This article was downloaded by: [McGill University Library]

On: 01 February 2015, At: 09:45

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:
1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,
London W1T 3JH, UK

Southern Speech
Communication Journal
Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rsjc19

The grande syntagmatique:

A methodology for analysis
of the montage structure
of television narratives
a
Michael J. Porter
a
Assistant Professor in the Department of
Speech and Dramatic Art , University of
Missouri—Columbia
Published online: 01 Apr 2009.

To cite this article: Michael J. Porter (1982) The grande syntagmatique:

A methodology for analysis of the montage structure of television
narratives, Southern Speech Communication Journal, 47:3, 330-341, DOI:
10.1080/10417948209372537

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10417948209372537

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all
the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our
platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors
make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy,
completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any
opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and
views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor
& Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information.
Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
 proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities
whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study
purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution,
reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access
and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015
 THE' SOUTHERN SPEECH COMMUNICATION JOURNAL
47 (SPRING, 1982), 330-341

THE GRANDE SYNTAGMATIQUE: A

METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYSIS OF THE
MONTAGE STRUCTURE OF TELEVISION
NARRATIVES
MICHAEL J. PORTER
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

The article presents a methodology for analyzing the montage

structure of television programs. The methodology was developed
by Christian Metz and originally used in the analysis of films.
The results of an analysis of three episodes of Lou Grant are
reported, revealing similarities among the montage structures of
the episodes. These data are then compared to an episode of an
action-adventure television series as an example of the compara-
tive value of the methodology.

TVTedia scholars have done little to develop a methodology for

•'-'••-serious analysis of television programs. In discussing the
future of broadcasting criticism, Smith notes that "the absence
of a tradition is perhaps the most important characteristic of
television and radio criticism."1 Film scholars, on the other hand,
have a firmer foundation in film analysis, criticism, and theory,
thus providing a common language and understanding in the
analysis of films. It is time that television scholars borrow from
and build upon the work already accomplished by our film
colleagues.
The objective of this paper is to present a methodology for
analyzing montage structures of narrative television programs.
The methodology is based on the work of French film semiotician,
Christian Metz. One of Metz's major concerns is the study of

Michael J. Porter (Ph.D., University of Iowa, 1975) is Assistant Professor

in the Department of Speech and Dramatic Art at the University of
Missouri-Columbia. An earlier version of this study was presented at the
Speech Communication Association Convention in New York in November,
1980.
1
Robert R. Smith, Beyond the Wasteland: The Criticism of Broadcasting
(Annandale, Virginia: Speech Communication Association, 1980), 13-14.
330
 TheGrande Syntogmatique 331

narrative in film. In part, he examines the code of the visual

image and how visual images are combined through montage.
Metz is not the first theorist to describe the visual montage
structure of film. Eisenstein, Pudovkin, and Arnheim, among
others, also have designed a systematic structure of montage.2
Metz's, however, is one of the more adaptable and systematic
methodologies available.
Metz examines, in part, the code of visual images and how
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

visual images are combined through montage. His theories are

based on Ferdinand de Saussure's study of semiotics, which is de-
fined as "a science that studies the life of signs within a society."3
Saussure uses the term "syntagma" to define segments composed
of "two or more consecutive units."4 Words, for example, are
arranged sequentially when we speak, and Saussure calls any
combination of two or more words a syntagma. Film and video,
likewise, present a linear unfolding of visual images. Metz speaks
of the syntagma in film as containing two or more consecutive
units. For him, the smallest unit that constitutes a syntagma is a
shot. A great deal of what we call film, or video, is the linear
unfolding of a series of shots, arranged sequentially. Metz is
concerned, in part, with studying the structural combination of
shots which appear in narrative film. He recognizes that narrative
film contains "a few large syntagmatic structures" and that "the
great majority of narrative films resemble each other in their
principal syntagmatic figures."5 Metz has classified these structural
combinations of shots into eight types which he calls the grande
syntagmatique. Many of these types apply to the narrative film.
Although Metz has called his grande syntagmatique "almost

