CHAPTER III

PROFILE OF CASHEW INDUSTRIES AND SOCIO-

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF SAMPLE RESPONDENTS

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Profile of Kanyakumari District

3.3 Agriculutre in Kanyakumari District

3.4 Cashewnut Cultivation in Kanyakumari District

3.5 Origin of Cashew Industry in Kanyakumari District

3.6 Cashew Industries in Kanyakumari District

3.7 Socio-Economic Condition of Sample Respondnets

3.8 Nature of Cashew Workers in Kanyakumari District

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3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is divided in to two parts. The first part examins the

profile of cashew industries in the selected district and the second part deals

with the socio-economic background of the sample respondents.

3.2 PROFILE OF KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT

Kanyakumari district once known as the granary of Travancore lies at

the southwestern part of India peninsular. It was with the erstwhile

Travancore for a long time and then merged with Tamil Nadu in 1956 under

the State Linguistic Reorganization Act. It is famous for its vast green

stretches of paddy fields, rich forests, coconut groves and mineral sands.

Kanyakumari district with Nagercoil as district headquarters has two

revenue divisions with four Taluks: Padmanabhapuram has Vilavancode and

Kalkulam Taluks and Nagercoil has Agasteeswaram and Thovalai Taluks.1

3.2.1 Demography

According to the provisional figures for the 2011 census,

Kanyakumari District has a population of 1863174 with the density of 1106

person (2605/54 m1).2 It shows that this district has the highest population

density next to Chennai in Tamil Nadu. The literacy rate is about 90.25 per

cent in the district. Moreover, this district has a high female sex ratio that is

1010 female per 1000 male. Area wise population of Kanyakumari district is

depicted in Table 3.1.

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 TABLE 3.1
Area Wise Population

Sl. Block/ Area in Population Literate

Total Total
No Municipalities s.q.km
Male Female Male Female
1 Agastheswaram 133.12 73260 75159 148419 60120 28658 88778

2 Rajakkamangalam 120.16 68119 69135 137254 55337 53202 108539

3 Thovalai 369.07 55057 55662 110719 44101 41031 85132

4 Kurunthancodde 106.85 81823 83247 165070 64369 62513 126882

5 Thuckalay 130.33 82488 84774 167262 66461 64967 131428

6 Thiruvattar 344.8 80220 81399 161619 62524 60186 122710

7 Killiyoor 82.7 78663 77724 156387 62173 57758 119931

8 Munchiri 72.01 89122 88103 177225 68366 63095 131461

9 Melpuram 271.89 88578 90957 179535 70560 66651 137211

10 Nagercoil 24.27 102907 105272 208179 88590 86658 175248

11 Padmanabapuram 6.47 9967 10108 20075 8372 7901 16273

12 Colachel 5.18 11996 11791 23787 9275 8733 18008

13 Kuzhithurai 5.15 10069 10434 20503 8419 82933 91352

Source: Census of India 2011, District Statistical Hand Book

It is evident from Table 3.1 that, among the blocks, Agasteswaram is

the biggest block and Munchirai is the smallest block. As far as block wise

population is concerned, Melpuram block has the highest population and

Thovalai block has lowest population. Out of 4 municipalites, Nagercoil is

the biggest municipality having highest population Padmanabhapuram is the

second biggest municipality area wise but having lowest population.3

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3.3 AGRICULTURE IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT

Kanyakumari District has a conducive agro climatic and topographic

condition for the development of agriculture and agricultural productivity. In

fact the hill based areas are suitable for growing crops like rubber and the

valleys are fit for cultivating crops like paddy, tapioca, banana, coconut,

ginger, areca nut, etc. The low lands comprising the coastal belt is ideal for

crops like coconut and cashew nut. Thus most of the major crops are grown

in the district. The major crop-wise cultivated areas, production and

productivity are given in Table 3.2.

TABLE 3.2
Crop- Wise Area, Production and Productivity
Production Productivity
Sl.No Crop Area (ha)
(000’ tons) (kg/ha)
1. Paddy 17710 81611 4608
2. Pulses (Black gram) 986 296.8 301
3. Coconut 24864 2725 lakh nuts 10960 Nuts/ha
4. Banana 5633 134685 23910
5. Tapioca 7817 199427 25512
6. Cashew 1938 1573.6 812
7. Jack 1735 4925.6 2839
8. Jack 773 10232.9 13238
9. Pepper 134 20.1 150
10. Rubber 23357 12847 550
11. Areca nut 532 818.2 1538
12. Cloves & Cinnamon 596 525.6 882
13. Ginger 131 2620 20,000
14. Pineapple 33 1220.7 36,993
15. Cucumber 258 1806 7000
16. Jasmine 117 1643 9118
Source: Season and Crop Report Govt. of Tamil Nadu 2011.

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 As revealed by Table 3.2, it is understood that paddy, pulses, coconut,

banana, tapioca, and cashew are grown at large level. The area used for the

cultivation of cashew nut is 1938 hectare and production is 1573600 tons

and the productivity is 812 kg per hectare. But it was grown in 2029 hectare

during 2004-2009. Thus the area under cashew cultivation has been

decreasing even among area under non- agricultural activities. It is true that

more construction of rated houses, buildings and increase of the land used

for cultivation of various crops other than cashew nut results in reduction of

the availability of area for cashew cultivation, production and productivity

of cashew nuts in Kannyakumari District.

3.4 CASHEW NUT- CULTIVATION IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT

The cashew nut cultivation from 1960 to 2012 is given Table 3.3.

TABLE 3.3

Cashew nut- Cultivation in Kanyakumari District

(Area and Production)

Area in Production
Sl. No Year
hectare in tons
1 1960-61 4017 843.2
2 1970-71 4369 918.7
3 1980-81 3124 756.8
4 1990-91 2963 683.1
5 1995-96 2718 604.3
6 2000-01 2617 549.6
7 2004-05 2029 413.0
8 2005-06 1938 337.0
9 2010-11 1643 301.8
10 2011-12 1499 286.1
Source: Season and Crop Report, Govt. of Tamil Nadu, 2011.

198
 Table 3.3 reveals that the area used for cultivating cashew was 4017

hectare in 1960-61 which increased to 1489 hectare in 2011-2012.

Consequently, cashew production also decreased from 843.2 tons to 286.1

tons during the same period. It is understood that, the importance of cashew

production is neglected in the study area.5 Hence the future of cashew nut,

cashew kernel, cashew nut shell liquid will be depending on imports of these

from other states of India or from foreign countries for domestic use and

market.

3.5 ORIGIN OF CASHEW INDUSTRY IN KANYAKUMARI

DISTRICT

The origin and growth of the cashew industry owes a great deal to the

influence of the industrialists and business men of Kerala than their counter

parts in Tamil Nadu in general and Kanya kumari District in particular. As

per historical evidence available, the first cashew factory in Tamil Nadu was

started in the year 1955 at palavilai in Kanyakumari District by late Mr.

