Effects of Creative Drama on Self-Concept, Social Skills, and Problem Behavior

Author(s): Gregory D. Freeman, Kathleen Sullivan and C. Ray Fulton

Source: The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 96, No. 3 (Jan. - Feb., 2003), pp. 131-138
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27542424
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Effects of Creative Drama on
Self-Concept, Social Skills,
and Problem Behavior
GREGORY D. FREEMAN KATHLEEN SULLIVAN
Lafayette County School District, Oxford, Mississippi C. RAY FULTON
University of Mississippi

tively in creative tasks requiring emotional control. In the

ABSTRACT The authors examined the effects of creative
drama activities on self-concept, problem behavior, and social
skills. A sample of 237 students from Grades 3 and 4 were
selected randomly to participate in the study and assigned
randomly to groups. A Solomon 4-group design was used. Stu
dents in the treatment group participated in creative drama
activities 1 day a week for 18 weeks. The authors analyzed
data using a 2 x 2 factorial analysis of variance. Significant
treatment effects were not found for any of the dependent vari
ables. Results did not differ by gender. The main and interac
tive effects of pretesting were negligible. The specific variables
to be measured and the potential for skewed distributions on
pretest measures are factors to be considered in studies with
creative drama as the treatment.
Key words: creative drama, self-concept, social skills
present study, we investigated the effects of creative drama
on student self-concept, social skills, and problem behavior
of third- and fourth-grade children.
Creative Drama
Dramatic activities are holistic in nature, requiring par
ticipants to represent externally what takes place internally
(Schattner & Courtney, 1981). The combination of internal
reflection and external representation is inclusive of the
cognitive, affective, aesthetic, and moral domains. Burton
(1981) described drama as a total activity, concerned with
the inner self and surroundings, the physical and the mental
self, the individual and the community, and the human situ
ation and potential. In general, drama is concerned with the
whole person (Way, 1967).
Terms used to describe drama used for educational pur

In sion
recent years,
of schools accomplishment
has been impeded by the social, emo of the educational mis
poses include creative drama, child drama, play making,
child play, and educational drama. The literature relative to
tional, and behavioral problems of children (Borman &
drama supports the use of creative drama as the preferred
Schneider, 1998). School-aged children have been adverse
ly affected by various social influences. Television is term for dramatic experiences that are designed for the
development of participants rather than for preparing par
thought to encourage aggressive behavior in children and to
ticipants for performance before an audience.
replace more active and healthy activities (Neuman, 1991).
Even though the contributors to creative drama have dif
The percentage of children living in nontraditional families
may affect the development of adequate social skills and fered in their specific methods and emphases, a common
feelings of self-worth (Booth & Dunn, 1996). As a conse core of basic activities exists. Creative drama is always
quence of these and other influences, the behavior and atti improvised (Ward, 1930). Beginning with a story or situa
tion, the play and characters are planned by the group and
tudes of children have become major factors in managing
schools and educating children.
played with spontaneous action and dialogue. A leader
guides participants to imagine, enact, and reflect on issues
Dramatic activities have been used in clinical settings and
presented in the story or situation (Siks, 1958). No script,
in schools for a variety of therapeutic and educational pur
technical aides, or audience are used.
poses (Schattner & Courtney, 1981). For example, dramat
ic activities have been used in some programs to promote On the basis of repeated observations, practitioners have
the emotional well-being and development of social skills
posited the benefits of creative drama. Way (1967) main
of children (Landy, 1982). Creative drama, dramatic expe
riences designed for the benefit of participants, provides an Address correspondence to Gregory D. Freeman, Crichton Col
opportunity for participation in activities that require stu lege, 255 N. Highland, Memphis, TN 38111. (E-mail: gfreeman@
dents to role play, to analyze roles, and to work coopera crichton.edu)