2
See Rudolph Arnheim, Film as Art (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Uni-
versity of California Press, 1957); Sergei Eisenstein, Film Form, trans, by Jay
Leyda (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1949); Vsevolod Pudovkin,
Film Technique and Film Acting, trans, and ed. by I. Montagu (New York:
Grove Press Inc., 1970).
3
Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, ed. by Charles
Bally and Albert Sechehaye in collaboration with Albert Reidlinger, trans, by
Wade Baskin (New York: Philosophical Library, 1959), 16.
4
Saussure, 123.
5
Christian Metz, Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema, trans. by
Michael Taylor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 101.
 332 The Southern Speech Communication Journal

unpolished,"6 it is one of the few methodological tools available

for establishing a code for the montage within a film (or video
production). Metz has applied the matrix to Adieu Philippine.''
Christian Koch used the grande syntagmatique with Bergman's
Persona and Pakula's The Sterile Cuckoo.8 Lane Roth used
Metz's design to analyze Leone's trilogy,8 and Silverstone analyzed
an episode of a British television series, Intimate Strangers, using
Metz's grande syntagmatique.10 It should be noted that all of
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

these are narrative films. Susan Lawrence is applying Metz to a

series of award-winning television commercials, and her research
indicates that while Metz's matrix is very applicable for television
commercials utilizing a narrative structure, it presents many
problems when analyzing non-narrative commercials.11 Silver-
stone also stated that Metz's grande syntagmatique is inadequate
"in exploring anything other than 'classic' narrative."12
One of the principal merits of Metz's classificatory scheme is
that it precisely defines terminology, thus permitting language
uniformity in an analysis. Ordinarily, words such as "shot,"
"scene," and "sequence" are loosely used, without any set
definitions, to describe the visual structure of a television pro-
gram. For example, many film critics will talk about a given
"scene," when in fact they may really be discussing a series of
"scenes" used to relate a number of particular events. Or students
may talk about a "sequence" of shots, when they may really be
addressing a series of "autonomous" shots. While the typical
lay television viewer may be able to understand the intent of
the communication, the media scholar must be more precise
in language used to describe the visual structures of a program.

6
Metz, 119.
7
Metz, 149-82.
8
Christian Koch, "Understanding Film as a Process or Change: A Meta-
language for the Study of Film," Diss., University of Iowa, 1970.
9
Lane Roth, "Film Semiotics Put to Empirical Test: Leone's Western
Trilogy," Diss., Florida State University, 1976.
10
Roger Silverstone, "An Approach to the Structural Analysis of the
Television Message," Screen 17 (Summer, 1976), 9-40.
11
Susan Lawrence, "Metz's Grande Syntagmatique Applied to Television
Commercials" (working title). Dissertation-in-progress, University of Missouri-
Columbia.
12
Silverstone, 15.
 The Grande Syntogmatique 333

One of the objectives of this study was to determine whether

Metz's grande syntagmatique was applicable to television pro-
grams. Three episodes (from the 1979 fall season series) of Lou
Grant13 were analyzed using Metz's matrix. The episodes were
recorded off-the-air onto 3/4 inch videotape cassettes. Lou Grant
was selected for this study for two reasons. First, it is a relatively
well-known and popular television series that has won several
awards.14 Second, it is a program that has some stability in the
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