Innasi Muthu Nadar. He was inspired by his close associate. Mr.G.Biswas, a

prominent cashew industrialist of Quilon. Mr. Biswas was in fact a native of

Kanyakumari district.6

The export of cashew kernels to the international market from Tamil

Nadu (Kanyakumari District) was undertaken first by Mr. Biswas himself. It

is evident from available data that in the year 1953, under the firm name

“Cape Cashew Industries”, Mr.G.Biswas sent the first consignment of his

199
export containing 400 cases of cashew kernels through the Cochin port. The

pioneering efforts of Mr.G. Biswas paved the way for the growth of cashew

industry in the District. Out of the 234 cashew factories in the district now,

more than 90 per cent are in Kalkulam and Vilavancode Taluks of

Kanyakumari District. In the year 1988 about 50,000 workers were

employed in these factories.7

Reasons for Localization of Cashew Factories in the District.

· Kanyakumari District is very near to Kerala which is the centre of

cashew production, processing and exporting

· The increased government intervention in Kerala owing to a variety

of circumstances led to the gradual shifting of the processing activity

to Kanyakumari District.

· The abundant supply of cheep labour and the low wages paid to the

laborers are the main reasons for the shifting of cashew factories from

Kerala to Kanyakumari District.

· The abundant production of cashew nut in the district is also one of

the reasons for the development of cashew industries.

· Kanyakumari district is thickly populated and industrially backward.

Many people are unemployed. So, it is possible to get more labourers

at low wages rate.

200
 · Since political awareness is lacking in the region, the employers

could resort to unfair labourer practices. They can exploit the laborers

and need not implement the “Labourer Acts”.

· Transport, water, electricity facilities and the cooperation of the

public are also partially responsible for the localization of factories in

this district.

The Cashew nut factories are running with five types of organization in

the district. They are:

(1) Factories owned and processed by same company / proprietor :

This is simple and self-explanatory. An individual or company will have its

own factory premises and process the cashew nut and market it;

(2) Factories owned by a single person/family but they do not own

raw Cashew. They will process cashew nut for others and charge on the

basis of bag. They will incur the entire expenses and process cashew nut for

others.

(3) Direct Leasing : Some factories, when they incur heavy loss, and

are at the verge of closure, will be leased out to some other companies. The

company, which took the factory for lease will pay a monthly rent, and it

will incur all other expenses including wages and maintenance, etc.

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 (4) Indirect Leasing: Some companies, when they exhausted all their

stocks, will invite other companies to process the cashew nut. They will get

a fixed rent for the machinery on the basis of the bags processed. In this

case, the lessee has to pay wages.

(5) Commission Processors: Some employers who are not able to run

the factory and if no company is ready to lease-in their firm or if they do not

want to lease-out, they may give it to individuals who in turn process cashew

nut and will get processing charges. They are also known as commission

processors. They will incur all the cost of labourer, electricity, maintenance

and pay rent to factory owner. They may process cashew nut for one or more

companies.

The cashew nut- processing industry plays a crucial role within the

factory sector employment. It accounts for 24 per cent of the total number of

factories but gives employment to 77 per cent of the total organized sector

employment. Among small-scale industries and agro-based industries also,

the role of cashew nut industry is a critical one.

3.6 CASHEW INDUSTRIES IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT

Kanyakumari district is an industrially backward district in Tamil

Nadu. But a large number of cashew industries are in the district. The role of

cashew factory is very important in converting the cashew nuts in to cashew

kernel. The entire cashew processing activities that is, Drying, Roasting,

202
Shelling, Peeling, Grading and Packing are done in cashew industries. When

Kanyakumari was the part of Kerala, cashew units were started in Kerala

before the independence of India. Subsequently, after the merger of

Kanyakumari in the Tamil Nadu the rise in wage rate of labourers in Kerala

resulted in the establishment of a number of cashew industries in the district.

That is why concentration of cashew industries is more in Kanyakumari

District than in any other district in Tamil Nadu. The number of cashew

industries in the study area is displayed in Table 3.4.

TABLE 3.4

Cashew Industries in Kanyakumari District

No. of cashew
Sl. No Year
Industries
1 1960-61 103
2 1970-71 196
3 1980-81 489
4 1990-91 812
5 2000-01 764
6 2004-05 518
7 2005-06 491
8 2006-07 487
9 2007-08 472
10 2008-09 468
11 2009-10 466
12 2010-11 462
13 2011-12 462
Source: Memo Graph of Marist
Community Party Office Kuzhithurai Kanyakumari District
04.12.2012 Office Record District Industrial Centre
Nagercoil, 2012

Table 3.4 proves that the number of cashew industries had been

increasing in the initial stages, that is it increased from 103 in 1960-61 to

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812 cashew industries in 1990-91. After the year 1990-91 the number of

cashew industries started declining due to the expansion of area under

rubber and coconut cultivation and non- agricultural purposes.8 The taluk /

block wise statistics of cashew factories is presented in Table 3.5.

TABLE 3.5

Taluk / Block Wise Cashew Factories

No. of
Taluk & Block Total Percentage
Factories
VILAVANCDE
Melpuram 183 323 39.61

Munchirai 81 17.53

Killiyoor 59 12.77

KALKULAM
Thirvattar 64 112 13.85

Thuckalay 27 5.85

Kurunthencode 21 4.55

AGASTEESWARAM

Rajakkamangalam 7 19 1.52
Augusteeswaram 12 2.59

THOVALAI
Thovalai 8 8 1.73
Total 462 100
Source: Official Document Issued by Inspector of Factories
Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu dated 13-12-2012.

204
 As revealed by Table 3.5, the highest number of cashew industries are

located in Vilavancode Taluk and out of that 39.661 per cent is in Melpuram

block, 17.53 per cent in Munchirai block and 12.77 per cent in Killiyoor

block. Of the total 69.41 per cent cashew industries found in Vilavancode

taluk. About 24.25 per cent cashew industries are found in Kalkulam taluk.

Among the three blocks in the taluk, 13.85 per cent are located in

Thiruvattar and 5.85 per cent in Thackalay. Similarly, 4.55 per cent cashew

industries are found in Agasteeswaram taluk and out of that 1.52 per cent is

in Rajakkamagalam and 2.59 per cent in Agateeswaram Block. Thovalai

taluk is the one with lowest concentration of cashew industries compared

with the other three taluks of the district. The study shows that only 1.73 per

cent of the cashew industries are found in Thovalai taluk. The number of

male and female cashew workers during 2012 is displayed in Table 3.6.

