Short paper presented at Socratica IV International Conference

Xenophon and Plato on Rulers and Citizens. Some preliminary thoughts.

Laura Milman
Universidad de Buenos Aires

The aim of this essay is to review some aspects of the relationship between rulers
and ruled in Plato’s Republic, focusing especially on Books II, VIII and IX, and Xenophon’s
Hiero1. I consider that this might be an interesting approach, since much has been said
about the rulers (in their different forms), whereas the issue of citizens has been less
explored2. I think it is an important concern, since a well organized and happy community -a
purpose which is stated in both texts- (e.g., Rep. 420b), unavoidably requires certain
compatibility and balance between the constitutions and dispositions of both sides of the
relationship.
I would like to clarify that I am not suggesting that there is no priority of one of these
elements of the relation, it would be naïve to deny the primacy of the good ruler. However, it
would be equally difficult to ignore the importance of leading a group of citizens towards the
same purposes, consistent with the ruler’s proposals for his people.

1. Forms of government in Republic

In order to examine Books VIII and IX of Republic, I will consider the“Principle of

Structural Parallelism”3, which implies an analogy between the city and the soul of the
individual, providing a procedure to examine the complexities of the psychic structure (Rep.
368e-369b). The city will be described as a community of needs made of people who are not
self-sufficient. For this reason, they need others to provide with their work everything that is
necessary for common life (Rep. 369b-370c).
In addition, I will consider the “Principle of Specialization”4. Not only does this
principle imply the division into classes and specificity of functions in the city, but also (from
a psychological point of view), it justifies the tripartition of the soul and its different
configurations. In this sense, from Book II onwards, we are faced with the challenge of
harmonizing different elements in structures that should tend to unity, without ejecting from
the soul -or the city- those parts that are difficult to articulate. It is worth mentioning that this
city does not contemplate slavery. I think it is safe to state that only a tyrant will enslave
those he needs rather than persuade them to work towards common happiness and well-
being. I will return to this topic in the section on Hiero.
Although it would be anachronistic to think that it is a society of equal men (and
women), I consider it is noteworthy that the producer class is deemed an important part of
the social scheme5. As I have mentioned before, this class is essential for the correct
performance of the city. Consequently, they should be respected as constituent parts.

1
About the new strand of scholarly research on comparative studies about this thinkers, see DANZIG, G.,
"Introduction to the Comparative Study of Plato and Xenophon", in DANZIG, G., JOHNSON, D. and MORRISON,
D., Plato and Xenophon. Comparative Studies, Brill, Leiden/Boston, 2018.
2
Despite not being an exhaustive account, it is worth to mention that most of the prestigious compilation volumes
about Plato and Xenophon do not address citizens with the same degree that rulers. See SCHOFIELD, M, Plato:
Political Philosophy, Oxford University Press, London, 2006; FERRARI, G.R.F, The Cambridge Companion to
Plato's Republic, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2008; GRAY, V., Oxford Readings in Classical Studies:
Xenophon, Oxford University Press, London, 2010; FLOWER, M., The Cambridge Companion to Xenophon,
Cambridge University Press, New York, 2017.
3
MÁRSICO, C. y DIVENOSA, M., “Introducción” a Platón, República, traducción de Mársico, C. y Divenosa, M.
Buenos Aires,
Losada, 2005, pp. 40-42.
4
Ibid. See also SAUVÉ MEYER, S, "Class Assignment and the Principle of Specialization in Plato’s Republic", in
Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy, 20, Brill, Leiden/Boston, pp. 229-263.
5
Among many others, BRISSON, L., "Women in Plato's Republic", Etudes Platoniciennes, 9, pp. 129-136.
However, this does not imply that there is no need for a pilot in charge of the ship (Rep.
333b; 488a-489d et passim), the city or, the soul, towards the best and the most rational
articulation of every element. I consider that the courses proposed for public education in
Book VII support this idea (Rep. 518d ff.)6. In fact, Plato allows all children to be admitted
and educated regardless of their origin (Rep. 536d-543a), assuming there are more or less
suitable natures fit for different activities to discover in each one of these children, for the
benefit of the city as a whole. It seems that it would not be consistent for some of them to be
expelled and keeping only those infants who are suspected of having better skills. As I have
said before, the city requires enough citizens to be a self-sufficient and well-organized
community. I consider this idea suggests an anthropological conception that presupposes
the recognition of individual human limitations that lead to the imperative need to establish
political devices that outweighs these defects. In effect, the platonic outlook recognizes the
inexorability of pernicious elements within a psychic and social scheme and, therefore, the
need to prepare devices that lead them back towards a good and harmonic performance7.
Integration of every citizen is required (Rep. 518d-519c), in the same way that a harmonious
soul must coordinate its three parts or modes8.
After reviewing the suggested configuration in which guardians have been selected
for the city government as a result of their physical and philosophical abilities (Rep. 525b-
541b), Socrates and his interlocutors will turn to the examination of the different forms of
political organization mirroring individual’s configuration of human souls. Evidently, this
analysis that is based on the types of rulers of the city, must be accompanied by an
articulation of the city that contributes (in principle) to its prosperity. Since we were looking
for a definition of justice, the ideal types will be those that contribute to balance and avoid
conflict, in which each part is properly placed and does not overwhelm the others, unless the
rational part of the soul prevails over the appetitive and spirited ones (i.e., the most virtuous
configuration). However, in practice there are all kinds of cases that need to be taken into
account. Namely, not only those virtuous and ideal types are analyzed, but also the
degradations that arise from the preeminence of certain parts of the soul over the others,
and this necessarily affects the cities.