fluctuating world of prime-time network programming. It has

been on the air since the fall season of 1977, and if nothing un-
foreseen happens could remain on the air for a number of years
to come.
While Metz's grande syntagmatique discusses a number of
different syntagmas, which he divides according to their narrative
or non-narrative function, only those syntagmas that were found
in the analysis of Lou Grant will be discussed here: the "autono-
mous shot," the "scene," the "ordinary sequence," and the
"alternate syntagma."15
In the autonomous shot, a "single shot presents an 'episode' of
the plot." A "shot" is a continuous take of a camera run with no
break in time. This, Metz notes, is "the only instance in which
a single shot constitutes a primary, and not a secondary, sub-
division of the film."16 For example, one autonomous shot from
an episode of Lou Grant begins with a close-up shot of a tele-
phone. The camera zooms out to reveal Billie, the reporter, hold-
ing the receiver in her hand, listening to a recorded message.
The camera zooms back further to reveal Animal, the
photographer, standing next to the telephone booth. They ex-
change a few words; Animal leaves the frame and Billie, in turn,
walks out of the frame.
13
The air dates were October 15, October 22, and November 5.
14
Lou Grant won ten Emmy Awards from 1977 to 1979. This program has
also won a Peabody Award, a Director's Guild of America Award, a Writer's
Guild of America Award, and an award from the Society of Professional
Journalists.
15
For a complete discussion of these eight syntagmatic units see Metz,
Film Language, 124-133; Ben Andrews, "The Semiotics of Film Sound: A
Study of the Sound/Image Articulation in Adieu Philippine," Diss., Uni-
versity of Missouri-Columbia, 1979, 13-17.
16
Metz, Film Language, 124.
 334 The Southern Speech Communication Journal

Probably the most common type of syntagma found in narra-

tive films is the "scene."17 A "scene" contains two or more shots
and shows action, without any gaps in the action's spatial or
temporal continuity. Metz borrows the term "scene" from the
theater because the continuity of space and time in film resembles
the theatrical "scene." A scene's action is continuous, with no
part of the action left out. If a conversation, in reality, lasts for
three minutes, the same conversation would last three minutes
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

in a filmed scene. This same conversation would also have to take

place within the same space, such as an office or a living room;
although if the conversation is continuous, and the characters
move from room to room, for example, this also would be a
scene. In this instance, the concept of space must be expanded to
include not just a living room but the house, or the office com-
plex. As long as the action is continuous, and no part of the
action has been deleted, then there is a "scene."
Another syntagma found in Lou Grant is the "ordinary se-
quence" which presents a series of very brief scenes that contain
temporal discontinuity; that is, "each one of the units in the
narrative simply presents one of the unskipped moments of the
action."18 The sequence allows the filmmaker to eliminate those
moments which have no direct bearing on the plot. An example
of the ordinary sequence from an episode of Lou Grant would
be a "series of scenes" in which Rossi and his colleague, Marcus
Prescott, are on a tour of the campus at the United Pilgrim
Church. The syntagma opens with a number of different shots of
children painting. Then the camera pulls back to reveal Marcus
and his tour guide. Rossi is escorted to the area by a young man
who suggests that Rossi join the tour. They leave the location and
the next shot is of the three of them looking inside the church's
art gallery. Then a shot shows them outside the art gallery
walking past a number of classrooms. By presenting this in-
17
The syntagmatic analysis of three episodes of Lou Grant reveals that
the "scene" was the most frequent syntagma occurring in each of the three
episodes; in his analysis of Adieu Philippine, Metz lists the "scene" as the
syntagma occurring most frequently in the film (Metz, Film Language, 179);
in his analysis of Leone's trilogy, Roth found that "scenes" accounted
for 64 percent of the syntagmas in each of three films and was the one
syntagma that occurred most frequently (Roth, "Film Semiotics," 202).
18
Metz, Film Language, 130.
 . The Grande Syntogniatique 335

formation as an "ordinary sequence," the time is compressed,

leaving out unnecessary movement from one portion of the
church's campus to another.
Another type of syntagma found in Lou Grant is the "alter-
nate syntagma," which "presents two or more series of events in
such a way that within each series the temporal relationships are
consecutive, but that, between the series taken as wholes, the
temporal relationship is one of simultaneity (which can be ex-
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

