1

CFD Open Series

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Essentials of Turbo-
Machinery in CFD

Ideen Sadrehaghighi, Ph.D.

Flow in Axial
turboMacines (CD-
Adapco)

Unsteady Flow
in Axial
TurboMachines
(ANSYS)

Unsteady Flow in
Radial
TurboMachines
(ANSYS)

ANNAPOLIS, MD
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Table of Content

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 9

1 Preliminary Concepts in Rotating Machinery .................................................................... 11

1.1 Vortex........................................................................................................................................................................ 11
1.2 Properties of Vortex Flow ................................................................................................................................ 11
1.2.1 Vorticity ................................................................................................................................ 11
1.2.2 Vortex types ......................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.2.1 A rigid-body vortex ....................................................................................................... 12
1.2.2.2 An irrotational vortex ................................................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Vortex Geometry .................................................................................................................. 12
1.3.4 Pressure in Vortex ................................................................................................................ 13
1.4 Impeller .................................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1 Types of Impeller .................................................................................................................. 14
1.4.2 Flow Characteristics for Impeller ......................................................................................... 14
1.4.3 Mixing Tanks......................................................................................................................... 15
1.4.4 Axial impellers ...................................................................................................................... 16
1.4.5 Radial impellers .................................................................................................................... 16
1.4.6 Power Number for Impeller ................................................................................................. 16
1.5 Pumps ....................................................................................................................................................................... 16
1.5.1 Types of Pumps .................................................................................................................... 17
1.5.2 Axial-Flow Pumps vs. Centrifugal Pumps ............................................................................. 18
1.6 Some Physics on Rotating Disks Flow ......................................................................................................... 18
1.6.1 Experimental Set-Up ............................................................................................................ 18
1.6.1.1 Recirculating flow ......................................................................................................... 19
1.6.1.2 Instability flow patterns ............................................................................................... 19

2 Conservation of Angular Momentum .................................................................................... 22

2.1 Flow in Rotating Reference Frame ................................................................................................................ 22
2.2.1 Relative Velocity Formulation ........................................................................................... 23
2.2.2 Absolute Velocity Formulation .......................................................................................... 23
2.3 Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames (MRF) ................................................................... 23
2.3.1 Single Rotating Reference Frame (SRF) Modeling ............................................................... 24
2.3.2 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames (MRF) ............................................................ 25
2.3.2.1 Case Study – Mixing Tank............................................................................................. 26
2.3.3 The MRF Interface Formulation ........................................................................................... 26
2.3.2.1 Interface Treatment: Relative Velocity Formulation ................................................... 27
2.3.3.2 Interface Treatment: Absolute Velocity Formulation .................................................. 27
2.4 The Mixing Plane Model (MPM)..................................................................................................................... 27
2.4.1 Rotor and Stator Domains .................................................................................................... 28
2.4.2 The Mixing Plane Concept .................................................................................................... 29
2.4.3 Mixing Plane Algorithm ........................................................................................................ 29
2.4.3.1 Mass Conservation across the Mixing Plane ................................................................ 29
2.5 Sliding Mesh Modeling ....................................................................................................................................... 30
2.5.1 Sliding Mesh Theory ............................................................................................................. 30
2.5.2 The Sliding Mesh Technique ................................................................................................ 31
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2.5.3 Sliding Mesh Concept ........................................................................................................... 32

3 Elements of Turbomachinery .................................................................................................. 34

3.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................................ 34
3.2 Historical Perspectives ...................................................................................................................................... 35
3.3 Modern Turbomachinery as related to Gas Turbine Engine.............................................................. 35
3.4 How does it work? ............................................................................................................................................... 37
1.5 Gas Turbine Performance................................................................................................................................. 38
3.6 Gas Compressors .................................................................................................................................................. 38
3.6.1 Axial-flow compressors ........................................................................................................ 39
3.6.2 Centrifugal Compressors ...................................................................................................... 40
3.6 Nomenclature of Terms .................................................................................................................................... 40
3.7 Component of Gas Turbine Engine .............................................................................................................. 43
3.7.1 Inlet ...................................................................................................................................... 43
3.7.2 Axial Compressor.................................................................................................................. 44
3.7.3 Diffuser ................................................................................................................................. 46
3.7.4 Nozzle ................................................................................................................................... 47
3.7.5 Combustor ............................................................................................................................ 47
3.7.6 Axial Gas Turbine.................................................................................................................. 48
3.8 Difference in Blading between Compressor and Turbine ................................................................... 49
3.8 Velocity Triangles in Turbomachines .......................................................................................................... 50
3.9 Energy Exchange with Moving Blades ........................................................................................................ 51
3.9.1 Euler’s equation for turbomachinery .................................................................................. 51
3.10 Compressors and their Reaction to Intake Distortion ....................................................................... 53
3.11 Effects of Turbine Temperature .................................................................................................................. 55
3.12 Compressor and Turbine Characteristics ............................................................................................... 57
3.12.1 Stall .................................................................................................................................... 57
3.12.1 Compressor Surge ............................................................................................................. 58
3.12.3 Choked Flow ....................................................................................................................... 59

4 Primary Research in Turbomachinery ................................................................................ 59

4.1 Research Spectrum ............................................................................................................................................. 60
4.2 Application of CFD in Turbomachinery ........................................................................................................ 61
4.3 Quasi 3D flow (Q3D) ........................................................................................................................................... 61
4.3.1 Stream Surface of Second Kind - Through flow (S2) ............................................................ 62
4.3.3 Stream Surface of First Kind (Blade 2 Blade – S1) ................................................................ 63
4.3.2 Theory of Radial Equilibrium in Through Flow (Cr = 0) ......................................................... 64
4.4 Governing Equation of Rotating Frame of Reference ........................................................................... 65
4.5 Efficiency effects in Turbomachinery .......................................................................................................... 67
4.5.1 Isentropic Efficiency ............................................................................................................. 67

5 Complex flow in Turbomachinery ......................................................................................... 69

5.1 Key Features of Transonic Fan (Turbine) Field ...................................................................................... 69
5.2 Sources of Unsteadiness in Turbomachinery........................................................................................... 70
5.3 Interaction of Potential flows in adjacent blade rows .......................................................................... 72
5.3.1 Interactions in Transonic Fan ............................................................................................... 72
5.4 Interaction between Wake Flow and Blade Rows.................................................................................. 73
5.5 Interaction between Secondary Flows and Blade Rows...................................................................... 74
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5.6 Wake-Boundary Layer Interaction ............................................................................................................... 75

5.7 Unshrouded Tip Leakage Flow Interaction............................................................................................... 76
5.8 Film Cooling Effects ............................................................................................................................................ 77
5.9 General Review on Secondary Flows ........................................................................................................... 77
5.9.1 Classical View ....................................................................................................................... 78
5.9.2 Modern View ........................................................................................................................ 78
5.9.3 Latest View ........................................................................................................................... 80
5.9.4 Comparing and Contrasting Secondry Flow in Turbine and Compressors ........................... 82
5.9.5 3D Separation ....................................................................................................................... 84
5.10 Turbulence Consideration ............................................................................................................................. 85
5.11 Case Study - Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of Turbine Blades ... 86
5.11.1 Statement of Problem ........................................................................................................ 86
5.11.2 Literature Survey ................................................................................................................ 87
5.11.3 CFD Modeling ..................................................................................................................... 88
5.11.4 Description of the Blade and Computational Grids, and Results for Attached Flow ......... 89
5.11.5 Separated Flow with Large Separation Bubble ................................................................. 90
5.11.5.1 Inlet Flow Angle Effects .............................................................................................. 93
5.11.5.2 Reynolds Number Effect ............................................................................................ 94
5.11.6 Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................... 96

6 Rotor-Stator Interaction Treatment (RST) ......................................................................... 98

6.1 Physical Perspectives ......................................................................................................................................... 98
6.2 Different Between Multi-Passage and Multi-Stages .............................................................................. 99
6.2 Steady Treatment of Interface ..................................................................................................................... 100
6.2.1 Mixing Plane ....................................................................................................................... 100
6.2.2 Frozen Rotor ....................................................................................................................... 101
6.3 Unsteady Treatment of Interface ............................................................................................................... 102
6.3.1 Sliding Mesh (MRF) ............................................................................................................ 102
6.3.2 Non-Linear Harmonic Balanced Method (NLHB) ............................................................... 103
6.3.3 Profile Transformation (Pitch Scaling)................................................................................ 105
6.3.4 Time Transformation Method (TT) using Phase-Shifted Periodic Boundary Conditions ... 105
6. 4 Revisiting Non-Linear Harmonic Balance (NLHB) Methodology ................................................ 107
6.4.1 Temporal and Spatial Periodicity Requirement ................................................................. 107
6.4.2 Boundary Conditions .......................................................................................................... 108
6.4.3 Solution Method ................................................................................................................ 108
6.4.4 Fourier 'Shape Correction' for Single Passage Time-Marching Solution ............................ 110
6.4.4 Case Study 1 – 2D Compressor Stage................................................................................. 111
6.4.5 Case Study 2 - 3D Flow in Turbine Cascade........................................................................ 112

7 Radial Flow.................................................................................................................................. 115

7.1 Centrifugal Compressor ................................................................................................................................. 115
7.1.1 Theory of operation ........................................................................................................... 115
7.1.2 Similarities to Axial Compressor......................................................................................... 115
7.1.3 Components of a simple Centrifugal Compressor ............................................................. 116
7.1.3.1 Inlet ............................................................................................................................ 116
7.1.3.2 Centrifugal Impeller ................................................................................................... 116
7.1.3.3 Diffuser ....................................................................................................................... 117
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7.1.3.4 Collector ..................................................................................................................... 117