We shall take a brief look at the five types of political organization.

A. Aristocracy, the government of the philosopher-king (484a-504b, et passim)

In the psychological aspect, we find a man (or woman) whose nature is oriented
towards justice, knowledge, and virtue, and is able to subdue their impulses and appetites
under control of the rational part. In effect, the ruler should be able to manage the parts of
the city with justice, and observe that every man and woman can fulfill those activities that
are expected from them to contribute to the city. It is through persuasion that the ruler, along
with the education system established for the city, that every citizen will find their right place.
The philosopher will attend to priorities and rational criteria, instead of turning to force or
injustice to be obeyed. Additionally, citizens are fully aware that obedience to their ruler is a
necessary condition for the common welfare and survival of the city.

B. Timocracy: Sparta and Crete (545b-545e; 546d-550c)

6
Cf. JENKINS, M., Early Education in Plato's Republic, British Journal for the History of Philosophy, 23, 2015,
pp. 843-863.
7
BIEDA, E., “Unidad y multiplicidad del alma en la República de Platón”, Quaderni urbinati di cultura classica
138, Pisa- Roma, 2015.
8
WILLIAMSON, T. "The good society and the good soul: Plato's Republic on leadership", The Leadership
Quarterly, 19, 2008, pp. 397-408.
 This form arises with the occurrence of conflict in the soul. When instead of pursuing
Good, men seek for success and honors, there is a first degradation. While it is known that
Plato and other disciples of Socrates admired Sparta9, this government is the best possible
form, but always comes second to the ideal type I have just described. Furthermore, seen
from a dramatic point of view, this seems to remind us Socrates’ predictions in Book III,
according to which there will be mixtures that will result in hybrid children. This could be an
attempt to explain why governments inevitably tend to decay, and parents have children who
are not as good as them, a frequent problem that both Plato and Xenophon seem to have in
common. From a purely psychological point of view, it is suggested that there is a deviation
towards the physics, gymnastic is preferred to music (its harmony, as already mentioned
leads to order), and as a result men become rude and careless. Their souls no longer crave
for Good, and the education received from their parents is confused with the outside voices
and the noise of the city. Thus, young people whose natures seemed suitable for good
government of themselves and the city, become vain and clumsy.

C. Oligarchy (550d-556b)

In this form of government, only the rich can rule. It is the eagerness for riches that
makes men similar to drones. Education is no longer the guide for well-being and common
good. Thus, the political organization is perverted and it is established that only those who
have riches can be part of the government. For a city to work properly, as mentioned before,
we need all its parts working together. Instead, at this point the poor are expelled, just
because they are poor.
Oligarchs act irrationally, trying to eliminate a constituent part of the ensemble, that
has now become completely altered. In fact, now there are two cities facing each other,
struggling to have their interests prevail over those of the others. The problem is mirrored in
the soul of the oligarchs, who are torn apart by mixed feelings (not necessarily
contradictory), and must dominate themselves against their wishes. This can be seen in
passages 554d-e, where the conflict with contracts is described.

D. Democracy (557a-562a)

This form of organization is the result of the division of the city, when the poor, tired
of being subjugated by the rich, find the opportunity to outnumber them and take advantage
of the situation, convinced that all men are equal, and they have been treated with injustice
up until then. As soon as they take the government, they set up raffles for the city functions,
instead of establishing a meritocratic system oriented towards what is best for the city.
Anyone can be called upon charges they have not been prepared for, and anyone can give
their opinion and expect it to be taken into account. Plato illustrates this form of government
with the image of a flowery mantle, made of different parts woven to one another, that
charms women and children but has no real use. The problem with this democracy is that it
is very similar to tyranny. The only difference seems to be of number.