pressed by the formula 'alternating of images equals simultaneity

of occurrences')."19 Metz provides the example of a shot of the
pursuers, followed by a shot of the pursued, and back to the
shot of the pursuers. In the episode of Lou Grant analyzed for
this project, two examples of the alternate syntagma were found.
In one episode there is a series of two interviews which are inter-
cut in such a way that the events are presented as if they were
taking place simultaneously. The alternate syntagma begins with
Billie interviewing a representative from the United Pilgrim
Church. Then the action changes to Rossi's interviewing a
couple who were former members of the church, followed by a
return to Billie's interview, and then back again to Rossi's inter-
view of the couple. This intercutting occurs two more times. The
syntagma, therefore, has six separate units alternating between
location "A" and location "B." One interviewee is praising the
work of the church, and the other is revealing various negative
views of the inner workings of the church. The combination of
the two scenes and the alternate editing of the interviews presents
a form of a "pro-con" debate on the United Pilgrim Church.
Another time the alternate syntagma occurs is during a tele-
phone conversation when we see both speakers in their re-
spective locations. Although a visualization of a phone conversa-
tion is linear in time and sequential rather than simultaneous,
such a situation can be classified as an "alternate" syntagma.
Metz, himself, uses this syntagma to classify a phone conversation
in Adieu Philippine. His explanation is that the conversation is
simultaneous if you expand your concept of time rather broadly
to mean the "moment."20 In other words, even though the phone
19
Metz, 128-29.
20
Metz, 161. In his analysis of an episode of a British television series,
Silverstone also uses the alternate syntagma to describe a telephone con-
 336 The Southern Speech Communication Journal

conversation itself is linear, we see two individuals in their

separate environments at a given moment, and those "moments,"
in fact, are simultaneously occurring for each of the individuals.

RESULTS

The first step in the study was to determine the syntagmatic

structure of each of three selected episodes of Lou Grant. Several
viewings were required for this task. Initial and subsequent
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

viewings determined (1) the types of syntagmas found in each

episode, (2) the length of each syntagma, (3) the number of
shots within each syntagma, and (4) a brief description of the
action occurring within each syntagma.21
There is a common belief among television critics that if you
have seen one episode of a certain program series, you have seen
them all, that there is a certain commonality among the episodes
of a television series. For example, Smith notes that "individual
programs in a television series are different in only the most
superficial sense. The plots may differ from show to show, week
to week, but the narratives—the stories—have a striking simi-
larity."22 A syntagmatic analysis can help to reveal whether
there is not also a "striking similarity" among episodes in terms
of their montage structure, thereby revealing a part of the pro-
gram's "style."
Table 1 reveals some of the similarities among the three epi-
sodes:
The primary value of this research is twofold: Metz's grande
syntagmatique does provide a methodology for analyzing a tele-
vision program's montage structure and the tools for determining
the demarcations between autonomous units of a television pro-
gram, thus allowing one to engage in comparative analysis among
any number of television series. A body of data, for example,

versation. See Silverstone, "An Approach to the Structural Analysis of the

Television Message," 16.
21
Each episode was broken into four acts based on the commercial breaks
found within each program. The pattern consistent with Lou Grant is that
there are three commercial breaks within the program. Such demarcations
may be helpful for comparing the other television series found on commercial
networks.
22
Smith, Beyond the Wasteland, 28.
 The Grande Syntogmatique 337

TABLE 1
ANALYSIS OF THREE EPISODES OF LOU Grant

Pilgrim Gambling
Crusade Lawsuit in L.A.

FREQUENCY OF SYNTAGMATIC
TYPES
Number of Scenes (%) 24 (73%) 25 (83%) 25 (71%)
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

Number of Autonomous Shots (%) 6 (18%) 4 (13%) 7 (20%)

Number of Alternate Syntagmas (%) 2 ( 6%) 3 ( 9%)
Number of Ordinary Sequences (%) 1 ( 3%) 1 ( 4%)
33 (100) 30 (100) 35 (100)

AVERAGE LENGTH OF SCENES 1:36.5 1:41.5 1:36.4

Range: :26-2:58 :32-4:00 :21-4:32

AVERAGE LENGTH OF
AUTONOMOUS SHOTS :24 :43 :37
Range: :20-:3O :24-:60 :27-l:O5
AVERAGE NUMBER OF SHOTS
PER SCENE 14 16 15
Range: 2-32 3-44 2-51