131

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tained that creative drama contributes to an improved self
concept by providing opportunities to gain personal confi
dence by working in an uncritical atmosphere. According to
Way, drama overcomes self-consciousness (an uncomfort
able consciousness of one's self) in favor of a healthy con
sciousness of self. The process leads to an acceptance of
self, an awareness of personal resources, and an awareness
of the internal and external influences on living. Way
viewed a positive self-concept as a prerequisite to an indi
vidual's development of healthy peer relations and to the
development of other personal attributes.
Social growth is a common goal of instruction in cre
ative drama (McCaslin, 1981). McCaslin maintained that
drama facilitates social growth, first by developing an
understanding and acceptance of self and then by fostering
acceptance of others and sharing with others. Specifically,
creative drama provides participants an emotional release
and the opportunity to develop social skills in a nonthreat
ening environment.
Creative drama offers participants the opportunity to
practice constructive behavior and provides a medium
through which students learn to cooperate and collaborate
(Sternberg, 1998). The emotional experiences of individu
als and of others are used to explore problems and seek
solutions. Behavior is improved as participants develop
emotional control and the skills needed to cope with vari
ous situations.
Social Skills, Self-Concept, and Behavior
The ability of a person to interact with others is consid
ered one of the most important and significant attributes of
mankind (Eisler & Frederiksen, 1980). Social interaction
requires a wide array of behaviors generally labeled social
skills (Gresham & Elliott, 1990). The development of
acceptable social skills is necessary to avoid negative rela
tions with peers and adults and to develop appropriate peer
relations and social roles (Gresham & Elliott).
Eisler and Frederiksen (1980) pointed out that even though
no single definition of social skills is sufficient to describe all
social interactions, common characteristics that are necessary
for the demonstration of social skills have been identified.
Included among these characteristics are the development of
a wide range of effective social responses, an awareness of
social norms, the ability to select the most appropriate
response in a given situation, the ability to understand cor
rective feedback, and the ability to use corrective feedback to
change behavior (Bandura, 1969; Eisler & Frederiksen).
A variety of models have been proposed to promote the
development of social skills (Goldstein, 1973; Kanfer &
Phillips, 1970; McFall & Twentyman, 1973). The various
models designed to improve social skills use similar train
ing procedures. Four components present in some form in
all of the models are response acquisition, response prac
tice, response shaping, and cognitive restructuring (Eisler &
Frederiksen, 1980).
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132 The Journal of Educational Research
The importance of cognitive restructuring is evident in
Bandura's (1977) theoretical framework, which explains
the psychological procedures designed to change behavior.
This theory is based on the assumption that all psycholog
ical procedures create and strengthen a person's self-con
cept which is conceptualized in terms of self-efficacy. Self
efficacy refers to a person's confidence that he or she can
perform certain behaviors in certain situations. The sources
of personal efficacy, which roughly parallel the elements of
social skills training, include personal performance accom
plishments, vicarious experiences such as modeling, verbal
persuasion, and physiological state in terms of emotional
arousal (Bandura, 1986). The instrument chosen to mea
sure self-concept, described in the Method section, is based
primarily on Bandura's construct of self-efficacy (Gre
sham, Elliott, & Evans-Fernandez, 1993).
Creative Drama and Social Skills Training
Creative drama is proposed widely as a method of devel
oping social skills (Courtney, 1995; Jendyk, 1981). Creative
drama activities include the four components of social skills
training: response acquisition, response practice, response
shaping, and cognitive restructuring. In the following para
graphs, we specify the relation between creative drama and
the four components.
Experiences in creative drama promote response acquisi
tion through teacher instructions and modeling. The teacher
uses instructions to prepare and guide the student in volun
tary teamwork and cooperation (Siks, 1958). Rules and
guidelines are kept simple but are sufficient to guide stu
dents without excessive teacher intrusion. Rules may
include listening when others speak, waiting one's turn
before speaking, and giving space to others. Students are
made aware of the need to blend with others for timing and
effect (Slade, 1955). Control is achieved in a manner that
provides a degree of freedom for the child with the security
of discipline (Siks, 1958). The teacher ultimately attempts
to establish norms of behavior that are self-imposed with
little teacher intervention. Consistent with suggestions by
McFall and Twentyman (1973), response acquisition
through instructions is used in combination with other train
ing components.
Response acquisition through modeling occurs vicarious
ly as students observe others portraying appropriate social
behavior in role play and in the act of planning and imple
menting (Slade, 1955). Creative drama has no audience
except those class members not involved directly in role
play who observe to enjoy, appreciate, and evaluate. Evalu
ation occurs in a noncritical manner as observers and par
ticipants analyze the actions of characters and suggest ways
to alter the actions and outcome (Landy, 1982). Consistent
with suggestions by McFall and Twentyman (1973), char
acteristics of the model are similar to those of the observer.
Creative drama participants experience response prac
tice through role play (Siks, 1958). Role play adds depth to
January/February 2003 [Vol. 96(No. 3)] 133
the experience as participants project self into characters
and identify with others (Way, 1967). Students exhibit emo