TABLE3.6
Cashew Workers in Kanyakumari District- 2012

No. of Workers Per cent of

Taluk Total Per cent
Women
Male Female Workers
Vilavancode 527 26752 27260 67.50 98.07

Kalkulam 697 11241 11938 29.54 94.16

Thovalai 217 702 919 2.27 76.39

Agasteeswaram 63 216 279 0.69 77.42

Total 1504 38911 40396 100.00 346.04

Source: Memograph Kuzhithurai

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 Table 3.6 shows that out of the total cashew workers, a majority of

67.5 per cent are in Vilavancode taluk, 29.54 per cent in Kalukulam Taluk

and 2.27 per cent are from Thovalai taluk. It is understood that Vilavancode

taluk accounts for more workers than all other taluks. Agasteeswaram taluk

has the lowest cashew works in the district. It is also important to note that

more than 95 per cent of workers in cashew industries are female workers. It

is 96.28 per cent in Kanyakumari District.9

Industrialization in Kanyakumari District

The industrial development started in Tamil Nadu over the last few

decades has not made any significant impact on Kanyakumari. It continued

to be one of the industrially backward districts in the state. Once, out of the

total industrial units in the district, 90 per cent of them were cashew nut

industries. Since this accounts for 90 per cent of cashew units in Tamil

Nadu, the trend of the cashew industry in Kanyakumari could be generalized

as the trend of cashew nut industries in Tamil Nadu.10

Many studies have pointed out that there was a major shifting of

industries from Kerala to Tamil Nadu. It is also found that the cashew nut

industrialists shifted their firms to evade labour legislation and to deny the

worker’s legitimate share of wages in Kerala. However, it is imperative to

find out the exact reasons for such a shift, and its implications for both the

states.

206
3.7 SOCIO ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF SAMPLE RESPONDENTS

This part of the study presents the socio- economic conditions of

cashew labourers in Kanyakumari District. Deepa (1994)11 in her study

indicates that the major share of the work force in the cashew Processing

industry is women and about 95 per cent of the workers are drawn from the

depressed castes. Kannan2 in his study points out that nearly three fourth of

the workers belong to the scheduled castes and that they as well as half of

those belonging to other backward communities were employed in Roasting

and Shelling. The forward castes and Muslims constitute only 14 per cent

and 8 per cent respectively of the workers engaged in these categories of

work. Workers belonging to forward and Muslim communities are

concentrated in the Peeling section. He highlights the fact that the majority

of the workers in the cashew, processing industry were socially backward

and economically disadvantaged groups. Lindaberg (2004)12 in her study

states that the women workers of the cashew factories in Kerala suffer from

great poverty deprivation and starvation than the average Malayalee. Hence,

attempt is made to find out the socio- economic conditions of cashew

labourers in the study area.

3.7.1 Age of the Sample Respondents

The age distribution of workers indicate a pattern in which women

workers start working from the late childhood stage until marriage. After

207
marriage, they discontinue for a few years, probably to look after kids or

because of the unwillingness of the husband to allow the wife to go out for

work. After a few years, they rejoin the workforce in order to supplement

the family income. They work in the Shelling, Peeling and Grading sections

alone. Male workers are generally engaged in the roasting section. Only one

male worker was found to be working as a tin-filling macaud, a category of

worker who are not exactly supervisors but assisted the management. All the

male workers are between the age group of 25 to 55. There is no clear

segregation of workers in certain sections where children work. The data on

age at work reveales that five women workers started working at the age of

7-10. There is significant difference between male and female workers in

terms of the age they enter the factory. In the case of male workers, all of

them are found to have joined only after the age of 20.

Age is one of the most important determinants of social status and the

economic activities of the individual. Generally, the physical, intellectual

and social development, and vocational efficiency is found high in between

the age of 18 and 60. Hence, the efficiency of cashew labourers is closely

and directly associated with their age. Here, all sample respondents have

been grouped on the basis of their respective age. The age wise distribution

of the sample respondents is shown in Table 3.7.

208
 TABLE 3.7

Age wise Distribution of the Sample Respondents

Sl. Age and No. of Respondents

Category Total
No 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
1 Shelling 9 13 20 31 22 5 100
2 Peeling 6 16 27 24 19 8 100
3 Grading 4 9 12 15 7 3 50
Total 19 38 59 70 48 16 250
(7.6) (15.2) (23.6) (28.0) (19.2) (6.4) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total.

Table 3.7 reveals that only a few cashew labourers in between the age

of 10 and 20, and 60 and 70 are working in cashew industry. It is 7.6 per

cent and 6.4 per cent respectively. It is interesting to note that 28 per cent of

the labourers are in between the age group of 40 and 50, 23.6 per cent in

between 30 and 40 age and 19.2 per cent labourers come under the age

group of 50 and 60. It is also seen that only 15.2 per cent labourers in

cashew industry fall under the age group of 20 and 30. It shows that no

labourer in between 10 and 20 age is found working in cashew industries.

This may be due to the labourer policy of the Government of India. Most of

the labourers are in between age 30-50, that is 51.6 per cent labourers under

this group are engaged in cashew processing activities.

209
3.7.2 Religion

In comparison to other districts, Kanyakumari has the largest

proportion of Christians. This is also reflected in the study. Nearly 58 per

cent workers are Christians and the rest are Hindus and Muslims. These are

the major religious categories found in Kanyakumari District. It is also one

of the factors that determines or differentiates the status of the individual in

the society. It is in no way influencing the efficiency of labourer in cashew

industry. However, it is better to have an understanding of the religious

affiliation of the sample respondents. The religious affiliation and the

number of sample respondents is shown in Table 3.8.

TABLE 3.8

Religious wise Distribution of Sample Respondents

Sl. Religion and No. of Respondents Total

Category
No Hindu Christian Muslim
1 Shelling 51 44 5 100
2 Peeling 49 43 8 100
3 Grading 23 21 6 50
Total 123 108 19 250
(49.2) (43.2) (7.6) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to total

Table 3.8 exhibits that, 49.2 per cent of women workers engaged in

cashew processing belong to Hindu religion, 43.2 per cent from Christian,

210
and 7.6 per cent are Muslim. It is understood that the number of Hindu

women in cashew processing is higher than that of Christians and Muslims.

Out of 100 respondents engaged in Shelling, 51 are Hindus, 44 are

Christians and 5 are Muslims. In the case of 100 respondents in Peeling, 49

are Hindus, 43 are Christians and 8 are Muslims. As for as Grading is

concerned, out of 50 respondents, 46 are Hindus, 42 are Christians and 12

are Muslims. Thus, the number of Hindu women labourers working in

cashew industry is higher than the labourers belonging to other religions.

3.7.3 Community

Nadars, a backward community is predominant in the district.

Invariably they constitute more than 50 per cent of the total workers. A rigid

caste-based segregation of work was not found in the surveyed factories of

Kanyakumari. Workers from all castes work in the Shelling section. In fact

one worker, who happened to be a Panikker, a backward caste two other

workers, from the Pillais, a forward caste, and other one from Ezhava

communty considered backward caste in Kerala is also working respectively

in the Shelling and Grading section. Accordingly, of the sample respondents

five workers belong to forward castes and 78 workers to the backward

category. Another surprising finding is that there are no forward caste men

working in the Cashewnut industry as workers.

