there are the sensations and events we experience. Second, there's the mental
processing that goes on sometime after the experience, once we ‘reason
backwards’ from our experiences to the underlying reality which may have caused
them (this reasoning backwards is understood as ‘retroduction’) (Reed 2005).
Direct realists accept the planet as relatively unchanging. They consider just
one level, be it individual, group or a corporation . Critical realists, on the
opposite hand, appreciate the importance of multi-level study. Specifically, as a
researcher following critical realism research philosophy you've got to
understand the influence and interrelationship between the individual, the
group and therefore the organization.
Interpretivism:
Interpretivism emphasises that humans are different from physical phenomena
because they create meanings. Interpretivists study these meanings. Interpretivism
emerged in early- and mid-twentieth-century Europe, within the work of German,
French and infrequently English thinkers, and is made of several strands, most
notably hermeneutics, phenomenology and symbolic interactionism (Crotty 1998).
Interpretivism argues that citizenry and their social worlds can't
be studied within the same way as physical phenomena, which therefore social
sciences research must vary from natural sciences research instead of trying to
emulate the latter .
Different strands of interpretivism place slightly different emphasis on the way
to do that in practice, so phenomenologists, who study existence, specialise
in participants’ lived experience; that's , the participants’ recollections and
interpretations of these experiences. Hermeneutists specialise in the study of
cultural artefacts like texts, symbols, stories, images Symbolic interactionists.
Interpretivism is “associated with the philosophical position of idealism, and is
employed to group together diverse approaches, including social constructivism,
phenomenology and hermeneutics; approaches that reject the objectivist view that
meaning resides within the planet independently of consciousness”. consistent
with interpretivist approach, it's important for the researcher as a social actor to
understand differences between people. Moreover, interpretivism studies
usually specialise in meaning and should employ multiple methods so as to
reflect different aspects of the difficulty .
Axiology:
Axiology refers to the role of values and ethics within the research process. This
incorporates questions on how we, as researchers, affect both our own
values and people of our research participants. As we saw within the opening
vignette, the role that your own values play altogether stages of the research
process is of great importance if research results are to be credible.
Some of our students have found it helpful to write down their own statement of
private values in reference to the subject they're studying. for instance ,
for the subject of career development, your personal values may dictate that you
simply believe developing their career is an individual’s responsibility. In finance, a
researcher may believe (hold the value) that the maximum amount information as
possible should be available to as many stakeholders as possible. Writing a press
release of private values can help heighten your awareness useful judgment.
Axiology may be a branch of philosophy that studies judgments about the worth .
Specifically, axiology is engaged with assessment of the role of researcher’s own
value on all stages of the research process. Axiology primarily refers to the ‘aims’ of
the research. This branch of the research philosophy attempts to clarify
if you're trying to elucidate or predict the planet , or are you simply seeking to
know it.
In simple terms, axiology focuses on what does one value in your research. this is
often important because your values affect how you conduct your research and
what does one value in your research findings.