The lack of order in the soul, and the surrender to immediate pleasures is similar in
both types. Although it is argued that freedom is the aim of this political organization, it
becomes a multitude of slaves devoted to satisfying their constant cravings.

E. Tyranny (562b-564b; 565e-580b)

9
CARTLEDGE, P. "The Socratics Sparta and Rousseau's", in HODKINSON, S. and POWELL, A. (eds.) Sparta:
New Perspectives, Classical Press of Wales, London, 1999, 311-337. Also, cf. HUMBLE, N., “Sparta in
Xenophon and Plato”, in DANZIG, G., JOHNSON, D. and MORRISON, D., Plato and Xenophon. Comparative
Studies, Brill, Leiden/Boston, 2018, 547-575.
 From this excess of freedom, or slavery, a tyrant emerges whenever one single man
manages to subdue his fellow citizens. At the same time, this organization is extremely
unstable. Not only because disorder is definitely installed in the soul of the ruler, preventing
him from reorganizing both his soul and the city. The position of the tyrant is coveted by
others, either to occupy his place, or to kill him so that he stops plunging the rest of the city
into slavery. On the other hand, the fear of losing his power leads him to be permanently at
war, a totally unnatural situation for a well-organized and self- sufficient society. Just as a
democratic city can kill men unjustly, a society ruled by a tyrant is constantly is constantly at
risk.

2. Tyranny in Xenophon’s Hiero

With regard to Xenophon, I will briefly review the treatment of tyranny in Hiero. I will
not engage in the changes of meaning this term has suffered between the sixth and fourth
centuries BC10. I consider it is worth mentioning a difference between the treatments of this
type of ruler in Republic and in Hiero.
In Republic, as we have seen, the transformations are treated as degradations.
Everything tends to decay and the tyrant is the result of this fall. We consider that
Xenophon’s approach to this problem seems more optimistic, as it poses at least two types
of transformations, one of them, at least, evidently positive.
Despite glimpses of seemingly stable anthropological types which set apart the
particulars and the ruler, we do know that Hiero was a particular that became tyrant.
Moreover, we can suppose that there is a transformation from tyrant (used this time in its
most novel sense, that is, one with negative connotations) to king towards the end of the
book11. This transformation occurs while Simonides urges Hiero to consider that it might be
convenient to take into account other people’s needs12.
Although Hiero, at the beginning of Book I, insists on how different particulars and
kings are, and feels sorry for himself because of all his worries, Simonides persuades him
that there are ways to feel more secure, honored, and loved, and that they are not difficult to
achieve. As we have said earlier, he is advised to care for his subjects and their needs,
which may not be so different after all.
It is not necessary for a ruler to be constantly in fear for safety or permanently
distrust gestures of recognition or appreciation from anyone (women, lovers, friends,
individuals). As it is suggested towards the end of the book, it is possible, and advisable, for
the ruler to deserve security and recognition because of his own merits and generosity,
instead of demanding that citizens simply comply with obligations that are both burdensome
and superfluous13.
Regarding security, Hiero confesses to Simonides his despair in the face of the
dangers that await him at every step. He cannot leave his place, for he fears that he will be
usurped in absence, and fears among the crowds for his well being. He needs to surround