tional control as they deal with a variety of content, experi
ence conflict, encounter frustration, and solve problems
(Sternberg, 1998). Students gain additional perspectives as
they dramatize stories, discuss actions, and change roles
(Siks, 1958). Consistent with suggestions by Goldstein
(1973), during response practice (a) students have a degree of
choice as to level of participation in role play, (b) role play is
performed in a semipublic setting, (c) role play is improvised,
and (d) approval or reinforcement is provided for the role
played position.
Response practice also occurs as students plan and evalu
ate together (Siks, 1958). The teacher guides students in
cooperative efforts in a controlled, nonthreatening atmos
phere of spirited play. Aggressive students learn to restrain
the tendency to speak or act out of turn. Shy students are
gradually involved in activities and encouraged to express
themselves in group discussions. All participants are expect
ed to abide by general rules of respect and cooperation.
Response shaping occurs through corrective feedback
and reinforcement from the teacher and from peers. The
teacher recognizes and encourages the best efforts of chil
dren (Ward, 1952). The teacher praises and elicits praise
from children (Siks, 1958). The teacher makes evaluation
less personal and comparative by analyzing the dramatic
action in terms of story, timing, and teamwork, rather than
evaluating the student in relation to others (Siks). The goal
of evaluation is to improve the action, not to identify what
went wrong (Ward). Growth and development of children
are viewed not as distinct steps to be mastered, but in terms
of areas to encounter, improve, and revisit for further devel
opment (Way, 1967).
Creative drama has the potential to change how the child
thinks and acts in relation to others (Pinciotti, 1993). The
premise is that a person can create what happens in his or her
own mind (Blatner & Blatner, 1988). The aim is to allow the
child to grow and mature so that he or she sees the world in
a different way (Courtney, 1968). As children act out stories
and plots that contain truths about living, they learn about
life (Siks, 1958). Opportunities are available to explore all
facets of the emotional self (Way, 1967). The children
explore the actions, motives, and lives of different characters
and thereby examine their own attitudes toward self and oth
ers (Siks). The ultimate aim is to have a happy and balanced
person (Slade, 1955).
The methods and processes of creative drama are consis
tent with the theory of behavioral change on the basis of self
efficacy proposed by Bandura (1977). All proponents of cre
ative drama cite as one benefit the building of personal
confidence gained through work in a nonthreatening envi
ronment. Students learn to persist in activities that may be
subjectively threatening under safe, controlled conditions
(Slade, 1955). Success in these activities leads to enhanced
self-efficacy, the transfer of appropriate behavior to uncon
trolled settings, and a corresponding reduction in defensive
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behavior. The sources of self-efficacy, which parallel the
components of social skills training, are inherent in creative
drama activities as described in the preceding paragraphs.
Status of Research
Few empirical studies have been conducted in the area of
creative drama. Klock's (1975) review of writings in creative
drama between 1890 and 1972 revealed that only about 4%
of 1,100 reports in the field dealt in any way with empirical
research. Fordyce (1975), in a bibliography of works in cre
ative drama for a similar time period, also found a lack of
empirical support. Kennedy (1981) compiled a bibliography
of over 200 studies of U.S. publications and doctoral disser
tations in Children's Theatre during 1974-1979. Only 6 of
the studies cited involved empirical research, and none of the
6 studies had self-concept, social skills, or behavior as
dependent variables. Kardash and Wright (1987) analyzed
journal articles and dissertations produced between 1965
and September 1984 to conduct a meta-analysis summariz
ing the results of empirical studies that investigated the
effects of various creative drama interventions on elemen
tary school children's skills in academic and social areas.
Kardash and Wright reported that of the 57 studies located,
only 16 included sufficient data, used appropriate variables,
and used an empirical approach. Of the 16 studies used in
the final analysis, only 2 studies used random sampling and
only 6 studies used an experimental research design. The
small quantity and the low quality of empirical studies were
further emphasized by Kardash and Wright's findings that
nearly 20 years of published research yielded only 2 studies
with sufficient data to calculate effect sizes.
Even though the theoretical literature strongly supports
the use of creative drama to improve self-concept, only one
experimental study was located with the benefits of creative
drama toward the development of a positive self-concept as
its major focus. Hedahl (1980), in a 3 x 2 pretest-posttest
design, reported significant differences in the self-concept
of fifth- and sixth-grade students who participated in fifteen
40-min sessions of creative drama activities compared with
students who participated in creative writing/oral interpre
tation and compared with a control group that received no
special instruction. Hedahl's results indicate that creative
drama can provide a means of improving the self-concept of
middle class fifth- and sixth-grade students.
Few studies have examined the effects of creative drama
on social skills. Irwin (1963), in a nonequivalent control
group design, found significant gains in personal, social,
and total adjustment by 9-year-olds exposed to a 15-week
program of creative dramatics once a week for 40 min.
Vogel (1975) and De La Cruz (1995) examined the effects
of creative drama activities on the social skills of learning
disabled students. Vogel studied 60 second- and third-grade
students with academic deficits; De La Cruz studied 35 dis
abled children. Vogel found no significant differences in the
social maturity of treatment group as compared with control