1. The "scene" dominates the syntagmatic structure of each of

the episodes.
2. The second most predominant syntagma is the "autonomous
shot," accounting for 13 to 20 percent of the number of autonomous
units.
3. The "alternate" and "ordinary sequence" syntagmas were the
only other autonomous units within the three episodes, and they
were used rarely.
4. There is similarity in the total number of autonomous units
within each of the episodes: 33, 30, and 35.
5. There is also similarity in the average length of scenes within
each of the episodes. In spite of the variation of scene length-
ranging from 21 seconds to 4:42—the mean length per scene ranges
from 1:36 to 1:42, a difference of less than five seconds.
6. A comparable analysis of the length of the autonomous shots,
ranging from 24 to 43 seconds, shows a difference of 19 seconds.
7. The average number of shots per scene is also similar: one epi-
sode averaged 14 shots per scene; another, 15; and the third, 16 shots
per scene. In spite of the fact that the range of shots within each
episode varied greatly, the mean number of shots per scene remained
very close.
 338 The Southern Speech Communication Journal

could be developed on those series of interest to a researcher

and comparisons could be made among studies by different re-
searchers if all could employ the same methodology. It would
be valuable, for example, to determine if the "autonomous shot"
is a unique characteristic of Lou Grant ox is found in other tele-
vision series. Do some programs rely more heavily on the
"ordinary sequence" or the "alternate syntagma" or other syn-
tagmas not found in Lou Grant} What, for example, is the
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

average length of the scene in other series, or the average number

of shots found in other series? Further, how does a dramatic,
hour-long television series, such as Lou Grant, compare in its
montage structure to an action-adventure series?
As an example of the potential value of employing Metz's
semiotics to compare different television program genres, a single
episode of Dukes of Hazzard was analyzed using the same design
employed in the analysis of Lou Grant. The episode in question
was aired in December, 1980, and was selected as a representative
sample of the action-adventure genre found on network prime-
time television. Although a single episode of a series cannot
represent the entire genre, it is used for the purposes of this
research to provide some preliminary data to determine the
differences and similarities between the montage styles of dra-
matic and action-adventure television series.
The syntagmatic analysis of Dukes of Hazzard reveals that
only three syntagmatic types were employed in the episode: the
scene (n=32, 61.5%); the alternate syntagma (n=12, 23%); and
the autonomous shot (n=8, 15.5%). The total number of
autonomous units found in the episode was 52, compared with
a range of 30 to 35 found in the Lou Grant episodes. Although
scenes dominate the montage style of Dukes of Hazzard, as they
do with Lou Grant, the primary distinguishing characteristic of
Dukes is the frequency of the alternate syntagma (accounting for
23% of the autonomous units versus from zero to nine percent
of the autonomous units in Lou Grant).
The average length of scenes in Dukes was 56 seconds, com-
pared with a much larger average scene length in Lou Grant
(ranging from 90 to 101 seconds). The average length of the
autonomous shots in Dukes was also considerably shorter (3.6
seconds) compared to the autonomous shots found in Lou Grant
 .-..-•,. The Grande Syntogmatique v, : ' . 339

(ranging from 24 to 43 seconds).

The average number of shots per scene in Dukes was 10.5,
which is less than the average number of shots found in Lou
Grant (14 to 16). This can be explained by the fact that since
the length of scenes in Dukes was shorter there was less time for
as many shots.
The differences in the montage style of these two programs
can be attributed to differences of the program genres them-
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