7.1.4 Applications ........................................................................................................................ 118
7.1.4.1 In gas turbines and auxiliary power units .................................................................. 118
7.1.4.2 Automotive engine and diesel engine turbochargers and superchargers ................. 118
7.1.4.3 Natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the consumer .................. 118
7.1.4.4 Oil refineries, natural gas processing, petrochemical and chemical plants............... 118
7.1.4.5 Air-conditioning and refrigeration and HVAC ............................................................ 118
7.1.4.6 In industry and manufacturing to supply compressed air ......................................... 119
7.1.4.7 In air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases ........................ 119
7.1.4.8 Oil field re-injection of high pressure natural gas to improve oil recovery ............... 119
7.2 Radial turbine ..................................................................................................................................................... 119
7.2.1 Advantages and challenges ................................................................................................ 120
7.2.2 Types of Radial Turbines .................................................................................................... 120
7.2.2.1 Cantilever Radial Turbine ........................................................................................... 120
7.2.2.2 90 Degree IFR Turbine ................................................................................................ 120
7.2.2.3 Outward-flow radial stages ........................................................................................ 121

8 Best Practice Guidelines for Turbo Machinery CFD ..................................................... 122

8.1 Quasi-3D (Q3D) or 3D Simulation.............................................................................................................. 122
8.1.1 2-D Simulations .................................................................................................................. 122
8.1.2 Quasi-3D (Q3D) Simulation ................................................................................................ 122
8.1.3 Full 3D simulations ............................................................................................................. 122
8.2 Single vs Multi-Stage Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 123
8.2.1 Single Stage ........................................................................................................................ 123
8.2.2 Multi-Stage Analysis ........................................................................................................... 124
8.2.2.1 Steady Mixing-Plane simulations ............................................................................... 124
8.2.2.2 Steady frozen rotor simulations ................................................................................. 124
8.2.2.3 Unsteady Sliding Mesh stator-rotor simulations ....................................................... 124
8.2.2.4 Unsteady Harmonic Balance simulations................................................................... 124
8.2.2.5 Hybrid steady-unsteady stator-rotor simulations...................................................... 125
8.2.2.6 Other advanced multi-stage methods ....................................................................... 125
8.3 Inviscid or Viscid ............................................................................................................................................... 125
8.4 Transient or Steady-State .............................................................................................................................. 126
8.5 Meshing ................................................................................................................................................................. 126
8.5.1 Mesh size Guidelines .......................................................................................................... 127
8.5.2 Boundary Mesh Resolution ................................................................................................ 128
8.5.3 Periodic Meshing ................................................................................................................ 128
8.6 Boundary Conditions....................................................................................................................................... 129
8.7 Turbulence Modeling ...................................................................................................................................... 130
8.8 Aero-Mechanics ................................................................................................................................................. 131
8.8.1 Nodal Diameter .................................................................................................................. 132
8.9 Near Wall Treatment ....................................................................................................................................... 132
8.10 Transition Prediction.................................................................................................................................... 133
8.11 Numerical Consideration ............................................................................................................................ 133
8.12 Convergence Criteria .................................................................................................................................... 133
8.13 Single or Double Precision ......................................................................................................................... 134
8.14 Heat Transfer Prediction............................................................................................................................. 134
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List of Tables
Table 1 Prescribed Boundary zone for Mixing Plane ......................................................................................... 29
Table 2 Glossary of Turbomachinery Terms ......................................................................................................... 40
Table 3 Rotor/Stator Interaction Schemes............................................................................................................. 99

List of Figures
Figure 1 Vortex created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by colored smoke ................... 11
Figure 2 A rigid-body vortex ........................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 3 A Plughole vortex ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 4 Types of Impeller ............................................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 5 A centrifugal pump uses an impeller with backward-swept arms ............................................. 14
Figure 6 Flow direction of three different pumps/impellers. Image credit: Global spec ..................... 15
Figure 7 Axial flow impeller (left) and radial flow impeller (right) ............................................................. 15
Figure 8 Centrifugal Pumps .......................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 9 Sketch of the experimental set-up............................................................................................................ 18
Figure 10 For s ≥ 0 co-rotation at different speed ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 11 For s < 0 counter-rotating at different speed................................................................................... 20
Figure 12 Rotating Frame of Reference ................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 13 Single Blade Model with Rotationally Periodic Boundaries ....................................................... 25
Figure 14 Mixing Tank geometry with one rotating impeller ........................................................................ 26
Figure 15 Mixing Tank with two rotating impellers ........................................................................................... 26
Figure 16 Interface Treatment for the MRF Model ............................................................................................. 27
Figure 17 Mixing Plane concepts as applied to axial rotation ........................................................................ 28
Figure 18 Mixing Plane concepts applied to radial rotation ........................................................................... 29
Figure 19 Illustration of Unsteady Interactions .................................................................................................... 30
Figure 20 Examples of transient interaction using sliding mesh .................................................................. 31
Figure 21 Initial position and some translation with Sliding Interface ...................................................... 32
Figure 22 Dynamic Interface Zones ........................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 23 Classification of Turbomachines ............................................................................................................ 34
Figure 24 Component of Turbomachines and their Thermodynamic (Brayton cycle) properties .. 36
Figure 25 Twin Pool Jet Engine ................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 26 Gas Compressor Types ............................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 27 Schematics of Axial Compressor ............................................................................................................ 39
Figure 28 A single stage Centrifugal Compressor ................................................................................................ 40
Figure 29 Blade related terminology ........................................................................................................................ 44
Figure 30 Compressor Flow Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 44
Figure 31 Pressure and Velocity profile through a Multi-Stage Axial Compressor ............................... 45
Figure 32 Combustor primary operating components ...................................................................................... 48
Figure 33 Turbine Flow Characteristics .................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 34 Schematics of axial flow Turbine ........................................................................................................... 49
Figure 35 Examples of typical Blades for Compressor and Turbine............................................................ 50
Figure 36 Velocity triangles for an Axial Compressor ....................................................................................... 50
Figure 37 Velocity triangles in relation to incident angle ................................................................................ 52
Figure 38 Compressor operating map...................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 39 Sample engine Perssure, Velocity and Temperature variation ................................................. 55
Figure 40 Turbine Inlet Temperature27 ................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 41 Characteristics Graph of a Compressor ............................................................................................... 57
Figure 42 Illustration of the propagation of a stall cell in the relative frame .......................................... 58
Figure 43 Classical Compressor surge cycles ........................................................................................................ 58
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Figure 44 Impact of CFD on SNECMA fan performance, over a period of 30 years ............................... 60
Figure 45 Illustration of S1 and S2 surfaces .......................................................................................................... 62
Figure 46 Streamline Curvature method................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 47 Radial Equilibrium ....................................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 48 Coriolis and Centripetal forces created by the Rotating Frame of Reference ..................... 66
Figure 49 Compression process .................................................................................................................................. 67
Figure 50 Expansion process ....................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 51 Complex Flow phenomena compressors ............................................................................................ 69
Figure 52 Fan Tip section geometry.......................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 53 Flow structures with 5 to 6 orders of magnitudes variations in length and time scales 72
Figure 54 Shock Structure in Transonic Fan.......................................................................................................... 73
Figure 55 Pressure contour of wake flow .............................................................................................................. 74
Figure 56 Unsteady wakes convecting in blade passage .................................................................................. 74
Figure 57 Instantaneous absolute velocity contour pattern at nozzle exit ............................................... 75
Figure 58 Flow over an unshrouded tip gap......................................................................................................... 76
Figure 59 Typical high-pressure turbine stage showing rim seal and wheel-space ............................. 77
Figure 60 Classical Secondary Flow Model ............................................................................................................ 79
Figure 61 Modern Secondary Flow Model .............................................................................................................. 80
Figure 62 Vortex pattern of Latest secondary flows .......................................................................................... 81
Figure 63 Turbine Secondary Flow Model after Takeishi et al...................................................................... 82
Figure 64 Illustration of formation of hub corner stall together with ........................................................ 84
Figure 65 T106-300 Cascade geometry and aerodynamic design conditions ......................................... 89
Figure 66 2-D hybrid mesh around the T106 blade ........................................................................................... 90
Figure 67 Blade profile pressure coefficient .......................................................................................................... 91
Figure 68 Flow field at the front and middle parts of the separation bubble .......................................... 92
Figure 69 Heat transfer coefficient for different negative incidences......................................................... 93
Figure 70 Stanton number for different negative incidences ......................................................................... 94
Figure 71 Heat transfer coefficient for different Reynolds number ............................................................ 95
Figure 72 Stanton number for different Reynolds numbers ........................................................................... 96
Figure 73 Schematics of 3-D concept at IGV/Rotor/Stator interface .......................................................... 98
Figure 74 Interface between Rotor/Stator ............................................................................................................. 99
Figure 75 Difference between Passage and Stages ............................................................................................. 99
Figure 76 Axial rotor/stator interaction (Schematics illustrating the Mixing Plane concepts) .... 100
Figure 77 Block Computational domain for a Rotor with guiding vanes ................................................ 100
Figure 78 A compressor Pressure Distribution on a surface using a Mixing Plane ............................ 101
Figure 79 Predicted Total Pressure calculated by the frozen rotor .......................................................... 102
Figure 80 Half stencil and full stencil reconstruction with: A) Intersection, B) Halo-cell ............... 103
Figure 81 Relative velocities obtained using HB techniques ....................................................................... 104
Figure 82 Phase shifted Periodic Boundary ........................................................................................................ 105
Figure 83 Phase Shifted Periodic Boundary Conditions ................................................................................ 106
Figure 84 Stagnation Pressure Contours under inlet distortion for NASA Rotor 67 ......................... 111
Figure 85 Computational mesh for HB and TRS methods ............................................................................ 112
Figure 86 Instantaneous pressure distribution within the compressor stage using (NLHB) ........ 112
Figure 87 Instantaneous predictions of turbulent viscosity at mid-span turbine for the TRS ...... 113
Figure 88 Instantaneous predictions of turbulent viscosity at mid-span turbine for the HB ........ 113
Figure 89 velocity profile on interface line between two rows .................................................................. 113
Figure 90 Centrifugal impeller with a highly polished surface likely to improve performance ... 115
Figure 91 Cut-away view of a turbocharger showing the centrifugal compressor ............................ 116
Figure 92 Jet engine cutaway showing the centrifugal compressor and other parts. ....................... 117
Figure 93 Ninety degree inward-flow radial turbine stage .......................................................................... 119
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Figure 94 Outward Flow Radial Turbine .............................................................................................................. 120