211
 On the socio-economic basis in India, there are five community

groups namely Forward, Backward, Most backward, Scheduled Caste and

Scheduled Tribes. Therefore, the selected sample respondents are classified

on the basis of community. The community wise distribution of respondents

is exhibited in Table 3.9.

TABLE 3.9

Community wise Distribution of Samples

Community and No. of
Sl. No Category Respondents Total
F.C B.C M.B.C SC/ST
1 Shelling 4 71 3 22 100
2 Peeling 12 54 9 25 100
3 Grading 7 23 8 12 50
Total 23 148 20 59 250
(9.2) (59.2) (8.0) (23.6) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

It is clear from Table 3.9 that of the total, 59.2 per cent women

labourers working in cashew industry belong to Backward communities, and

23.6 per cent from SC/ ST , 9.2 per cent from Forward, and 8 per cent from

Most Backward Communities. It is observed from the study that the number

of Backward Community women workers working in cashew industry is

higher than that belonging to other communities. This is true in the case of

Kerala and other states of India where labourers mostly belong to Backward

212
and Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes and their concentration is high in

cashew processing activities.

3.7.4 Education

Kanyakumari stands first in literacy level compared to other districts

of Tamil Nadu. In the study, out of 250 cashew nut workers, nearly 80 per

cent of them are literates. Of these, 29 per cent workers have studied up to

primary level, 35 per cent up to middle school level and 14 per cent up to

secondary level. Almost all the male workers are literates. Among females,

Shelling workers are both literates as well as illiterates. It appears that there

is no link between the section where the worker works and his / her literacy.

All the ‘macauds’ have studied up to middle school. This means, that

literacy level appears to play a very limited role in accessing jobs in

cashewnut industry, particularly for women. The participation of the

individual in any social or economic activities is highly influenced by his/

her level of education. This is applicable to different types of cashew

processing also. People of different levels of education are found working in

the cashew industry. So, an attempt is made to find out the educational status

of cashew labourers engaged in different types of cashew processing. The

educational status of sample respondents is expressed in Table 3.10.

213
 TABLE 3.10

Education wise Distribution of Sample Respondents

Level of literacy and No. of Respondents

Sl
Middl Tota
. Categor Primar High
Illitera e Hr. Sec. Colleg l
N y y Scho
cy Schoo School e
o School ol
l
1 Shelling 18 29 26 17 10 - 100
2 Peeling 21 15 27 20 14 3 100
3 Grading - 4 18 17 9 2 50
39 48 71 54 33 5 250
Total
(15.6) (19.2) (28.4) (21.6) (13.2) (2.0) 100
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

It is evident from Table 3.10 that among cashew workers 84.4 per

cent are literates and 15.6 per cent illiterates. Out of the total respondents,

19.2 per cent have primary education, 28.4 per cent have middle school

education, 21.6 per cent have high school education, 13.2 per cent have

higher secondary education and 2.0 per cent have college education. The

table also shows that no illiterate labourer is found in the Grading section

and no college educated labourer in Shelling section. It is observed that

most of the labourers working in cashew industries have middle school

education.

214
3.7.5 Marital Status

The respondents are classified into four groups. More than 60 per

cent of them are married and among them eight per cent are widows in

categorized random sample. Out of 47 unmarried workers, 35 were in the

Roasting and Shelling sections. In other sections such as Pass, Grading and

Packing too, more married ones workers are working. It may be due to the

fact that employers prefer unmarried workers to married because they could

work till late in the evening, whereas married women had to rush back to do

household chores and to look after their children. Efficiency could also be

another reason. But it is surprising to find that destitute widows are working

in Roasting, Shelling and Grading sections but not given any macaud jobs.

Cashew processing is a highly labourer intensive industry. About 95

per cent of the labourers engaged in cashew industry are women. Both

married and unmarried women labourers are working in the industry, Hence,

the total sample respondents are stratified on the basis of their marital status.

The maritial status of the sample respondents is presented in Table 3.11.

215
 TABLE 3.11

Marital Status of Sample Respondents

Marital Status and No. of Respondents

Sl. Diverse or Total
Category Marrie Un Wido
No separatio
d married w
n
1 Shelling 71 13 7 9 100
2 Peeling 67 18 5 10 100
3 Grading 32 11 3 4 50
170 42 15 23 250
Total
(68.0) (16.8) (6.0) (9.2) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

Table 3.11 displays that 83.8 percent married and 16.8 per cent

unmarried labourers are working in cashew industry, the percentage of

married cashew labourers include widows, divorced and separated women.

The widows and separated women account for 9.2 per cent and 6.0 per cent

of the total cashew labourers respectively. It is important to note that the per

centage of unmarried cashew labourers (16.8 per cent) is lower than that

(83.2 per cent) of married cashew labourers. It is observed that unmarried

women are not much interested to work in cashew industry.

3.7.6 Size of Family

The size of family refers to the number of members residing in a

family. It includes the number of children and grand parents who reside in

the same house and depend on the respondents for existence. It shows the

216
social back ground of the family. Such a study or survey enables to

understand the demographic characteristics of cashew labourers in the study

area. The number of respondents and their family size is depicted in

Table 3.12.

TABLE 3.12

Size of Family wise Distribution of Sample Respondents

Size of Family and No. of
Sl. Respondents
Category Total
No
3 4 5 6 7
1 Shelling 8 17 39 26 10 100

2 Peeling 5 14 46 31 4 100

3 Grading 3 12 17 10 8 50
16 43 102 67 22 250
Total
(6.4) (17.2) (40.8) (26.8) (8.8) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

Table 3.12 reveals that out of the total respondents. 6.4 per cent

families have three members in a house, 17.2 per cent have four members

per family, 40.8 per cent have five members per family, 26.8 per cent

families have six members in a house and, 8.8 per cent families have seven

members in a house. It is interesting to note that most families working in

cashew industries has an average of five members. It is also observed that

6.4 per cent families have three members per family and 8.8 per cent have

seven members. However, the size of family of cashew workers is high and

about 67.6 per cent families have three children.

217
3.7.7 Nature of Family

Size of the family is directly related to the nature of family. There are

joint and nuclear families. The number of members in joint family is higher

than that in a nuclear family. This is so because the family heads, their

parents, grand parents, wife, children and their brothers’ family live together

in the joint family system. On the other hand, only a family head, his wife

and children reside together in the nuclear family. In the present study, an

attempt is made to know the nature of family of the sample respondents. The

nature of the family of the respondents is presented in Table 3.13.