group. De La Cruz reported significant gains in social skills
following a 12-week creative drama program. The relatively
small number of participants, the failure to use random sam
pling, and the study's focus on learning-disabled students
indicate that caution should be used in interpreting results.
In several studies with creative drama as a treatment,
researchers have analyzed results by gender. Hedahl (1980)
found significant effects for boys but not for girls in a study
with creative drama activities as the treatment and self-con
cept as the dependent variable. Gender differences reported
by Hedahl are supported by Wright (1972), but are in con
trast to studies by Irwin (1963) and Ingersoll and Kase
(1970), who reported significant treatment effects for girls,
but not for boys. The contradictory reports warrant the sep
aration of results by gender in studies involving creative
drama as a treatment.
In summary, only a relatively small number of studies
have evaluated the effects of creative drama on self-concept
and social skills. No studies were located with creative
drama as the treatment and problem behavior as a depen
dent variable. The small number of experimental studies in
these areas indicates a need for well-designed and docu
mented studies on the effects of creative drama on self-con
cept, social skills, and problem behavior.
Method
Participants
The population included the entire class of 153 third
grade students and the entire class of 159 fourth-grade stu
dents enrolled in a rural elementary school. Students
enrolling after sample selection were not included in the
study. Demographic characteristics of the population
included 35% eligible for free lunches and 10.6% eligible
for reduced-price lunches, and 16% Black males, 37%
White males, 15% Black females, and 32% White females.
We used a table of random numbers to select a sample of
119 students from the Grade 3 population and 118 students
from the Grade 4 population. We also used a table of ran
dom numbers to assign these participants to the four groups.
As a matter of convenience to the school principal, we used
a sample size of 237, leaving flexibility in scheduling the 75
students not selected.
Procedures
Creative drama activities formed the experimental treat
ment for this study. We used a Solomon four-group design
as shown in Table 1 to control for possible confounding of
pretest sensitization and treatment that could be a problem
in experiments involving attitude change (Rosenthal & Ros
now, 1991). Treatment groups participated in creative
drama activities 40 min each week for 18 weeks. Activities
were planned that required participants to act out various
situations that dealt with emotional control through role
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134 The Journal of Educational Research
Table 1.?Research Design
Group
assignment n Pretest Treatment Posttest
1 Random 60 x x x
2 Random 55 x x
3 Random 60 x x
4 Random 62 x
play, skits, and dance/movements. Activities required par
ticipants to role play, analyze roles, work cooperatively in
creative tasks, and express actions and emotions. Inherent
in the activities were reasoning, analysis, creating visual
representations of writings, and verbal expression of
thoughts. Activities were designed to improve self-concept,
self-discipline, and social skills.
A certified drama instructor and a certified music instruc
tor with formal training and experience in the performing
arts planned activities. The drama instructor was cognizant
of the study and the expected outcomes. The music instruc
tor, who implemented the creative drama activities, was
provided a description of the activities to be conducted but
was not advised of specific outcomes expected or of any
measurements or instruments involved.
All students were scheduled for an activity period of 40
min each day. Five groups of students per grade rotated on a
5-day schedule between art, music, library, physical educa
tion, and computer. On the music activity day, students in the
treatment group participated in creative drama activities and
students in the control group participated in general music
activities. Neither students nor the control-group instructor
were advised that groups were involved in different activities.
To avoid premature administration of the creative drama
intervention, the instructor of the experimental group con
ducted the same general music activities as the instructor of
the control group during the first 9 weeks of the school term.
Pretests were administered to the pretest groups during
the 8th and 9th weeks of the school term by the district
psychometrist. We administered a general test in grade
appropriate academic work unrelated to the purposes of
the study to students not in the pretest groups to avoid pos