Figure 95 Different Flow (2D, Q3D, and full 3D) ............................................................................................... 123
Figure 96 Full Blade Simulation using Harmonic Balanced Method......................................................... 125
Figure 97 Transient Blade Row extensions enable efficient multi-stage CFD simulation ............... 126
Figure 98 Typical meshing of a Turbomachinery stage ................................................................................. 127
Figure 99 Multi-block grid for the space shuttle main engine fuel turbine ........................................... 127
Figure 100 Pressure contour plot, 2nd order spatial discretization scheme ........................................ 129
Figure 101 Analysis provided vibration required for flutter analysis ..................................................... 131
Figure 102 Examples of Nodal Diameter .............................................................................................................. 132
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Introduction

Fluid mechanics and thermodynamics are the fundamental sciences used for turbine aerodynamic
design and analysis. Several types of fluid dynamic analysis are useful for this purpose. The concept
through-flow analysis is widely used in axial-flow turbine performance analysis. This involves
solving the governing equations for inviscid flow in the hub-to-shroud plane at stations located
between blade rows. The flow is normally considered to be axisymmetric at these locations, but still
three-dimensional because of the existence of a tangential velocity component. Empirical models are
employed to account for the fluid turning and losses that occur when the flow passes through the
blade rows. By contrast, hub-to-shroud through-flow analysis is not very useful for the performance
analysis of radial-flow turbomachines such as radial-inflow turbines and centrifugal compressors.
The inviscid flow governing equations do not adequately model the flow in the curved passages of
radial turbomachines to be used as a basis for performance analysis. Instead, a simplified “pitch-line”
or “mean-line” one-dimensional flow model is used, which ignores the hub-to-shroud variations.
These also continue to be used for axial-flow turbine performance analysis. Computers are
sufficiently powerful today that there is really no longer a need to simplify the problem that much for
axial-flow turbomachinery. More fundamental internal flow analyses are often useful for the
aerodynamic design of specific components, particularly blade rows. These include 2D flow analyses
in either the blade-to-blade or hub to shroud (Through Flow) direction, and Quasi-3D flow
analyses developed by combining those 2D analyses. Wall boundary layer analysis is often used to
supplement these analyses with an evaluation of viscous effects1.
Viscous CFD solutions are also in use for turbines. These are typically 3D flow analyses, which
consider the effects of viscosity, thermal conductivity and turbulence. In most cases, commercial
viscous CFD codes are used although some in-house codes are in use within the larger companies.
Most design organizations cannot commit the dedicated effort required to develop these highly
sophisticated codes, particularly since viscous CFD technology is changing so rapidly that any code
developed will soon be obsolete unless its development continues as an ongoing activity.
Consequently, viscous CFD is not covered here beyond recognizing it as an essential technology and
pointing out some applications for which it can be effectively used to supplement conventional
aerodynamic analysis techniques.
Prediction of the flow through cascades of blades is fundamental to all aspects of turbomachinery
aerodynamic design and analysis. The flow through the annular cascades of blades in any
turbomachine is really a 3D flow problem. But the simpler two-dimensional blade-to-blade flow
problem offers many advantages. It provides a natural view of cascade fluid dynamics to help
designers develop an understanding of the basic flow processes involved. Indeed, very simple two-
dimensional cascade flow models were used in this educational role long before computational
methods and computers had evolved enough to produce useful design results. Today, blade-to-blade
(B2B) flow analysis is a practical design and analysis tool that provides useful approximations to
many problems of interest. Inviscid blade-to-blade flow analysis addresses the general problem of
two-dimensional flow on a stream surface in an annular. Two-dimensional boundary layer analysis
can be included to provide an approximate evaluation of viscous effects. That approach ignores the
effect of secondary flows that develop due to the migration of low momentum boundary layer fluid
across the stream surfaces. Its accuracy becomes highly questionable when significant flow
separation is present. These limitations require particular care when analyzing the diffusing flow in
compressor cascades. They are less significant for analysis of the accelerating flow in turbine
cascades, but designers still must recognize the approximations and limitations involved. Previously,
it have been emphasized the influence of the blade surface velocity distributions on nozzle row and

1 Ronald H Aungier, e-Books, “The American Society of Mechanical Engineers”, (ASME.org).

 10

rotor performance. A graph of the blade surface velocity distributions as a function of distance along
the blade surface is often referred to as the blade-loading diagram. The fundamental role of blade
loading diagrams for the evaluation of blade detailed aerodynamic designs was discussed. Blade-to-
blade flow analysis provides a practical method to calculate these blade-loading diagrams. Indeed,
blade-to-blade flow analysis is an essential part of a modern aerodynamic design system.
A Quasi-3D flow analysis employs 2D flow analyses in the hub-to-shroud and blade-to-blade surfaces
to approximate the 3D flow in a blade passage. The fundamental concept is generally credited to Wu2.
The present analysis achieves exceptional computational speed and reliability largely due to its use
of the linearized blade-to-blade flow analysis. But that also imposes some limitations on the method
that are particularly significant for turbines. Its limitation to subsonic or low transonic Mach number
levels excludes a number of turbine applications. As noted, its accuracy is compromised when it is
applied to the rather thick airfoils often used for turbines. It certainly could be extended for more
general use on turbines by substituting a more general blade-to-blade flow analysis such as the time-
marching method. But that would substantially increase the computation time required and
significantly reduce its reliability. It is very doubtful that this Quasi-3D flow analysis would remain
an attractive design tool if that were done. Indeed, it would lose most of its advantages over
commercially available viscous CFD codes while offering a less general solution. We start with some
explanation of Rotating flow, as well as, derivation of Conservation of Angular Momentum concept
which is fundamental in rotating flow, as well as blade to blade passage.

2 Wu, C. H., "A General Theory of Three Dimensional Flow in Subsonic and Supersonic Turbomachines of Axial,
Radial, and Mixed Flow Types," National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, NACA TN 2604, 1952.
 11

1 Preliminary Concepts in Rotating Machinery

1.1 Vortex
One of the major aspects of rotational flow, and in fact the flow in general, is the concept of Vorticity.
In fluid dynamics, a vortex is a region in a fluid in which the flow rotates around an axis line, which
may be straight or curved3. The plural of
vortex is either vortices or vortexes.
Vortices form in stirred fluids, and may
be observed in phenomena such as
smoke rings, whirlpools in the wake of
boat, or the winds surrounding a
tornado, etc. (see Figure 1). Vortices
are a major component of turbulent
flow. The distribution of velocity,
vorticity (the curl of the flow velocity),
as well as the concept of circulation are
used to characterize vortices. In most
vortices, the fluid flow velocity is
greatest next to its axis and decreases in
inverse proportion to the distance from
the axis. In the absence of external
forces, viscous friction within the fluid
tends to organize the flow into a
collection of irrotational vortices, Figure 1 Vortex created by the passage of an aircraft
possibly superimposed to larger-scale wing, revealed by colored smoke
flows, including larger-scale vortices.
Once formed, vortices can move, stretch, twist, and interact in complex ways. A moving vortex carries
with it some angular and linear momentum, energy, and mass4.

1.2 Properties of Vortex Flow

1.2.1 Vorticity
A key concept in the dynamics of vortices is the vorticity, a vector that describes the local rotary
motion at a point in the fluid, as would be perceived by an observer that moves along with it.
Conceptually, the vorticity could be observed by placing a tiny rough ball at the point in question, free
to move with the fluid, and observing how it rotates about its center. The direction of the vorticity
vector is defined to be the direction of the axis of rotation of this imaginary ball (according to the
right-hand rule) while its length is twice the ball's angular velocity. Mathematically, the vorticity is
defined as the curl (or rotational) of the velocity field of the fluid, usually denoted by ω and expressed
by the vector analysis formula ∇ × u , where u is the local flow velocity. The local rotation measured
by the vorticity ω must not be confused with the angular velocity vector Ω of that portion of the fluid
with respect to the external environment or to any fixed axis. In a vortex, in particular, ω may be
opposite to the mean angular velocity vector of the fluid relative to the vortex's axis.

3 Ting, L.,. “Viscous Vortical Flows. Lecture notes in physics”, Springer-Verlag, 1991, ISBN 3-540-53713-9.
4 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
 12

1.2.2 Vortex types

In theory, the speed u of the particles (and, therefore,
the vorticity) in a vortex may vary with the distance r
from the axis in many ways. There are two important
special cases, however:

1.2.2.1 A rigid-body vortex

If the fluid rotates like a rigid body, that is, if the
angular rotational velocity Ω is uniform, so that u
increases proportionally to the distance r from the
axis. A tiny ball carried by the flow would also rotate
about its center as if it were part of that rigid body (see
Figure 2). In such a flow, the vorticity is the same
everywhere, its direction is parallel to the rotation
axis, and its magnitude is equal to twice the uniform Figure 2 A rigid-body vortex
angular velocity Ω of the fluid around the center of
rotation.
Ω  (0, 0, Ω) , r  (x, y, 0) (.)
u  Ω  r  (-Ω y , Ω x , 0)  ω    u  (0, 0, 2Ω)  2Ω

1.2.2.2 An irrotational vortex

If the particle speed u is inversely proportional to the distance r from the axis, then the imaginary
test ball would not rotate over itself; it would maintain the same orientation while moving in a circle
around the vortex axis. In this case the vorticity is zero at any point not on that axis, and the flow is
said to be irrotational.