TABLE 3.13

Nature of Family of Sample Respondents

Nature of Family and No. of

Sl. No Category Respondents Total
Joint Family Nature Family
1 Shelling 11 89 100
2 Peeling 17 83 100
3 Grading 4 46 50
32 218 250
Total
(12.8) (87.2) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

It is clear from Table 3.13 that out of the total sample respondents,

87.2 per cent are living in nuclear family, and only 12.8 per cent living in

joint family. It reveals that the number of nuclear families are higher than

218
that of joint families. This is also found as a common characteristic of the

Indian family system.

3.7.8 Types of House

The types of houses is also one of the indicators of the economic

status which determines the labour efficiency. There are four types of houses

found in the study area. They are concrete, tiled, asbestos and thatched

houses. The sample cashew labourers are living in all types of houses. It

demonstrates the economic status of women labourers working in cashew

industries. Most of the labourers are living in concrete houses and a very few

labourers are in thatched house. The Type of house of the sample

respondents is presented in Table 3.14.

TABLE 3.14

House- wise Distribution of Sample Respondents

Sl. Types of House and No. of Respondents Total

Category
No Concrete Tiles Asbestos Thatched
1 Shelling 44 31 23 2 100
2 Peeling 47 29 21 3 100
3 Grading 30 8 10 2 50
121 68 54 7 250
Total
(48.4) (27.2) (21.6) (2.8) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

219
 Table 3.14 indicates that out of the total sample respondents, a

majority of 48.4 per cent cashew labourers are living in concrete houses,

27.2 per cent are in tiled houses, 21.6 per cent are in asbestos houses and 2.8

per cent in thatched houses. It conveys the fact that most of the labourers

working in cashew industries are living in cement concrete houses. But, the

small size of house, labourer cost, and non availability of materials for the

construction of thatched houses, and rise in income and change in life style

are reasons for switching over to concrete houses in the study area.

3.7.9 Nature of Employment

It refers to the availability of employment to individual in any one of

the centres of economic activity. Some are getting regular employment and

others are getting seasonal employment or irregular employment. The

irregular employment of household head influences the participation of

women in cashew processing and in turn their efficiency in production.

Hence, an attempt is made to stratify the respondents on the basis of the

employment of the heads of families. The type and nature of employment of

the head of the family is given in Table 3.15.

220
 TABLE 3.15

Employment wise Distribution of Sample Respondents Family Head

Nature of Employment and No.

Sl. of Respondents
Category Total
No
Regular Irregular
1 Shelling 42 58 100
2 Peeling 47 53 100
3 Grading 23 27 50
112 158 250
Total
(44.8) (55.2) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

Table 3.15 shows that of the total sample respondents, (112), the

heads families of 44.8 per cent cashew labourers are getting regular

employment and 55. 2 per cent family heads are having irregular or seasonal

employment. It is observed that the heads to families of more labourers in

cashew industry have irregular or seasonal employment compared to that of

labourers employed in other industries. Thus, the availability of cashew

labourers is influenced by the nature employment of the head of the family.

3.7.10 Type of Occupation

The types of occupation of the heads of family of the sample

respondents’ family head has been classified as coolie, mason, carpenter and

petty business people. Cashew processing is the source of employment and

income for the socially and economically disadvantaged women in these

families. In fact, most of the family heads of cashew labourers are coolies,

221
whose income is lower than that of masion, carpenter or that of business

men. The type of occupation and number of respondents is shown in

Table 3.16.

TABLE 3.16

Occupation wise Distribution of Respondents’ Heads

Sl. Occupation
Category Total
No
Coolie Masion Carpenter Business
1 Shelling 39 22 10 13 84
2 Peeling 32 20 14 19 85
3 Grading 17 11 9 6 43
88 53 33 38 212
Total
(41.5) (25.0) (15.6) (17.9) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
38 respondents are widow and divorced women labourers excluded
from total sample.
Note : Father or mother of unmarried labourer is considered as family
head.

It is evident from Table 3.16 that 38 of the respondents, that is 9.2 per

cent are widows, and 6.0 per cent are divorced or separated who are

excluded from this sample. Out of the remaining 84.8 percent of samples

respondents, 41.5 per cent family heads cashew labourers’ are coolies, 25per

cent are masions, 15.6 per cent carpenters and 17.9 per cent business men. It

is vivid from the study that coolie workers’ wives or daughters contribute a

large portion to cashew processing than the wives and daughters of mason’s,

222
carpenters and business men. It is observed that types of occupation of

family heads influence the participation of labourers in cashew industry.

3.7.11 Size of Land Holding

Land is the gift of nature and source of income and employment

opportunities. So, it occupies an important role in the determination of the

economic conditions of the labourers in cashew industry. In fact, size of land

is also one of the determinants of labourer participation in cashew

processing. So, activities distribution of respondents is made on the basis of

land holding. The size of land holding of the respondents is given in

Table 3.17.

TABLE 3.17

Size of Land Holding wise Distribution of Respondents

Land Holding in cents

Sl. No Category Total
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
1 Shelling 18 34 31 12 5 100
2 Peeling 12 34 37 7 10 100
3 Grading 9 16 14 6 5 50
39 84 82 25 20 250
Total
(15.6) (33.6) (32.8) (10.0) (8.0) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

Table 3.17 indicates that of the total respondents, 15.6 per cent

labourers are holding less than 10 cents, 33.6 per cent 11-20 cents, 32.8 per

cent 21-30 cents, 10 per cent 31-40 and 8 per cent have lands between 41-50

223
cents. Thus, it reveals that large number of cashew labourers are holding

land between 11 and 20 cents. Only 8 per cent of labourers have land

between 41-50 cents. It is also observed that no labourer in the study has

more than 50 cents.

3.7.12 Livestock Holding

Livestock holding is an additional source of family income. So, an

attempt is made here to know the type of livestock reared by the sample

respondents. Generally, livestock such as poultry, cow and sheep are

brought up by a few families. Most of the cashew labourers have either

poultry or sheep or cow or some of them have all these live stocks. The type

of livestock holding of the sample respondents is displayed in Table 3.18.

TABLE 3.18

Livestock Holdings of the Sample Respondents

Types of Livestock
Sl. No Category All Total
Cow Sheep Poultry
items
81
1 Shelling 8 17 51 5
(38.57)
80
2 Peeling 9 21 48 2
(41.43)
42
3 Grading 2 10 26 4
(2.00)
11
19 48 125 203
Total (5.4)
(9.4) (23.6) (61.6) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

224
 It is evident from Table 3.18 that about 84 per cent of labourers have

any one or two types of live stocks. Out of the respondents, total, 9.4 per

cent labourers rear cow, 23.6 per cent have sheep and 61.6 per cent have

poultry. About 5.4 per cent labourers rear sheep, cow and poultry. It is

interesting to note that the number of labourers rearing poultry is more than

(61.6 per cent) that who rear cow (9.4 per cent) and (23.6 per cent) sheep.

This is because, taking care of poultry and feeding them is easier and

cheaper than other livestocks.