sible Hawthorne effects. Regular classroom teachers and
the district psychometrist were naive with regard to all
aspects of the study.
The experimental treatment, creative drama activities,
began during the 10th week of school and continued for 18
weeks. The district psychometrist administered posttests
during the 27th week of activities.
Instruments
We used the Student Self-Concept Scale (SSCS) to mea
sure student self-concept. The SSCS measures three domains
of self-concept, including self-image, academic self-concept,
January/February 2003 [Vol. 96(No. 3)] 135
and social self-concept. The SSCS consists of 72 self-report
items and can be administered in 20-30 min. Item selection
by experienced researchers and practitioners was cited by the
authors as a source of content and construct validity
(Gresham et al., 1993). The instrument authors provided evi
dence of concurrent related validity by correlating it with
other measures of self-concept. They used internal consisten
cy and test-retest reliability estimates to report reliability.
Internal consistency estimates ranged from .55 to .92. Stabil
ity of the scores ranged from .35 to .72. The instrument
authors provided cautionary comments for subscales with
lower reliabilities.
We used the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) to mea
sure social skills and problem behavior. The teacher form of
the elementary level SSRS consists of 57 items. The teacher
responds using 3-point frequency and importance scales.
The instrument authors cited item development based on
extensive empirical research as a source of content validity
(Gresham & Elliott, 1990). They provided evidence of con
current related validity by citing a number of studies in
which the SSRS correlated highly with similar measures
(e.g., Harter Teacher Rating Scale, Social Behavior Assess
ment, and the Child Behavior Checklist). They reported
reliability using internal consistency and test-retest esti
mates. Internal consistency ranged from .83 to .94 for the
Social Skills scale and from .73 to .88 for the Problem
Behavior scale. Test-retest reliabilities were .85 for the
Social Skills scale and .84 for the Problem Behavior scale.
Data Analysis
We analyzed data using a 2 x 2 factorial analysis of vari
ance of posttest measures for each dependent variable. The
Table 2.?Mean Self-Concept Scores, by Group
Pretest Posttest
Group M SD n M SD n
Pretest/drama
Self-image 90.82 17.46 49 99.78 16.10 46
Academic 96.88 15.49 49 105.00 12.17 47
Social 99.96 16.08 48 104.17 14.22 47
Composite 95.79 16.62 48 103.66 13.71 47
Pretest/control
Self-image 99.52 15.12 44 104.77 13.41 43
Academic 105.18 13.18 44 108.63 12.81 43
Social 102.19 17.63 43 109.91 11.85 43
Composite 103.05 14.84 43 109.16 12.19 43
No pretest/drama
Self-image 105.35 14.08 49
Composite 108.94 11.39 49
No pretest/control
Self-image 104.91 14.73 45
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two factors were pretest (present or absent) and treatment
(present or absent). We chose this analysis to allow study
of the main effect of pretesting and the interaction of
pretesting with treatment. For analyses in which the main
and interactive effects of pretesting were negligible, we per
formed an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) on the
posttest measures of the pretest-treatment group and the
posttest measures of the pretest-control group. In the
ANCOVA, treatment (present or absent) served as the inde
pendent variable and pretest scores served as the covariate.
Results
A total of 237 students constituted the sample. Scores
were not available for 30 students who transferred to other
schools. Scores for 9 students originally selected for the
control group were not included in the analyses because the
students inadvertently participated in drama activities.
Scores for 2 students were excluded because of excessive
absences. The composite scores or at least one subscale
score were excluded for 15 students because the instru
ments' scoring instructions directed instrument administra
tors to exclude data for students who had left a specified
number of items blank or consistently marked items at unre
alistically high levels.
We analyzed data to determine if third- and fourth-grade
students who participated in creative drama activities
showed significant differences in self-concept scores, fre
quency of problem behavior, and social skills scores as
compared with students who did not participate in creative
drama activities. Means and standard deviations of the
groups are shown in Table 2 for self-concept, Table 3 for
behavior, and Table 4 for social skills. A 2 x 2 factorial
Academic 107.13 12.03 48
Social 110.06 13.09 49
Academic 106.82 15.40 45
Social 106.27 15.62 45
Composite 107.31 14.40 45
136 The Journal of Educational Research