Ω  (0, 0, r -2 ) , r  (x, y, 0) (.)

u  Ω  r  (- yr -2 ,  xr -2 , 0)  ω    u  0

1.2.3 Vortex Geometry

In a stationary vortex, the typical streamline (a line that is everywhere tangent to the flow velocity
vector) is a closed loop surrounding the axis; and each vortex line (a line that is everywhere tangent
to the vorticity vector) is roughly parallel to the axis. A surface that is everywhere tangent to both
flow velocity and vorticity is called a vortex tube. In general, vortex tubes are nested around the axis
of rotation. The axis itself is one of the vortex lines, a limiting case of a vortex tube with zero diameter.
According to Helmholtz's theorems, a vortex line cannot start or end in the fluid – except
momentarily, in non-steady flow, while the vortex is forming or dissipating. In general, vortex lines
(in particular, the axis line) are either closed loops or end at the boundary of the fluid. A whirlpool is
an example of the latter, namely a vortex in a body of water whose axis ends at the free surface. A
vortex tube whose vortex lines are all closed will be a closed torus-like surface.
A newly created vortex will promptly extend and bend so as to eliminate any open-ended vortex lines.
For example, when an airplane engine is started, a vortex usually forms ahead of each propeller, or
the turbofan of each jet engine. One end of the vortex line is attached to the engine, while the other
end usually stretches out and bends until it reaches the ground. When vortices are made visible by
smoke or ink trails, they may seem to have spiral path lines or streamlines. However, this appearance
is often an illusion and the fluid particles are moving in closed paths. The spiral streaks that are taken
 13

to be streamlines are in fact clouds of the marker fluid that originally spanned several vortex tubes
and were stretched into spiral shapes by the non-uniform flow velocity distribution.

1.3.4 Pressure in Vortex

The fluid motion in a vortex creates a dynamic pressure (in addition to any hydrostatic pressure)
that is lowest in the core region, closest to the axis, and increases as one moves away from it, in
accordance with Bernoulli's Principle. One can say that it is the gradient of this pressure that forces
the fluid to follow a curved path around the axis. In a
rigid-body vortex flow of a fluid with constant density,
the dynamic pressure is proportional to the square of
the distance r from the axis. In a constant gravity field,
the free surface of the liquid, if present, is a concave
paraboloid.
In an irrotational vortex flow with constant fluid
density and cylindrical symmetry, the dynamic
pressure varies as P∞ − K/r2, where P∞ is the limiting
pressure infinitely far from the axis. This formula
provides another constraint for the extent of the core,
since the pressure cannot be negative. The free surface
(if present) dips sharply near the axis line, with depth
inversely proportional to r2. The shape formed by the
free surface is called a hyperboloid. The core of a vortex
in air is sometimes visible because of a plume of water
vapor caused by condensation in the low pressure and
low temperature of the core; the spout of a tornado is
an example. When a vortex line ends at a boundary
surface, the reduced pressure may also draw matter
from that surface into the core. For example, a dust
devil is a column of dust picked up by the core of an air Figure 3 A Plughole vortex
vortex attached to the ground. A vortex that ends at the
free surface of a body of water (like the whirlpool that
often forms over a bathtub drain) may draw a column of air down the core (see Figure 3). The
forward vortex extending from a jet engine of a parked airplane can suck water and small stones into
the core and then into the engine.

1.4 Impeller
An impeller (also written as impellor ) is a rotor used to increase (or decrease in case of turbines) the
pressure and flow of a fluid. It has been used in variety of everyday equipment such as pumps,
compressors, medical devices, mixing tanks, water jets and washing machines. More specifically, an
impeller is a rotating component equipped with vanes or blades used in turbomachinery (e. g.
centrifugal pumps). Flow deflection at the impeller vanes allows mechanical power (energy at the
vanes) to be converted into pump power output. Depending on the fluid flow pattern in multistage
pumps and the impellers' arrangement on the pump shaft, impeller design and arrangements are
categorised as: single-stage, multistage, single-entry, double-entry, multiple-entry, in-line (tandem)
or back-to-back arrangement.
Axial and radial flow impellers are rotating industrial mixer components designed for various types
of mixing. Both types of impellers are primarily constructed from stainless steel. Impellers impart
flow. They serve the purpose of transferring the energy from the motor to the substance of a tank as
efficiently as possible. Impellers are organized by their flow patterns.
 14

2.4.1 Types of Impeller

The impeller of a Centrifugal Pump can be of three types as shown in Figure 4

 Open Impeller where the vanes are cast free on both sides.
 Semi-Open Impeller when the vanes are free on one side and enclosed on the other.
 Enclosed Impeller The vanes are located between the two discs, all in a single casting5.

Figure 4 Types of Impeller

1.4.2 Flow Characteristics for Impeller

Impellers can be designed to impart various flow characteristics to pump or tank media. Impeller
flow designs can take on three distinct types: Axial, Radial, or Mixed (see Error! Reference source
not found.). Because centrifugal pumps are also classified in this manner, the impeller selection
depends upon matching the pump's flow characteristic to that of the impeller6.

 Axial flow impellers move media parallel to the

impeller.
 Radial flow impellers move media at right angles to the
impeller itself.
 Mixed flow impellers have characteristics of both axial
and radial flow. They may move media at an angle
which is different from right angle radial flow.

An impeller is a rotating component of a centrifugal pump,

usually made of iron, steel, bronze, brass, aluminum or plastic,
which transfers energy from the motor that drives the pump
to the fluid being pumped by accelerating the fluid outwards
Figure 5 A centrifugal pump uses
from the center of rotation. The velocity achieved by the
an impeller with backward-swept
impeller transfers into pressure when the outward movement arms
of the fluid is confined by the pump casing. Impellers are

5 Presented by: Matt Prosoli, “Centrifugal Pump Overview”, Pumps Plus Inc.
6 See Previous.
 15

usually short cylinders with an open inlet (called an eye) to accept incoming fluid, vanes to push the
fluid radially, and a splined, keyed, or threaded bore to accept a drive-shaft.
The impeller made out of cast material in many cases may be called rotor, also. It is cheaper to cast
the radial impeller right in the support it is fitted on, which is put in motion by the gearbox from an
electric motor, combustion engine or by steam driven turbine. The rotor usually names both the
spindle and the impeller when they are mounted by bolts.

Figure 6 Flow direction of three different pumps/impellers. Image credit: Global spec

1.4.3 Mixing Tanks

Impellers in mixing tanks are used to mix fluids or slurry in the tank. This can be used to combine
materials in the form of solids, liquids and gas. Mixing the fluids in a tank is very important if there
are gradients in conditions such as temperature or concentration. Figure 7 shows two types of
impeller used in mixing tanks, namely:

 Axial flow impeller

 Radial flow impeller

Radial flow impellers impose

essentially shear stress to the fluid,
and are used, for example, to mix
immiscible liquids or in general when
there is a deformable interface to
break. Another application of radial
flow impellers are the mixing of very
viscous fluids. Axial flow impellers
impose essentially bulk motion, and
are used on homogenization
processes, in which increased fluid
volumetric flow rate is important.
Impellers can be further classified Figure 7 Axial flow impeller (left) and radial flow impeller
principally into three sub-types7 (right)

 Propellers

7 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

 16

 Paddles
 Turbines

1.4.4 Axial impellers

Are best for mixing applications that require stratification or solid suspension. Axial impellers are set
up to create effective top to bottom motion in the tank. This motion is highly effective when placed
over the center of a baffled tank. Some common types of axial flow impellers include: marine
impellers, pitched blade impellers, and hydrofoils. Hydrofoil impellers are also known as high
efficiency impellers. They are a popular choice for applications that require a range from general
blending to storage tanks. This is largely due to the greatest pumping per horsepower, cost
effectiveness, and are ideal for shear sensitive applications.

1.4.5 Radial impellers

are designed in 4-6 blades. In radial flow impellers, the fluid moves perpendicularly to the impeller.
They produce a radial flow pattern which moves the contents of the mixing tank to the sides of the
vessel. The radial flow impacts the side which causes in either an up or down direction which fills the
top and the bottom of the impeller to be ejected once more. It is also important to note that setting
up baffles helps to minimize vortex and swirling motions in the tank, therefore, enhancing agitation
efficiency. Radial impellers are a great fit for low-level applications inside longer tanks based upon
the production of higher shear due to the angle of attack.

1.4.6 Power Number for Impeller

Power number is a value specific to mixing impellers which describes the impeller's power
consumption. The formula for calculating an impeller's power number is

p
Np  (.)
n D 5ρ
3

where Np = power number, P = impeller power in watts, ρ = density of tank liquid in kg/m3, n = shaft
speed in revolutions/second and D=impeller diameter in meters. Because of the difficulty in
obtaining many of these values, power numbers can be considered the summary of various
correlated test results (when dealing with standard-sized mixing tank) rather than a precise
specification. Therefore, manufacturers often specify an impeller's power number as a function of its
power and size8.

1.5 Pumps
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action.
Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method they use to move the fluid:
direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps. Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically
reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to perform mechanical work by moving the fluid.
Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind
power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to large industrial
pumps. Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from wells,
aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling and fuel
injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling towers. In
the medical industry, pumps are used for biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing

8 Engineering 360 powered by IEEE global spec.

 17

medicine, and as artificial replacements for body parts, in particular the artificial heart and penile
prosthesis.

 Single stage pump: When in a casing only one impeller is revolving then it is called single
stage pump.

 Multi stage pump: When in a casing two or more than two impellers are revolving then it is
called double/multi stage pump.

Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applications includes the use of
the windmill or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply,
gasoline supply, air conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical
movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine services, etc. Because of the wide variety of
applications, pumps have a plethora of shapes and sizes: from very large to very small, from handling
gas to handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high volume to low volume.