selves. Dukes of Hazzard is a faster-paced program than Lou

Grant, as evidenced by the greater number of syntagmas and the
shorter length of both scenes and autonomous shots. Further-
more, much of the action of Dukes of Hazzard takes place in
exterior settings, primarily with the characters found in or around
their cars. Numerous chase units occur throughout the program,
with one major chase occurring in each of the four acts. The
chase units account for most of the alternate syntagmas, indicat-
ing not merely parallel action (i.e., character A chasing character
B), but oftentimes triadic or quadruple parallel action with
several different characters chasing after another set of characters,
all merging eventually at one central location.
Another unique characteristic of Dukes of Hazzard is the use
of the freeze frame before a commercial break. The "balladeer"
recites his narrative comment over the frozen image, usually
stating a question as to whether a character will make it through
the dangerous adventure. Once the program resumes after the
commercial break, the first image we see is the same frozen frame
seen before the commercial interruption. The question raised is
how do you analyze the montage wherein the action has been
suspended and resumes after the commercial break? This is clearly
a question that Metz would not have considered in his semiotic
analysis of films. It is a unique characteristic of television and a
special trademark of Dukes of Hazzard. In this analysis, the
actions before and after the commercial break were classified as
separate syntames, in spite of the fact that the narrative discourse
was continuous and picked up with the action preceding the
commercial break. One could argue this matter either way, and
yet the intrusion of the commercial interrupts the flow of action
for the viewer. The action is dissected by the commercial and thus
—this author believes—demands that the action be analyzed as
 340 The Southern Speech Communication Journal

separate syntagmas.

CONCLUSIONS

The primary objective of this study was to determine if

Christian Metz's grande syntagmatique could be applicable to
analyzing the montage structure of a television series. The analysis
of Lou Grant suggests that Metz's methodology is applicable to
this type of television research.
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

The value of the methodology lies, first of all, in its ability to

determine if episodes within a series share a common montage
structure. Once such common structures are validated, then re-
searchers can conduct comparative analyses between different
television series. An example of the first step in such comparative
research was cited here, with the analysis of a single episode of
Dukes of Hazzard.
When a body of data has been gathered on montage structures
of a number of television series, this quantifiable data can be used
in the description and analysis of television program genre. For
example, most television series are too easily described as being
either dramatic, action-adventure, or comedy. Such classifications
are based primarily upon basic story lines of programs, and not
on montage structures.23 Researchers may discover, however, that
what has generally been classified as an action-adventure series
actually has a montage structure comparable to a number of
dramatic series, or vice versa. Situation comedy programs also
tend to be grouped together in one general category, but an
analysis of the montage structure of these comedy series might
reveal some distinct differences which could be used to establish
more exact classifications of humorous television series. Such in-
sights will help us polish our concepts of television genres.
There is an additional avenue of possible research which
evolves from syntagmatic analysis of television programs. It is an
intra-syntagmatic analysis wherein the syntagma becomes the unit
of analysis for a program, thus allowing for a more rigorous ap-
proach to analysis. Some media scholars view a television program
and try to analyze the symbols and codes inherent in the program.
By applying tfieir criteria of analysis to each of the autonomous
units within a program, they could, perhaps, arrive at a more
systematic or cjuantifiable justification for their conclusions.
 The Grande Syntogmatique 341

Other forms of analysis would reveal the visual or aural

stylistics of a program. For example: What is the basic shooting
pattern found within a syntagma? Are reaction shots used? How
much time is spent in transportation devices, such as cars, ele-
vators, airplanes, etc.? Are there any unusual visual elements
found within the program, such as an emphasis on foreground
objects to create a feeling of depth? Is there a dominance of
moving cameras or is there more emphasis on editing? The
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 09:45 01 February 2015

number of questions to be asked is limitless and will be dictated

by the interests of the researcher. Analysis of this type could
possibly reveal some subtle stylistic elements of a television series
which would be a variable in determining a program's success or
failure in the ratings.
Metz's methodology is applicable not only to television pro-
grams, but to other forms of communications on television which
utilize a narrative structure, such as documentaries, some com-
mercials, and some political spots. As noted earlier, Metz's matrix
does not work as well for non-narrative elements as it does for the
narrative. Yet the series of questions suggested for potential intra-
syntagmatic analyses are equally applicable to studies on the
montage structure of television commercials, political announce-
ments, and documentaries.
There appears to be a new movement among media scholars
to examine television programming. Although disparate models
are now being offered as means for gathering and analyzing data,
their goal is a common one: to provide a better understanding
of television programs and the messages being delivered to the
audience. The methodology presented here can help to present a
more complete picture of television programming.
23
See, for example, Horace NewComb, TV: The Most Popular Art (New
York: Anchor Press, 1974) for a description of popular formulas in prime-time
programming and a description of television genres.