Table 3.?Mean Problem Behavior Scores, by Group

Pretest Posttest
Group M SD M SD

Pretest/drama 102.47 13.83 55 100.37 11.56 49

Pretest/control 98.02 12.98 47 98.32 12.99 44
No pretest/drama 99.35 14.71 51
No pretest/control 98.33 13.17 51

Table 4.?Mean Social Skills Scores, by Group

Pretest Posttest
Group M SD M SD

Pretest/drama 96.11 17.47 54 100.76 17.39 49

Pretest/control 102.00 17.26 48 105.70 19.00 44
No pretest/drama 103.29 17.62 51
No pretest/control 103.82 18.15 51

analysis of variance was conducted on the posttest means to
determine the main effect of creative drama, the main effect
of pretesting, and the interaction of pretesting and creative
drama. Results of the factorial analyses of variance showed
that the effect of creative drama on (a) self-concept scores
was not statistically significant, F(\, 180) = 1.025,/? = .313;
(b) frequency of problem behavior was not statistically sig
nificant, F(l, 191) = 0.617, p = .443; and (c) social skills
scores was not statistically significant, F(l, 191) = 1.122,
p = .291. Data were analyzed for both composite scores and
subscale scores. We found that/? values and effect sizes for
subscale scores were comparable to those reported for com
posite scores.
The main effect of pretesting and the interaction of
pretesting and treatment were not significant for any of the
dependent variables. We conducted an ANCOVA on the
posttest means for groups that were pretested to determine
whether controlling for pretest performance would result in
significant differences in posttest means. Pretest scores
served as the covariate. The ANCOVA did not yield signif
icant results for (a) self-concept, F(l, 77) = 1.377,/? = .244;
(b) frequency of problem behavior, F(l, 88) = 0.216, /? =
.644; or (c) social skills, F(l, 88) = 0.096, p = .757.
We conducted 2x2 factorial analyses of variance on the
posttest means to determine the interaction of creative drama
and gender. Results were not significant for self-concept
F(l, 180) = 0.214, /? = .644; problem behavior, F(l, 191) =
0.138,/? = .711; or social skills, F(l, 191) = 0.220,/? = .639.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of
creative drama activities on self-concept, problem behavior,
and social skills. The data do not support the use of creative
drama to improve self-concept, reduce problem behavior, or
improve social skills of third- and fourth-grade children. We
identified factors that may facilitate future investigations
into the use of creative drama for educational purposes in a
whole-school setting.
Analyses for each dependent variable showed the main
and interactive effects of pretesting to be negligible. These
results suggest that confounding of pretest sensitization will
not be a problem in studies with similar treatment, vari
ables, and design as the present study.
In this study, we used a Solomon four-group design to
allow for the study of the main effect of pretesting and the
interaction of pretesting and treatment. However, use of this
design resulted in approximately half the sample not being
pretested and therefore unavailable for use in follow-up
ANCOVA, thereby diminishing the power of this test. A
pretest-posttest control-group design should be considered
for use in replications of the present study.
Analyses to determine the interaction of creative drama
and gender did not yield significant results. These results
suggest that the effects of creative drama activities do not
differ by gender.
Slade (1955) and Randall (1967) described the creative
drama experience as one in which awkward and threatening
situations are alleviated. The instructor who implemented
creative drama activities reported that very shy children
became more relaxed and overcame inhibitions to partici
pation. In contrast, more outgoing students became aware
of the need to work cooperatively. These observations sug
gest that changes in student traits such as shyness, self-con
trol, and cooperativeness may become evident before
changes in the more global constructs of self-concept, prob
lem behavior, and social skills and that these potential
mediating factors should be examined in future studies.