Single Stage Multi Stage

Figure 8 Centrifugal Pumps

1.5.1 Types of Pumps

Pump types can be characterized as :

 Positive displacement pumps

 Rotary positive displacement pumps
 Reciprocating positive displacement pumps
 Various positive displacement pumps
 Gear pump
 Screw pump
 Progressing cavity pump
 Roots-type pumps
 Peristaltic pump
 Plunger pumps
 Triplex-style plunger pumps
 Compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm pumps
 18

 Rope pumps
 Impulse pumps
 Hydraulic ram pumps
 Velocity pumps
 Radial-flow pumps
 Axial-flow pumps
 Mixed-flow pumps
 Jet pump
 Gravity pumps
 Steam pumps
 Valve less pumps

1.5.2 Axial-Flow Pumps vs. Centrifugal Pumps

Axial flow pumps differ from radial flow in that the fluid enters and exits along the same direction
parallel to the rotating shaft. The fluid is not accelerated but instead "lifted" by the action of the
impeller. They may be likened to a propeller spinning in a length of tube. Axial flow pumps operate
at much lower pressures and higher flow rates than radial flow pumps.
A centrifugal pump is a roto-dynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure and
flow rate of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move liquids
through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is
accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward or axially into a diffuser or volute chamber,
from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are typically used for large
discharge through smaller heads.

1.6 Some Physics on Rotating Disks Flow

In order to investigate the fluid flow in rotating frames, researchers performed various experiments.
The basic idea is that the (viscous) fluid is confined between two rotating disks9. In general two
boundary layers may be present. The problem is that the equations of motion are so complex, that no
exact solutions are known for this problem even in the stationary regime (one disk fixed the other
rotating). Therefore scientist have to make use of numerical simulations and various experiments to
shed light on the physical mechanisms going on in the rotating fluid10.

1.6.1 Experimental Set-Up

In order to study the flow between
two rotating disks the
experimental set-up shown in
Figure 9 was built. The cell
consists of a cylinder of small
height h closed by a top disk and a
bottom disk, both of radius R = 140
mm. The upper disk is made of
glass and rotates together with the
cylindrical sidewall which is made
of PVC. The reason why the
cylinder and top disk are made of
PVC and glass is to allow Figure 9 Sketch of the experimental set-up
visualization from above and from

9 Miha Meznar, “Fluid Flows In Rotating Frames”, University of Ljubljana, March 2005.
10 Here the focus is not on the recirculation flow but rather on the instability patterns in rotating fluids.
 19

side. The bottom disk is made of rectified brass, with a black coating to improve visualization
contrast. To allow the differential rotation the radius of the bottom disk is slightly smaller (a tenth of
millimeter) than the radius of the shrouding cylinder. The thickness h of the cell can be varied
between few mm up to several The cell is filled with a mixture of water, glycerol and small anisotropic
flakes. The latter enable us to visualize the fluid flow. The flakes' orientation with the fluid leads to
variations of the reflected light. For example, if the flakes are mainly horizontal, they reflect light, if
they are vertical they do not reflect it so well. The kinematic viscosity ν = μ/ρ lies between 1x10−6 <
ν < 8 x10−6 m2/s due to different concentration of glycerol11.
Each of two disks rotate with its own angular velocity Ωi, where index i = b, where t stands for bottom
and top disk respectively. Angular velocities of the disks range from 0 to 10 rad/s but the upper disk
rotates anticlockwise only, whereas the bottom one can rotate clock- or anticlockwise. Anticlockwise
rotation is taken positive. We call co-rotation the situation where both disks rotate in the same
direction (b and t are of the same sign) and counter-rotation when the disks rotate in the opposite
directions (they have opposite signs). If one of the disks is left fixed, the other rotating, the regime is
called rotor-stator regime.
We will define some dimensionless numbers that describe our cell. The first is radius-to-height ratio
defined as Γ = R/h , where R is radius and h height of the cell. The second number is Reynolds number
Rei = Ωih2/ν , where index i = b, t denotes the bottom and top disk respectively, i is the angular velocity
of the disks and ν the kinematic viscosity. The last number is rotation ratio defined as s = Ωb/Ωt =
Reb/Ret . Rotation ratio is positive (s > 0) in the co-rotation regime and negative (s < 0) in the counter-
rotation regime.

1.6.1.1 Recirculating flow

Each rotation is associated with a meridian recirculating flow, which can be inward or outward
depending on the rotation ratio. For arbitrary positive and small negative rotation ratio s, the radial
recirculating flow is roughly the same as in the rotor-stator case (s = 0): it consists of an outward
boundary layer close to the faster disk and an inward boundary layer close to the slower disk. At
small negative rotation ratio the centrifugal effect of the slower disk is not strong enough to
counteract the inward flow from the faster disk. But as the rotation ratio s is decreased below −0.2,
the slower disk induces a centrifugal flow too, and the radial recirculating flow appears to come
organized into two-cell recirculating structure as shown in Figure 7, 8. 11 At the interface of these
two cells a strong shear layer takes place. The centrifugal flow induced by the faster disk recirculates
towards the center of the slower disk due to the lateral end wall. This inward recirculation flow meets
the outward radial flow induced by the slower disk, leading to a stagnation circle where the radial
component of the velocity vanishes.

1.6.1.2 Instability flow patterns

We now turn to the instability patterns of the flow between two rotating disks close to each other (Γ
= 20.9), in both co- and counter-rotating flows.
For s ≥ 0 (rotor-stator or co-rotation) and Reb fixed, on increasing Ret, propagating circular structures
are first observed. These axisymmetric vortices appear close to the landrail wall, propagate towards
the center and disappear before reaching the center of the cell. Above a secondary threshold of Ret,
spiral structures appear at the periphery of the disks, and circles remain confined between two
critical radii (Figure 10 (a)). These spirals are called positive spirals (denoted S+) since they roll up
to the center in the direction of the faster disk (here the top one). Increasing Ret further, positive
spirals progressively invade the whole cell. Still increasing Ret, the flow becomes more and more
disordered (denoted D, Figure 10 (c)).

11 G. Gauthier, P. Gondret, F. Moisy and M. Rabaud, “Instabilities in the flow between co- and counter-rotating
disks”, J. Fluid Mech, volume 473, pp. 1-21, 2002.
 20

It can be shown that co-rotation shifts upwards the instability thresholds for circles and positive
spirals12. However, threshold line for circles is parallel to the solid body rotation (b = t) indicating
that the angular velocity difference Ω = Ωt − Ωb is the only control parameter of this instability and no
influence of the global rotation occurs. By contrast, the borderline for the positive spirals has a larger

Figure 10 For s ≥ 0 co-rotation at different speed

slope than the solid body rotation line; in this case the relative angular velocity Ω is not the only
control parameter and an extra velocity of the upper disk is needed for the spirals to arise. The global
rotation in this case has a stabilizing effect.
For s < 0 (counter-rotating case) the onset of the instability patterns depends on the Reynolds
numbers of both disks. For low bottom Reynolds number, −11 < Reb < 0, on increasing the Reynolds
number of the upper disk, the appearance of the instability patterns is the same as in the rotor-stator
or co-rotation case: axisymmetric propagating vortices, positive spirals and disorder. But, for −18 <
Reb < −11, spirals of a new kind appear on increasing Ret. These spirals are said to be negative (and
denoted S−) since they now roll up to the center in the direction of the slower counter-rotating disk
(Figure 11 (a)). Unlike circles and positive spirals, negative spirals extend from the periphery to the
center, they invade the whole cell. Also, the onset time for negative spirals is much longer than for

Figure 11 For s < 0 counter-rotating at different speed

12 Miha Meznar, “Fluid Flows In Rotating Frames”, University of Ljubljana, March 2005.
 21

positive ones or circles; when the onset is carefully approached from below, the growth time of
negative spirals can exceed 15 minutes which strongly contrasts circles and positive spirals which
appear almost instantaneously. Increasing Ret further, positive spirals appear as well at the periphery
of the disk, as can be seen in Figure 11 (b). Here negative and positive spirals seem to coexist without
strong interaction, which indicates the difference in their origin. The circles and positive spirals have
their origin in the boundary layer instability whereas negative ones, on the other hand, originate from
shear layer instability.
Still increasing Ret, negative spirals disappear and positive spirals alone remain (Figure 11(c)).
Increasing Ret yet further, circles appear as in the co-rotation case. Still increasing Ret, the structures
become disorganized and the flow becomes turbulent. For Reb < −18 the negative spirals described
above become wavy, the flow is more and more disorganized and continuously becomes turbulent
without a well-defined threshold. Depending on the Reynolds number, the disorder can be generated
first at the periphery or in the center and then invades the entire cell.
Up to now our instability patterns were limited to radius-to-height ratio Γ = 20.9. Does anything
changes if one changes it? Researchers enlarged the gap h between the disks (Γ diminishes) and
observed a new pattern that consisted of a sharp-cornered polygon of m sides, surrounded by a set
of 2m outer spiral arms. These polygons arise only for small Γs (less than approx. Γ = 10). For higher
values the vertical confinement leads to a saturated pattern where inner arms, connecting the
corners of the polygon to the center of polygons, turn into negative spirals. Another interesting
property of the patterns is that they are not fixed but rather rotate as a whole. Therefore we define
the azimuthal phase velocity ωφ in the laboratory frame. It corresponds to the angular velocity of the
global rotation of the spiral pattern. For the S+ spirals ωφ is always positive (anticlockwise), i.e. the
positive spirals rotate in the direction of the faster (top) disk, regardless of motion of the bottom one.
S− spirals, on the other hand change sign of ωφ. It means that for small Ret the pattern rotates in the
direction of the slower (bottom) disk while at higher Ret it moves with the top (faster) disk. Here only
compare the directions of the disks and phase velocity. The size of phase velocity is only a fraction of
the disk velocities. We see that the co-rotation flow (Reb > 0, right-hand part of the diagram) is
qualitatively the same as the rotor-stator flow (vertical line Reb = 0); the thresholds of instabilities
(circles C and positive spirals S+) are found to increase just with the bottom Reynolds number. By
contrast, the counter-rotating case (Reb < 0, left-hand part) is much more rich.
 22

2 Conservation of Angular Momentum

2.1 Flow in Rotating Reference Frame
Consider a coordinate system which is rotating steadily with angular velocity ω (bold face represents
the vector quantity in picture) relative to a stationary (inertial) reference frame, as illustrated in
Figure 12. The origin of the rotating system is located by a position vector r013.