10
See MCGLEW, J, Tyranny and Political Culture in Ancient Greece, Ithaca, Cornelle University Press, 1993,
introduction, PARQUER, V., "Túrannos. The semantics of a political concept from Archilochus to Aristotle",
Hermes, vol. 126, 1998, pp. 145-172, and MÁRSICO, C., ILLARRAGA, R., & MARZOCCA, P., “Estudio
preliminar” a Jenofonte-Pseudo Jenofonte, Constitución de los lacedemonios/Constitución de los
atenienses/Hierón, traducción de Mársico, C., Illarraga, R., y Marzocca, P., Bernal, Universidad Nacional de
Quilmes, 2017, pp. 11-12.
11
About the possibility of transformation, see ILLARRAGA, R., "Note sulla forme della monarchia in Senofonte",
Magazino di Filosofia 32, 2018, 123-137, passim.
12
Regarding Xenophon's notion that the ruler must antepose social needs before his owns: Mem., II.1.1-17. See
JOHNSON, D., "Aristippus at the Crossroad: the Politics of Pleasure in Xenophon's Memorabilia", Polis, XXVI,
2009, pp. 204-222, and ILLARRAGA, R., "Enkráteia y gobierno. El gobernante insensato de Aristipo y su
aparición en Ciropedia", Methexis, 30, 2018, p. 1-24.
13
See the emphasis of Cyrus in generate gratitude and promote social well-being as the main tool for obtain
consensus in Cyr., VIII.7.7 and VIII.7.23.
himself with mercenaries that he cannot trust, or do without, and cannot ask them to lay
down their arms (otherwise, how would they defend him without them?).
In terms of trust, Hiero says that no one suffers more than a king. He can never be
certain whether his friends and family really care for him or for the benefits that their
relationship with him could offer. His wife could never be an equal, with the exception of a
foreign queen, a union based on political calculation. In the case of a woman from his own
city, it will always be someone who is in a situation of inferiority, so that we come back to the
possibility of mere calculation of personal benefit. Even if the interest in the king were
sincere, he could never know. With lovers, he would find himself in a very similar situation,
because he could never enjoy the expectation generated by the attraction to the loved one14.
Hence, the genuine and disinterested love enjoyed by individuals is forbidden to the king.
Finally, regarding the reverences he receives from particulars, and the gestures of
recognition, gratitude and praise, once again, he cannot find a way to tell sincerity apart from
hypocrisy, so he also seems to find himself completely alone and unprotected in this sense.
The advice of Simonides, as we have mentioned, is about redirecting the desire for
well-being and the security from his private and personal sphere, to the realm of the public
and the happiness of his people, which will ultimately result in his own happiness. I will
briefly comment on this.
First, the king would be safer if, instead of generating costs for particulars by hiring
mercenaries, the tasks of the king’s security personnel would be distributed to assist citizens
with their needs. This would reduce the number of disgruntled people who seek their injury
or death.
Secondly, Simonides shows Hiero that, contrary to what the latter believes, the status
of ruler gives him an advantage when it comes to getting genuine appreciation and gratitude,
instead of constituting a risk or a bad investment. While the king needs the city and the
citizens to be a ruler, the protection and benefit of his subjects will give him the possibility of
generating reciprocal bonds that guarantee that every citizen strives to defend happiness
and well-being that they have been granted15. Defending one another will result in the
defense of oneself, and the same happens with happiness16.
Finally, by investing in the development of the city, he could achieve the recognition
of yourself and others. His citizens would feel inclined to love and honor the benefactor.
Moreover, he would be equally recognized by all those who know about his actions.

3. Some preliminary conclusions

This work is a first approach to some of the problems outlined in the introduction. I
believe that further research is necessary to shed light on important aspects that we have
left out for extension issues. However, we can find in these few pages some common
issues, which may account for problems among the first disciples of Socrates, and which I
believe justify the research for these zones of tension17 to enrich our understanding of these
authors, their legacy to other antique Greek philosophers, and even remnants of these
traditions that survive to this day.
Their conception of the city as a community of needs, the preponderance of the
public realm as a condition of possibility of a prosperous and happy city, the responsibility of
an apt and virtuous ruler (a subject that should also be discussed in further investigations),
voluntarily obeyed by those (s)he rules, according to the people’s needs and abilities, in

14
Cf. This characterization and the one make by Chrysantas of Cyrus as “cold king” in Cyr., VIII.4.22.
15
About the interaction between self-interest and social-interest, see DANZIG, G., The Best of Achaemenids:
Benevolence, Self-Interest and the "Ironic" Reading of Cyropaedia, in HOBDEN, F. and C. TUPLIN (eds.),
Xenophon: Ethical Principles and Historical Enquiry, Brill, Leiden, 2012, p. 499-540.
16
See GRAY, V., Xenophon's Eudaimonia, in DE LUISE, F. and STAVRU, A. (eds.), Socratica III. Studies on
Socrates, the Socratics and the Ancient Socratic Literature, Akademia Verlag, Sankt Augustin, 2013, p. 57.
17
MÁRSICO, C., Zonas de tensión dialógica. Perspectivas para la enseñanza de la filosofía griega, Bs. As.,
Libros del zorzal, 2010.
order to organize a happy community, are some of these common topics we recognize in
this brief essay.
Among other issues, the analysis of education (which is of fundamental importance
to this work in relation to Xenophon’s Spartans’ Constitution and Cyropaedia), the stability of
laws and institutions, and the difficulty of passing on the virtues needed to rule skillfully, will
remain pending for further investigations.