3.7.13 Household Income

Income is one of the direct and important measurable indicators of the

economic well being of the individual. Generally, a household in any society

tries to get income from different sources in order to meet their family

expenses. In the study area, most of the households get income from the

family heads. It indicates the economic well being of the cashew labourers.

The accompanying table depicts the details pertaining to the house hold

income of cashew labourers. The monthly incomewise distribution of

sample respondents is revealed in Table 3.19.

225
 TABLE 3.19

Income wise Distribution of Sample Respondents

Monthly Income
Sl. No No. of Respondents Percentage
in Rs.

1. Upto 10,000 162 64.8

2. 10000-15000 79 31.6

3. Above 15000 9 3.6

Total 250 100.00

Source: Survey data

As revealed from Table 3.19, a majority of 162 respondents have

income below Rs. 10000, followed by 79 respondents between Rs. 10000

and Rs. 15000 and only 9 respondents have income above Rs. 15000. It

shows the fact that most of the labourers working in cashew industry are

economically poor.

3.7.14 Consumption Expenditure

Consumption expenditure of cashew labourers depends on their

monthly income. It refers to the expenditure incurred on food, clothes,

medicine, education, energy, transport, communication, entertainment,

social and religious festival and celebration of house warming and

matrimony functions and miscellaneous items. It shows that not only the

standard of living of the cashew labourers but also their pattern of

226
expenditure. Though the house hold income of the cashew labourer is either

low or high, it is sufficient to meet their basic necessities. However, their

consumption expenditure increases proportionate to their family size. Ever

increasing prices of goods and services and habits of celebrating all festivals

and nuptials in a grand manner determines their consumption expenditure.

Consumption expenditure of cashew labourers increases with increase

in their income, due to their family size and rise in the prices of goods and

services. Generally they have the habit of celebrating housewarming and

matrimony etc in a grand scale. The average annual consumption

expenditure of the sample respondents is displayed in Table 3.20.

TABLE 3.20

Annual Average Consumption Expenditure of Respondents

Sl. No Items of expenditure Amount in Rs. Percentage

1. Food 28,250 44.00
2. Clothing and cosmetic 16,670 25.97
3. Education 3,450 5.37
4. Fuel 1,500 2.34
5. Health 3,700 5.76
6. Social of Religion 4,850 7.56
7. Others 5,780 9.00
Total 64,200 100.00
Source: Survey data

227
 Table 3.20 reveals that among the various items of consumption

expenditure, 44 per cent is spent on food, 25.97 per cent on clothing and

cosmetic items, 5.37 per cent on education, 2.34 per cent on fuel, 5.76 per

cent on health, 7.56 per cent on social and religious festivals and 9.00 per

cent on transport, phone and entertainments. This expenditure pattern

indicates that the status of cashew labourer has improved to some extent in

this study area.

3.7.15 Facilities Available

Facilities including television, radio, refrigerator and vehicles are

available in the respondents’ families. The availability of such facilities

determine the standard of living of cashew labourers in the study area. So,

an attempt is made here to know the facilities available in the respondents

house. The different types of assets of sample respondents is shown in

Table 3.21.

TABLE 3.21

Assets wise Distribution of Respondents

Sl. No. of Percentage to
Assets
No Sample Total Sample
1 TV, Radio, Refrigerator 31 12.4
Bike
2 TV, Refrigerator Bike 58 23.2
3 TV, Refrigerator 29 11.6
4 TV 237 94.8
5 TV, Bike 43 17.2
6 TV, Radio 14 5.6
Source: Survey data

228
 As revealed by Table 3.21, the assets include television, refrigerator,

radio and vehicle. Out of the total respondents, 12.4 per cent have four types

of assets namely, television, radio, refrigerator and motorbike, 23.2 per cent

have television, radio and motor bike, 11.6 per cent have both television and

the refrigerator, 17.2 per cent have television and motor bike and 5.6 per

cent possess television and radio. It is important to note that 94.8 per cent of

the respondent have television only in the home. This is so because the

Government of Tamil Nadu has provided free television to most of the

economically backward families.

3.7.16 Type of Educational Institution

Generally, most of cashew labourers in Kanyakumari District depend

on government schools for their children’s education. They are not

interested in sending their children to English medium schools due to the

high cost of education and English language phobia. They admit their

children either in government schools or aided schools. Only a few cashew

labourers send their children to English medium schools. The respondents’

preference of sending their children to school for their education is given in

Table 3.22.

229
 TABLE 3.22

School-wise Children of the Sample Respondents

Types of School
Sl. No Category Aided English Total
Government
private matriculation
1 Shelling 47 49 4 100
2 Peeling 46 51 3 100
3 Grading 23 22 5 50
Total 116 122 12 250
(46.4) (48.8) (4.8) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

Table 3.22 displays that out of the total sample respondents, 48.8 per

cent respondents admit their children in aided private management schools

and 46.40 per cent send their children to government schools. It is observed

that only 12 per cent labourers send the children to English medium

matriculation schools. It shows that most of the cashew labourers could not

provide English education to their children. It reflects the poor socio-

economic conditions of the cashew labourers in the study area.

3.7.17 Medical Assitance

It is needless to say that the cashew labourers mainly depend on

government hospitals for their health care. This is to due to their economic

constraints. They are used to stand in the que for a long time to get

230
medicine. This is the critical condition of cashew labourers. The

respondents’ preference of hospital is shown in Table 3.23.

TABLE 3.23

Preference of Hospitals by Respondents

Sl. Types of Hospital

Category Total
No Government Private
1 Shelling 88 12 100
2 Peeling 83 17 100
3 Grading 41 9 50
212 38 250
Total
(84.8) (15.2) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

It is evident from Table 3.23, that a majority of 84.8 per cent of the

respondents go to government hospital for medical treatment. While only

15.2 percent depend on private hospitals for health care. It also shows the

poor economic condition of cashew labourers in the study area.

3.7.18 Saving

Saving has become one of the important characteristics of the people

nowadays. Cashew labourers also have the habit of saving. They mainly

depend on chit funds, post offices, banks and insurance agencies. As saving

contributes to the house hold income, its role is important in determining the

economic condition of cashew labourers. The sources of saving of the

sample respondents is given in Table 3.24.

231
 TABLE 3.24

Saving wise Distribution of Respondents

Types of Saving
Sl.
Category Total
No Chit Post Insurance
Bank
Fund Office Agencies
1 Shelling 29 18 21 32 100

2 Peeling 33 20 17 30 100

3 Grading 14 11 10 15 50
76 49 48 77 250
Total
(30.4) (19.6) (19.2) (30.8) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

It is clear from Table 3.24 that labourers prefer chit funds and

insurance companies, to post offices and banks. Out of the total respondents,

31.4 and 30.8 per cent are saving in chit funds and insurance companies and

only 19.6 and 19.2 per cent save in post officers and commercial banks. This

is due to the fact that the insurance agencies approach the cashew labourers

in person. Illiteracy and poor educational background is another reason for

the cashew labourers not depositing in banks. It is found that they prefer chit

funds as they can get back the money from it in the beginning by auction. It

shows that labourers are saving in any one of the above financial institutions

to meet their future expenditure on education, marriage and house

construction.