Figure 12 Rotating Frame of Reference

The fluid velocities can be transformed from the stationary frame to the rotating frame using the
following relation:

ur  u  ω
 r where ω  ωa (.)
whirl velocity

In the above, ur is the relative velocity (the velocity viewed from the rotating frame), v is the absolute
velocity (the velocity viewed from the stationary frame), ω x r is the whirl (or moving) velocity (the
velocity due to the moving frame), and â is unit directional vector depending or rotation direction.
When the equations of motion are solved in the rotating reference frame, the acceleration of the fluid
is augmented by additional terms that appear in the momentum equations14. Moreover, the equations
can be formulated in two different ways:

 Expressing the momentum equations using the relative velocities as dependent variables
(known as the relative velocity formulation).
 Expressing the momentum equations using the absolute velocities as dependent variables in
the momentum equations (known as the absolute velocity formulation).

The exact forms of the governing equations for these two formulations will be provided in the
sections below. It can be noted here that pressure-based solvers provide the option to use either of

13 FLUENT 6.3 User's Guide.

14 G. K. Batchelor. An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England, 1967.
 23

these two formulations, whereas the density-based solvers always use the absolute velocity
formulation.

2.2.1 Relative Velocity Formulation

For the relative velocity formulation, the governing equations of uid ow for a steadily rotating frame
can be written as follows:

ρ
M ass  .( ρu r )  0
t

M omentum ( ρu r )  .( ρu r u r )  ρ(2ω  u r  ω  ω  r )  p  τ ijr  F
t   
Centripetal
Coriolis


Energy ( ρEr )  .( ρu r H r )  .(kT  τ ijr .u r )  Sh
t
p 1
 
E r  h   u 2r  (ω  r ) 2 , H r  E r 
ρ 2
p
ρ

Here the momentum equation contains two additional acceleration terms, the Coriolis acceleration
(2ωxur), and the Centrifugal acceleration (ωxωxr). In addition, the viscous stress τijr is defined as
before except that relative velocity derivatives are used. The energy equation is written in terms of
the relative internal energy (Er) and the relative total enthalpy (Hr), also known as the rothalpy15.

2.2.2 Absolute Velocity Formulation

For the absolute velocity formulation, the governing equations of uid ow for a steadily rotating frame
can be written as follows:

ρ
M ass  .( ρu r )  0
t

M omentum ( ρu)  .( ρu r u)  ρ(ω
  u)  p  τ ij  F
t I


Energy ( ρE )  .( ρu r H  p(ω  r )  .(kT  τ ij .u)  Sh
t
In this formulation, the Coriolis and Centripetal accelerations can be collapsed into a single term (I).
Be advised that from now on we will be dealing with linear momentum if noted otherwise16.

2.3 Modeling Flows with Rotating Reference Frames (MRF)

By default, the equations of fluid flow and heat transfer are solves in a stationary (or inertial)
reference frame. However, there are many problems where it is advantageous to solve the equations
in a moving (or non-inertial) reference frame. Such problems typically involve moving parts (such as

15 FLUENT 6.3 User's Guide.

16 Same as prvious.
 24

rotating blades, impellers, and similar types of moving surfaces), and it is the flow around these
moving parts that is of interest. In most cases, the moving parts render the problem unsteady when
viewed from the stationary frame. With a moving reference frame, however, the flow around the
moving part can (with certain restrictions) be modeled as a steady-state problem with respect to the
moving frame. The moving reference frame modeling capability allows you to model problems
involving moving parts by allowing you to activate moving reference frames in selected cell zones.
When a moving reference frame is activated, the equations of motion are modified to incorporate the
additional acceleration terms which occur due to the transformation from the stationary to the
moving reference frame. By solving these equations in a steady-state manner, the flow around the
moving parts can be modeled.
For simple problems, it may be possible to refer the entire computational domain to a single moving
reference frame. This is known as the single reference frame (or SRF) approach. The use of the SRF
approach is possible, provided the geometry meets certain requirements17. For more complex
geometries, it may not be possible to use a single reference frame. In such cases, you must break up
the problem into multiple cells zones, with well-defined interfaces between the zones. The manner
in which the interfaces are treated leads to two approximate, steady-state modeling methods for this
class of problem:

 Single Reference Frame (SRF)

 Multiple Reference Frame (MRF)
 Mixing Plane Method (MPM)

If unsteady interaction between the stationary and moving parts is important, you can employ the
Sliding Mesh approach to capture the transient behavior of the flow.

2.3.1 Single Rotating Reference Frame (SRF) Modeling

Many problems permit the entire computational domain to be referred to as a single rotating
reference frame (SRF modeling). In such cases, the equations for a Rotating Reference Frame are
solved in all fluid cell zones. Steady-state solutions are possible in SRF models provided suitable
boundary conditions are prescribed. In particular, wall boundaries must adhere to the following
requirements:

 Any walls which are moving with the reference frame can assume any shape. An example
would be the blade surfaces associated with a pump impeller. The no slip condition is defined
in the relative frame such that the relative velocity is zero on the moving walls.

 Walls can be defined which are non-moving with respect to the stationary coordinate system,
but these walls must be surfaces of revolution about the axis of rotation. Here the so slip
condition is defined such that the absolute velocity is zero on the walls. An example of this
type of boundary would be a cylindrical wind tunnel wall which surrounds a rotating
propeller.

Rotationally periodic boundaries may also be used, but the surface must be periodic about the axis
of rotation. As an example, it is very common to model through a blade row on a turbomachine by
assuming the flow to be rotationally periodic and using a periodic domain about a single blade. This
permits good resolution of the flow around the blade without the expense of model all blades in the
blade row (see Figure 13). Flow boundary conditions (inlets and outlets) can be in most cases
prescribed in either the stationary or rotating frames. For example, for a velocity inlet, one can specify

17 FLUENT 6.3 User's Guide.

 25

either the relative velocity or

absolute velocity, depending on
which is more convenient. In some
cases (e.g. pressure inlets) there
are restrictions based upon the
velocity formulation which has
been chosen. For additional
information, reader should refer to
FLUENT 6.3 user manual.

2.3.2 Flow in Multiple Rotating

Reference Frames (MRF)
Many problems involve multiple
moving parts or contain stationary
surfaces which are not surfaces of
Figure 13 Single Blade Model with Rotationally Periodic
revolution (and therefore cannot
Boundaries
be used with the Single Reference
Frame modeling approach). For
these problems, you must break up the model into multiple fluid/solid cell zones, with interface
boundaries separating the zones. Zones which contain the moving components can then be solved
using the moving reference frame equations, whereas stationary zones can be solved with the
stationary frame equations. The manner in which the equations are treated at the interface lead to
two approaches:

 Multiple Reference Frame model (MRF) & Mixing Plane Model (MPM)

 Sliding Mesh Model (SMM)

Both the MRF and Mixing plane approaches are steady-state approximations, and differ primarily in
the manner in which conditions at the interfaces are treated. These approaches will be discussed in
following sections. The sliding mesh model approach is, on the other hand, inherently unsteady due
to the motion of the mesh with time. The MRF model is, perhaps, the simplest of the two approaches
for multiple zones. It is a steady-state approximation in which individual cell zones move at different
rotational and/or translational speeds. The flow in each moving cell zone is solved using the moving
reference frame equations. If the zone is stationary (ω = 0), the stationary equations are used. At the
interfaces between cell zones, a local reference frame transformation is performed to enable flow
variables in one zone to be used to calculate fluxes at the boundary of the adjacent zone. The MRF
Interface Formulation. It should be noted that the MRF approach does not account for the relative
motion of a moving zone with respect to adjacent zones (which may be moving or stationary); the
grid remains fixed for the computation. This is analogous to freezing the motion of the moving part
in a specific position and observing the instantaneous flow field with the rotor in that position. Hence,
the MRF is often referred to as the frozen rotor approach. While the MRF approach is clearly an
approximation, it can provide a reasonable model of the flow for many applications. For example, the
MRF model can be used for turbomachinery applications in which rotor-stator interaction is
 26

relatively weak, and the flow is relatively

uncomplicated at the interface between the
moving and stationary zones. In mixing tanks, for
example, since the impeller-baffle interactions
are relatively weak, large-scale transient effects
are not present and the MRF model can be used.
Another potential use of the MRF model is to
compute a flow field that can be used as an initial
condition for a transient sliding mesh calculation.
This eliminates the need for a startup calculation.
The multiple reference frame model should not be
used, however, if it is necessary to actually
simulate the transients that may occur in strong
rotor-stator interactions, the sliding mesh model
alone should be used.
Figure 14 Mixing Tank geometry with one
2.3.2.1 Case Study – Mixing Tank rotating impeller
In a mixing tank with a single impeller, you can
define a rotating reference frame that encompasses the impeller and the flow surrounding it, and use
a stationary frame for the flow outside the impeller region. An example of this configuration is
illustrated in Figure 14.
(The dashes denote the
interface between the
two reference frames).
Steady-state flow
conditions are assumed
at the interface between
the two reference
frames. That is, the
velocity at the interface
must be the same (in
absolute terms) for each
reference frame. The
grid does not move. You
can also model a
problem that includes Figure 15 Mixing Tank with two rotating impellers
more than one rotating
reference frame. Figure 15 shows a geometry that contains two rotating impellers side by side. This
problem would be modeled using three reference frames: the stationary frame outside both impeller
regions and two separate rotating reference frames for the two impellers. (As noted above, the
dashes denote the interfaces between reference frames.)

2.3.3 The MRF Interface Formulation

The MRF formulation that is applied to the interfaces will depend on the velocity formulation being
used. The specific approaches will be discussed below for each case. It should be noted that the
interface treatment applies to the velocity and velocity gradients, since these vector quantities
change with a change in reference frame. Scalar quantities, such as temperature, pressure, density,
 27

turbulent kinetic energy, etc., do not

require any special treatment, and thus
are passed locally without any change.