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January/February 2003 [Vol. 96(No. 3)] 137
The ratings of social skills and frequency of problem
behavior were made by the classroom teachers who were
naive with regard to all aspects of the study. Ratings were
based on the teacher's judgment of how often the student
exhibited the described behavior. Frequency was rated as
never, sometimes, and very often. Approximately 18% of the
students scored at the 90th percentile or higher on the social
skills pretest. Approximately 30% of the students scored at
the 10th percentile or lower on the pretest measure of prob
lem behavior. The data indicate that a high percentage of
students exhibited acceptable social skills and appropriate
behavior at the outset of the study. Consequently, the treat
ment activities could only marginally influence the social
skills scores and frequency of problem behavior scores of
these students. These findings suggest that more sensitive
measurements are needed to avoid skewed posttest distrib
utions resulting from the ceiling effect or that the target
population should be restricted to students with poor social
skills or a high frequency of problem behavior.
The length of treatment has been cited as an important
factor in studies evaluating creative drama as a means of
influencing self-concept and social skills. The instructor
who implemented the creative drama activities in this study
reported that students were initially unable to participate
effectively in the activities. Eight to 10 weeks were neces
sary for students to learn to improvise responses and to cre
ate dialogue. An initial period of time also was required for
the teacher to develop an atmosphere of trust and coopera
tion. These observations suggest that an orientation period
is needed for third- and fourth-grade students to participate
effectively in creative drama and in turn to experience the
benefits of participation. Even though longer treatment
periods can be considered, doing so may render the use of
creative drama impractical in whole-school settings.
The instructor who implemented creative drama activi
ties was advised of the type of activities to be conducted but
was not advised of specific outcomes expected. By remain
ing naive with regard to dependent variables, the instructor
was unable to select activities with clear objectives in mind,
as recommended by Hedahl (1980) and Ziegler (1970). The
instructor also was unable to maintain consistency among
that which was intended, taught, and assessed as recom
mended by Courtney (1987) and Russell (1985). Even
though there is no reason to expect that knowledge of
dependent variables would have affected outcomes, one
should note that the study was not necessarily strengthened
by the instructor's naivete related to anticipated outcomes.
Creative drama activities were conducted in the daily
activity period during which students normally participated
in music, art, computer, library, and physical education.
Students in the treatment groups participated in creative
drama on the day scheduled for music. Students in the con
trol groups remained in music class. Students in the control
groups may have received benefits related to the dependent
variables because of the group interactions and the physical
movement involved in music. If music participation influ
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enced student traits related to the dependent variables, then
the comparison of the treatment and control groups would
potentially obscure the benefits of the treatment. Similar
studies should use control groups with activities unrelated
to the arts.
Even though treatment effects were not significant, the
robust design of this study, in a field with few empirical
studies, makes the findings noteworthy. In addition, the
creative drama activities were implemented in a manner
applicable to a whole-school setting. The findings of this
study suggest that creative drama will not significantly
improve self-concept, problem behavior, or social skills of
third- and fourth-grade children. The specific variables to
be measured, potential for skewed distributions on pretest
measures, length of studies, and consistency between
intended outcomes and assessments are factors to be con
sidered in studies with creative drama as the treatment.
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