232
3.7.19 Indebtedness

Cashew labourers borrow money from money lenders, pawn brokers,

friends and relatives to meet their matrimonial, educational, and medical

expenditure. The factors which turn the cashew labourers into debtors are

large family size, educational expenditure, matrimonial expenditure for the

family and relatives, seasonal employment of household heads, medical

expenditure, house maintenance and consumption expenditure.

TABLE 3.25

Indebtedness wise Distribution of Respondents

Un
Sl. No Category Indebtedness Total
Indebtedness
1 Shelling 43 57 100
2 Peeling 49 51 100
3 Grading 21 29 50
Total 113 137 250
(45.2) (54.8) (100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total

Table 3.25 indicates that out of the total respondents, 45.2 per cent

have borrowed money and 54.8 per cent do not have debt in any form in the

study area.

3.7.20 Source of Borrowing

Generally, cashew labourers borrow money from co-operative banks,

money lenders, pawn brokers, friends and relatives. Hence, an attempt is

233
also made in the study to identify the main source of borrowing in this

district. The different sources of borrowing and sample respondents is

displayed in Table 3.26.

TABLE 3.26

Number of Respondents and Source of Borrowing

Sl. No Sources No. of Respondents Per cent

1. Co-operative Bank 19 16.81
2. Money Lenders 33 29.20
3. Pawn Brokers 30 26.55
4. Relatives 15 13.28
5. Friends 16 14.16
Total 113 100.00
Source: Survey data

It is evident from Table 3.26 that 29.2 per cent respondents have

borrowed from money lenders and 26.55 per cent depend on pawn brokers

for financial needs. Only 13.28 and 14.16 per cent labourers rely on the

relatives and friends respectively for financial support.

Thus, the socio- economic background of cashew labourers reflect

their standard of life. It is observed that labourers belong to all religion,

caste and community are engaged in cashew processing. Most of them have

very poor education, but they are used to all types of cashew processing

activities based on their experience. It is also seen that their economic

condition is poor. It is observed that child labour is not found in the cashew

234
industry. Above all, the socio- economic condition of cashew labourer has

been on the increase in Kanyakumari District.

3.8 NATURE OF CASHEW WORKERS IN KANYAKUMARI

DISTRICT

Occupation of other Household Members

In the study area, besides agriculture, toddy tapping was one of the

major occupations in the olden days. Women were then making Palmyra

products from palm leaves, palm sugar, etc. However now, among the

sample respondents we find only one agricultural labourer and one toddy

tapper. Construction industry appears to be giving more employment to male

workers. Forty five per cent of the total male workers are employed in it.

Many workers said that they take up unspecified coolie work and 26 per cent

of the male workers are employed in it. Nearly 70 per cent of working

women are absorbed in cashew nut industries, the alternative occupation

being domestic work. Cashew nut-processing industry gives employment to

46 per cent of workers while nineteen percent of workers depend on

construction work and those involved in unspecified coolie work amountes

to 12 percent.

Land Holdings and Ownership of House

Out of 250 households, only 48 own arable land. The land owned

range from two to 250 cents, but only one household has 250 cents of land

235
and rest of them 2 to 30 cents. If we exclude the 250 cents landholder, the

average land holding comes to 10 cents only as an average. Only 45

respondents have homestead land.

Migration

At least one member out of 28 households has gone out of the district

for work. Among them, 23 belonged to the Nadar caste. Within the Nadar

caste, those who owned lands have greater probability of sending their

family members outside. Among the migrants, more than 84 per cent have

gone to the neighboring state – Kerala. Other places where they have gone

for employment is in Bombay, Mysore and Madras. The jobs available to

them mostly is in construction. This is particularly so in Kerala where the

wages for local labourers is higher than that given to construction workers

from Tamil Nadu. Due to this, migrant workers are preferred to local

workers.

Working hours and holidays

Despite the fact that almost all the cashew nut factories are registered

under the Factories Act, they are not complying with the eight-hour work

norms. Generally, women workers start working at 7 or 8 o’clock in the

morning and continue till 5.30 p.m. in the evening. The lunch break is also

very short, in most of the cases lasting from 15-50 minutes only. Those who

get one-hour break go home for lunch. Otherwise, workers bring tiffin to the

236
factory. There is no retiring facility in the factory. The piece rate system of

wages indirectly force the workers to take very short lunch breaks, which is

affecting their digestive system. On an average, a worker works 9.21 hours a

day. In a week, if Sunday is excluded as a holiday, they work for 56 hours a

week. This may vary from section to section within a factory.

Labourer Market : Motivational issues

The factors behind the workers taking up jobs in these factories are

too varied to standardize, however an attempt has been made to highlight the

most significant ones. The first and foremost is poverty induced by

insufficient income to the family. One worker Meena says that she has been

working in a cashew nut factory for seven years. Prior to her marriage, her

family was in utter poverty. Income was not sufficient to look after all the

members. Since she being the eldest in her family, she started working at the

age of eight. Another worker, Kamala says, “We were three sisters. Our

parents said that if we work, we could save for our marriages. Since we did

not go to school, we started working. I started at the age of 10.”

From these responses, it is clear that poverty induced by insufficient

income, need to save for marriage, illiteracy, or inability to attend school

forced them to work in the cashew nut factories. There is another factor that

also emerges from the family but for a different reason. According to

Sulochana, ‘Kashtam (difficulty) in house. Father cannot do any job. Mother

237
was just staying at home. We have to marry off elder sister. So my elder
10’
sister and I started going . So these girls took initiative and entered the

labourer market.

According to Rosemary, “Kashtam and pattini in house. Husband is

not getting regular employment. Even if it is available, he could earn some

money but spent it on alcohol and would bring no money home. Hence I

started working in the factories 10”. These responses clearly convey that this

industry thrives on poverty stricken female workers and in order to contain

the labourer cost, the management does not give the jobs to men.

Employers use different strategies and control the labourer market. If

a man wished to enter the cashew nut industry and get information about a

vacancy or opening up of a new factory, he had to mobilize 10 women

workers and meet the employer. Only then is he given a job in the roasting

section. Sometimes he took his wife and daughters to get them recruited.

Poverty-induced entry of the workers at childhood is recorded in our

schedule more than 30 times.

Job Access

If a woman wants a job in a factory, she would first approach her

neighbour who is already employed there. The neighbour would introduce

her to the factory manager. Forty-five of the 94 women workers accessed the

job in this way. If not neighbour, relatives play this role to a considerable

238
extent. Fifteen workers got recruited on their own. Organized recruitment

agencies both government and private play no role in cashew nut-processing

industry.