2.3.2.1 Interface Treatment: Relative

Velocity Formulation
In implementation of the MRF model, the
calculation domain is divided into
subdomains, each of which may be
rotating and/or translating with respect
to the laboratory (inertial) frame. The
governing equations in each subdomain
are written with respect to that
subdomain's reference frame. Thus, the
flow in stationary and translating
subdomains is governed by Continuity
and Momentum Equations, while the
flow in rotating subdomains is governed
by the equations presented in Equations Figure 16 Interface Treatment for the MRF Model
for a Rotating Reference Frame. At the
boundary between two subdomains, the diffusion and other terms in the governing equations in one
subdomain require values for the velocities in the adjacent subdomain (see Figure 16). To enforce
the continuity of the absolute velocity, u, is to provide the correct neighbor values of velocity for the
subdomain under consideration. (This approach differs from the mixing plane approach described
previously; The Mixing Plane Model, where a circumferential averaging technique is used). When the
relative velocity formulation is used, velocities in each subdomain are computed relative to the
motion of the subdomain. Velocities and their gradients are converted from a moving reference frame
to the absolute inertial frame using following equation. For a translational velocity ut, we have

u  u r  (ω  r)  u t , u  u r  (ω  r) (.)

Swirl Velocity

Note that scalar quantities such as density, static pressure, static temperature, species mass fractions,
etc., are simply obtained locally from adjacent cells.

2.3.3.2 Interface Treatment: Absolute Velocity Formulation

When the absolute velocity formulation is used, the governing equations in each subdomain are
written with respect to that subdomain's reference frame, but the velocities are stored in the absolute
frame. Therefore, no special transformation is required at the interface between two subdomains.
Again, scalar quantities are determined locally from adjacent cells.

2.4 The Mixing Plane Model (MPM)

The mixing plane model provides an alternative to the multiple reference frame and sliding mesh
models for simulating flow through domains with one or more regions in relative motion. The
Multiple Reference Frame Model, the MRF model is applicable when the flow at the boundary
between adjacent zones that move at different speeds is nearly uniform (mixed out). If the flow at this
boundary is not uniform, the MRF model may not provide a physically meaningful solution. The
sliding mesh model (Sliding Mesh Theory) may be appropriate for such cases, but in many situations
it is not practical to employ a sliding mesh. For example, in a multistage turbomachine, if the number
 28

of blades is different for each blade row, a large number of blade passages is required in order to
maintain circumferential periodicity. Moreover, sliding mesh calculations are necessarily unsteady,
and thus require significantly more computation to achieve a final, time-periodic solution. For
situations where using the sliding mesh model is not feasible, the mixing plane model can be a cost-
effective alternative.
In the mixing plane approach, each fluid zone is treated as a steady-state problem. Flow-field data
from adjacent zones are passed as boundary conditions that are spatially averaged or mixed at the
mixing plane interface. This mixing removes any unsteadiness that would arise due to
circumferential variations in the passage-to-passage flow field (e.g., wakes, shock waves, separated
flow), thus yielding a steady-state result. Despite the simplifications inherent in the mixing plane
model, the resulting solutions can provide reasonable approximations of the time-averaged flow
field.

2.4.1 Rotor and Stator Domains

Consider the turbomachine stages shown schematically in Figure 17 and Figure 18. In each case, the
stage consists of two flow domains: the rotor domain, which is rotating at a prescribed angular
velocity, followed by the stator domain, which is stationary. The order of the rotor and stator is
arbitrary (that is, a situation where the rotor is downstream of the stator is equally valid). In a
numerical simulation, each domain will be represented by a separate mesh. The flow information
between these domains will be coupled at the mixing plane interface (as shown in Figure 18 and
Figure 17) using the mixing plane model. Note that you may couple any number of fluid zones in this
manner; for example, four blade passages can be coupled using three mixing planes. Note that the
stator and rotor meshes do not have to be conformal; that is, the nodes on the stator exit boundary
do not have to match the nodes on the rotor inlet boundary. In addition, the meshes can be of different
types (e.g., the stator can have a hexahedral mesh while the rotor has a tetrahedral mesh).

Figure 17 Mixing Plane concepts as applied to axial rotation

 29

2.4.2 The Mixing Plane Concept

The essential idea behind the mixing
plane concept is that each fluid zone is
solved as a steady-state problem. At
some prescribed iteration interval, the
flow data at the mixing plane interface
are averaged in the circumferential
direction on both the stator outlet and
the rotor inlet boundaries. By
performing circumferential averages at
specified radial or axial stations, profile
of flow properties can be defined. These
profiles which will be functions of either
the axial or the radial coordinate,
depending on the orientation of the
mixing plane are then used to update
boundary conditions along the two
zones of the mixing plane interface. In Figure 18 Mixing Plane concepts applied to radial
the examples shown in Figure 18 and rotation
Figure 17, profiles of averaged total
pressure (p0), direction cosines of the local flow angles
in the Radial, Tangential, and Axial directions (αr; αt; Up Stream Down Stream
αz), total temperature (T0), turbulence kinetic energy
Pressure Outlet Pressure Inlet
(k), and turbulence dissipation rate (ε) are computed at
Pressure Outlet Velocity Inlet
the rotor exit and used to update boundary conditions
Pressure Outlet Mass flow Inlet
at the stator inlet. Likewise, a profile of static pressure
(ps), direction cosines of the local flow angles in the
Table 1 Prescribed Boundary zone for
radial, tangential, and axial directions (αr ; αt ; αz), are
Mixing Plane
computed at the stator inlet and used as a boundary
condition on the rotor exit. Passing profiles in the manner described above assumes specific
boundary condition types have been defined at the mixing plane interface. The coupling of an
upstream outlet boundary zone with a downstream inlet boundary zone is called a mixing plane pair.
In order to create mixing plane pairs, the boundary zones must be as prescribed as
Table 1.

2.4.3 Mixing Plane Algorithm

The basic mixing plane algorithm can be described as follows:

 Update the flow field solutions in the stator and rotor domains.
 Average the flow properties at the stator exit and rotor inlet boundaries, obtaining profiles
for use in updating boundary conditions.
 Pass the profiles to the boundary condition inputs required for the stator exit and rotor inlet.
 Repeat steps 1-3 until convergence.

Note that it may be desirable to under-relax the changes in boundary condition values in order to
prevent divergence of the solution (especially early in the computation).
 30

2.4.3.1 Mass Conservation across the Mixing Plane

Note that the algorithm described above will not rigorously conserve mass flow across the mixing
plane if it is represented by a pressure inlet and pressure outlet mixing plane pair. If you use a mass
flow inlet and pressure outlet pair instead, we will force mass conservation across the mixing plane.
The basic technique consists of computing the mass ow rate across the upstream zone (pressure
outlet) and adjusting the mass flux profile applied at the mass flow inlet such that the downstream
mass flow matches the upstream mass ow. This adjustment occurs at every iteration, thus ensuring
rigorous conservation of mass ow throughout the course of the calculation. Also note that, since mass
flow is being fixed in this case, there will be a jump in total pressure across the mixing plane. The
magnitude of this jump is usually small compared with total pressure variations elsewhere in the
flow field. Other quantities which will be conserved across Mixing Plane are Swirl and Total Enthalpy.

2.5 Sliding Mesh Modeling

In sliding meshes, the relative motion of stationary and rotating components in a rotating machine
will give rise to unsteady interactions. These interactions are illustrated in Figure 19, and generally
classified as follows:

 Potential interactions: flow unsteadiness due to pressure waves which propagate both
upstream and downstream.
 Wake interactions: flow unsteadiness due to wakes from upstream blade rows, convecting
 downstream.
 Shock interactions: for transonic/supersonic ow unsteadiness due to shock waves striking the
downstream blade row.

Where the multiple reference

frame (MRF) and mixing plane
(MP) models, are models that are
applied to steady-state cases,
thus neglecting unsteady
interactions, the sliding mesh
model cannot neglect unsteady
interactions. The sliding mesh
model accounts for the relative
motion of stationary and rotating
components.

2.5.1 Sliding Mesh Theory

When a time-accurate solution
for rotor-stator interaction
(rather than a time-averaged Figure 19 Illustration of Unsteady Interactions
solution) is desired, you must use
the sliding mesh model to compute the unsteady flow field. As mentioned in Section 10.1:
Introduction, the sliding mesh model is the most accurate method for simulating flow in multiple
moving reference frames, but also the most computationally demanding. Most often, the unsteady
solution that is sought in a sliding mesh simulation is time periodic. That is, the unsteady solution
repeats with a period related to the speeds of the moving domains. However, you can model other
types of transients, including translating, sliding mesh zones (e.g., two cars or trains passing in a
tunnel). Reminder that for flow situations where there is no interaction between stationary and
 31

moving parts (i.e., when there is only a rotor), the computational domain can be made stationary by
using a rotating reference frame. (ω = 0). When transient rotor-stator interaction is desired (as in
the examples in Figure 20 (a) and Figure 20 (b), you must use sliding meshes. If you are interested
in a steady approximation of the interaction, you may use the multiple reference frame model or the
mixing plane model, as described before.

(a) Rotor-Stator (b) Blower

Interaction

Figure 20 Examples of transient interaction using sliding mesh

2.5.2 The Sliding Mesh Technique

In the sliding mesh technique two or more cell zones are used. (If you generate the mesh in each zone
independently, you will need to merge the mesh profiles prior to starting the calculation. Each cell
zone is bounded by at least one interface zone where it meets the opposing cell zone. The interface
zones of adjacent cell zones are associated with one another to form a grid interface. The two cell
zones will move relative to each other along the grid interface. Be advised that the grid interface must
be positioned so that it has fluid cells on both sides. For example, the grid interface for the geometry
shown in Figure 21(c) must lie in the fluid region between the rotor and stator; it cannot be on the
edge of any part of the rotor or stator. During the calculation, the cell zones slide (i.e., rotate or
translate) relative to one another along the grid interface in discrete steps. To recap, topological Mesh
Changes in Sliding Interface are:

 Defined by a master and slave surfaces.