Skill Acquisition

There is no concept of apprenticeship or specific training for the

newly recruited workers in the industry. Generally, the workers on the job

acquire the required skill. The time taken to acquire it varies from operation

to operation. On an average, it takes them five weeks to learn the skills.

Wages

As the cashew nut industry comes under the Minimum Wages Act

1948, the workers should be paid wages as per regular revisions. In the case

of the cashew nut industry in Kanyakumari District, every year the trade

unions recognized by the management negotiate and revise the wages,

dearness allowance, workload and bonus. The survey has shown that both

the trade unionists functioning in the district and the concerned government

officials are unconcerned about the Minimum Wages situation in the district.

Majority of workers are paid on piece rate wages. In roasting locally

known as ‘varappu’, workers are paid on daily basis. Apart from roasting, if

they are engaged in loading and unloading of raw Cashew, they are paid

separately and the workers themselves fix the rates with the management.

239
The payment is made once in a week. In ‘thallu’ and Shelling process,

workers are paid per kilo gram basis. They are also paid once in a week.

Apart from benefits common to all the workers in the industry, workers in

this section are allowed to take for themselves one day broken outer shell.

This gets them around Rs. 15 on that day. Broken kernels are not paid for.

Since broken kernels are considered of low quality, the workers have to lose

their earnings for the broken kernels.

Workers in bormah (roasting) section are daily wagers and are paid

weekly. In Peeling, the workers are paid a bit higher than in Shelling

because it requires some intricate skills and experience. They are also paid

wage per kilo gram every week, similar to workers in Shelling. In pass or

Grading and Packing, workers are paid on a daily basis. Apart from daily

wages, similar to workers in other sections, they are entitled to dearness

allowances. ‘Macauds’ of all the respective sections are paid wages fixed for

their respective sections. In addition to their work-based wages, they are

given extra payment equal to wages for two kilos of shelled / peeled kernels.

Other employee’s viz., supervisors or mesthiris, watch men and managers

are paid monthly wages.

The workers are given as per the yearly wage settlement. Since the

wages revised by the unions are effective from Onam, the revised wage

should also be paid from that month onwards. However, awareness about the

240
new rates was very low among the workers. In most of the cases, it was

sheer guess work on the part of the workers. Hence, the average piece rate

wages as calculated from the response of workers’ (Rs. 2.57 for Shelling)

and the settlement rate (Rs. 2.60) did show some difference.

In roasting, the average wage is Rs.59.03, inclusive of dearness

allowances whereas in wage settlement, the basic wage is Rs.55 and Rs. 5.37

is given as dearness allowance calculated on the basis of increase in district

consumer price index. Adding both the total comes to Rs. 60.37, which is

more than the prevailing wage by Rs. 1.34. Similarly in Shelling, the actual

wages paid per kilo is Rs. 2.58 and settlement wage differs from this amount

by two paise. In Peeling, there is no difference between settlement and

actual wages. In Grading, actual wage is less than the settlement wage by

Rs. 2.

Even if all the employers are paying as per the settlement, this does

not mean that the workers are better paid in the study area. There are some

other factors that prompt employers exploit and pay the unemployment-

induced low wage rates for women in the district. The wages for other non-

agricultural employment is higher than the wage in this industry by more

than two times. For processes work where men are involved, the

Kanyakumari cashew nut workers are earning just 50 per cent of the

earnings of a male cashew nut worker in Kerala and in the case of women, it

241
is 25 per cent less. It is argued by employees that the cost of living in Kerala,

particularly in Kollam is very high and hence the wages in Kerala cannot be

compared with Kanyakumari. An analysis of the retail prices of some of the

essential food items in Kerala and Marthandam show only a marginal raise

of less than 10 per cent only in Kerala.

Loans

At the time of Onam, a major annual festival in the region, workers

can get some loan as advance and it will be deducted from their salary in

installments. In case of emergency, they get some advance but the amount

does not exceed Rs.100. It appears that male workers are able to get higher

amount of loan or advances from factories. In firms managed by commission

processors, the concept of giving higher advance to get women workers

from other factories is prevalent. Office bearers of trade unions disapprove

of this trend and say that this trend is certainly true and is on the increase. As

a result, women workers lose their seniority and have to for go some of the

benefits a worker is supposed to get at the time of retirement. It is also

difficult to organize them under the trade union.

Mobility in Cashew nut Industry

In the case of our study area, the women workers in the industry have

little chance to move to other sectors or industries because there is no other

industry on a larger scale and that too not locally accessible. As said earlier,

242
they have only two options, either to become housewives or work in the

cashew nut industry.

In this study, out of 104 workers, 46 workers have said that they have

changed their workplaces at least once in their working life. Fourteen

workers said that they have changed their employers twice and two workers

changed thrice. The main reason for changing their job is the long distance

to the factory and also due to their marriage. From this, one can presume that

during the initial stages of employment, factories have been located at

distant places, so workers went to those factories and as more and more

factories got established in the accessible regions, they stopped going to

distant places and joined the nearest firm.

Besides these factors, strategies adopted by employers also play

major role in increased turnover in the industry. By paying hefty advance,

the new firms and commission processors get trained workers from other

factories so that it can increase production and get a surplus out of it. The

big companies which are trendsetters due to huge operating surplus, will not

lose as long as they get sufficient supply of docile labourer. In recent times,

they follow a strategy by which they withdraw themselves from the

responsibility of providing social security to workers. They give raw nuts to

independent entrepreneurs who are ready to process on commission basis.

The commission processors are merely interested in the commission. They

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recruit workers who are skilled and working in some other factories by

giving higher amount of advances. Only with optimal efficiency and

unlawful means, are the commission processors able to run the firm. When

workers come for higher advance, they are also ready to forgo certain

provisions and benefits, which they were getting in the previous firm.

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REFERENCES

1. Kanyakumari District Website: http://www.kanyakumari.tn.nic.in.

2. Census of India 2011, http://www.censusindia .gov.in.2011.

3. District Statistical Hand book, Kanyakumari, Nagercoil (2011), p.4.

4. Tamil Nadu Season and Crop Report. Government of Tamil Nadu,

2011, p. 106-108.

5. Document Issued by the Inspector of Factories, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu,

2011, p. 48.

6. John, Op.cit., p. 39-41.

7. Deeja, Cashew Production and Marketing: Comparative Study of Kerala

and Tamil Nadu, M.Phil Dissertation, Manonmaniam Sundaranar
University, Tirunelveli.

8. Singarayan, Op.cit., p. 17-21.

9. Ibid, pp. 23-24.

10. Shanthi, Vanaja (1996), Cashew Industry and Cashew Workers in

Thiruvattar, Kanyakumari District, M.Phil Dissertation, Centre for
Development Studies, Tirvandram.

11. Deepa, Op.cit., p. 28-29.

12. Kannan, Op.cit., p. 11-13.

13. Lindaberg, Op.cit., p. 217.

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