 As surfaces move relative to each other, perform mesh cutting operations and replace original
faces with facets.

 Re-assemble mesh connectivity on all cells and faces touching the sliding surface: fully
connected 3-D mesh.

 Once the mesh is complete, there is no further impact!

 Connectivity across interface changes with relative motion (see Figure 21 9(a-d)).
 32

Figure 21 (a) and Figure 21 (b) show the initial position of two grids and their positions after some
translation has occurred. For an axial rotor/stator configuration, in which the rotating and stationary
parts are aligned axially instead of being concentric (see Figure 21 (d)), the interface will be a planar
sector. This planar sector is a cross-section of the domain perpendicular to the axis of rotation at a
position along the axis between the rotor and the stator.

(a) Initial position (b) Sliding mesh

(d) Linear grid interface

(c) Rotor /Starter
interactions

Figure 21 Initial position and some translation with Sliding Interface

Figure 21
2.5.3 Sliding Mesh Concept
As discussed before, the sliding mesh model allows adjacent grids to slide relative to one another. In
doing so, the grid faces do not need to be aligned on the grid interface. This situation requires a means
of computing the flux across the two non-conformal interface zones of each grid interface. To
compute the interface flux, the intersection between the interface zones is determined at each new
time step. The resulting intersection produces one interior zone (a zone with fluid cells on both sides)
and one or more periodic zones. If the problem is not periodic, the intersection produces one interior
zone and a pair of wall zones (which will be empty if the two interface zones intersect entirely), as
shown in
Figure 22(a). (You will need to change these wall zones to some other appropriate boundary type.)
The resultant interior zone corresponds to where the two interface zones overlap; the resultant
periodic zone corresponds to where they do not. The number of faces in these intersection zones will
vary as the interface zones move relative to one another. Principally, fluxes across the grid interface
 33

are computed using the faces resulting from the intersection of the two interface zones, rather than from
the interface zone faces themselves.
In the example shown in
Figure 22 (b), the interface zones are composed of faces A-B and B-C, and faces D-E and E-F. The
intersection of these zones produces the faces a-d, d-b, b-e, etc. Faces produced in the region where
the two cell zones overlap (d-b, b-e, and e-c) are grouped to form an interior zone, while the

(a) Zones Created by Non-

Periodic Interface
Intersection

(b) Two-Dimensional
Grid Interface

Figure 22 Dynamic Interface Zones

remaining faces (a-d and c-f) are paired up to form a periodic zone. To compute the flux across the
interface into cell IV, for example, face D-E is ignored and faces d-b and b-e are used instead, bringing
information into cell IV from cells I and III, respectively.
 34

3 Elements of Turbomachinery

3.1 Background
Turbomachinery is widely used equipment in industry such as compressors and turbines in a jet
engine; steam turbine in power plants, propeller for ships, hydraulic turbines for irrigation, wind
turbines for green energy, small fans for cooling, and so on18. A common feature of these devices is
that they all work with fluid and have rotating component. Gorla19 gives a general definition of
turbomachinery which says “Turbomachinery is a device in which the energy transfer occurs
between a flowing fluid and a rotating element due to dynamic action, and results in a change
in pressure and momentum of the fluid”. The usage of turbomachinery has a long history. It is

Axial Flow Devices

Flow Direction Centrifugal Flow Devices

Mixed Flow
Devices Wind Turbine
Turbomachines
Comprssible Gas Turbine

Steam Turbine
Fluid Physics

Pumps
Incompressible
Hydroulic Turbine

Figure 23 Classification of Turbomachines

18 Xiaodong Wang, “CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade
Design”, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy, July 2010.
19 R. S. R. Gorla. Turbomachinery: Design and Theory. CRC Press, 2003.
 35

recorded that the waterwheel, a kind of primitive turbomachinery, was invented and used for power
generation more than hundred years ago. Although the configuration is simple, it does follow the
same basic principle with other complicated modern turbomachinery’s, for instance the compressor
and the gas turbine in a jet engine. Figure 23 represents classification of turbomachines. Here we
concern with axial devices mainly. As the air is compressed in compressor before entering the
combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs (a.k.a., aggravated stage).
Then the gas with high pressure and high temperature flows through gas turbines and leaves the
engine through a nozzle. While expanding through the turbine blades, power is released from the gas
and drives the turbine rotating. This constitutes the modern gas turbine engine phenomena to be
discussed next.
3.2 Historical Perspectives
The gas turbine is an internal combustion (IC) engine that uses air as the working fluid. It is the
production of hot gas during fuel combustion, not the fuel itself that the gives gas turbines the name.
Gas turbines can utilize a variety of fuels, including natural gas, fuel oils, and synthetic fuels.
Combustion occurs continuously in gas turbines, as opposed to reciprocating IC engines, in which
combustion occurs intermittently. The engine extracts chemical energy from fuel and converts it to
mechanical energy using the gaseous energy of the working fluid (air) to drive the engine and
propeller, which, in turn, propel the airplane. The gas turbine engine was first invented in the
1930s∼1940s, which gave the opportunity of rapid development to turbomachinery. From the initial
turbojet engine to the modern turbofan engine with large bypass ratio, the evolution of jet engine
requires more advanced compressors and turbines with higher stage pressure ratio and higher
efficiency. Since 1988, the military of USA launched a series of research projects to develop advanced
turbines, such as “IHPTET” (Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology), “VAATE”
(Versatile Affordable Advanced Turbine Engines) etc. The primary goal is to double the thrust-to-
weight ratio (TWR) of engine which will reach to 15∼20, decrease the fuel consumption ratio by
15%∼30%. Compressor and turbine are two core components of jet engine. The performance of a jet
engine strongly depends on the design level of compressor and turbine. Therefore, significant
researching efforts have been spent on improving the performance of turbomachinery. Today, the
modern compressor stage has an efficiency of about 90% and the modern turbine stage has an
efficiency of up to 95%. Further improvements become more and more difficult and require much
deeper understanding of the flow field inside of the turbomachinery. Meanwhile, in industrial field,
steam turbine and gas turbine are the main instruments of power generation. Due to the energy crisis,
design of advanced turbine with higher efficiency is much more crucial than ever before. Therefore,
similar strong demands of improving the performance of turbomachinery are also brought forward.
While a turbine transfers energy from a fluid to a rotor, a compressor transfers energy from a
rotor to a fluid. These two types of machines are governed by the same basic relationships including
Newton's second Law of Motion and Euler's energy equation for compressible fluids 20.

3.3 Modern Turbomachinery as related to Gas Turbine Engine

In general, the rotating element is named rotor which is usually composed of one or several rows of
rotating blades. There also exits a stator which is also composed of rows of blades, but not rotating.
A pair of stator and rotor constitutes a stage. According to the way of energy transfer, turbomachines
are generally divided into two main categories. The first category is used primarily to generate power
which is called Turbine, including steam turbines, gas turbines and hydraulic turbines. The main
function of the second category is to increase the total pressure of the working fluid by consuming
power which includes compressors, pumps and fans as detailed in Figure 24. According to inlet
and outlet flow directions, turbomachines can be classified into two types: axial turbomachinery and

20 See previous.
 36

radial turbomachinery. However, here we concern only focuses on the axial turbomachinery. More
detail classification and description about the configurations can be found in21. Considerable
progress in development and application of CFD for aero-engines internal flow systems has been
made in recent years. CFD is regularly used in industry for assessment of air systems, and
performance of CFD for basic axisymmetric rotor/rotor and stator/rotor disc cavities with radial
through flow is largely understood and documented. In cooperation with 3D geometrical features
and calculation of unsteady flow are becoming common place. Automation of CFD, coupling with
thermal models of solid components, is current area of development. A wide variety of flow
phenomena, which are coupled in nature, occur in Turbomachinery CFD ranging from shock surfaces,

Figure 24 Component of Turbomachines and their Thermodynamic (Brayton cycle) properties

boundary layer, secondary flow, and vortex generating from blade tip and hob. These, makes the flow
analysis of turbo-machinery extremely complex and CFD limited. The number of turbine stages varies
in different types of engines, with high bypass ratio engines tending to have the most turbine stages.
The number of turbine stages can have a great effect on how the turbine blades are designed for each
stage. Many gas turbine engines are twin spool designs, meaning that there is a high pressure spool
and a low pressure spool. The high pressure turbine is exposed to the hottest, highest pressure air,
and the low pressure turbine is subjected to cooler, lower pressure air. The difference in conditions
leads to the design of high pressure and low pressure turbine blades that are significantly different
in material and cooling choices even though the aerodynamic and thermodynamic principles are the
same. Under these severe operating conditions inside the gas and steam turbines, the blades face high
temperature, high stresses, and potentially high vibrations. Steam turbine blades are critical
components in power plants which convert the linear motion of high temperature and high pressure

21 M. T. Schobeiri. Turbomachinery: Flow Physics and Dynamic Performance. Springer, Berlin, 2005. 2, 37, 38
 37

steam flowing down a pressure gradient into a rotary motion of the turbine shaft. Figure 25
illustrates of a twin spool jet engine. The high pressure turbine is connected by a single spool to the
high pressure compressor (purple) and the low pressure turbine is connected to the low pressure
compressor by a second spool (green)22.

Figure 25 Twin Pool Jet Engine

3.4 How does it work?

Gas turbines are comprised of three primary sections mounted on the same shaft: the compressor,
the combustion chamber (or combustor) and the turbine, as described above. The compressor can
be either axial flow or centrifugal flow. Axial flow compressors are more common in power
generation because they have higher flow rates and efficiencies. Axial flow compressors are
comprised of multiple stages of rotating and stationary blades (or stators) through which air is drawn
in parallel to the axis of rotation and incrementally compressed as it passes through each stage. The
acceleration of the air through the rotating blades and diffusion by the stators increases the pressure
and reduces the volume of the air. Although no heat is added, the compression of the air also causes
the temperature to increase23. The compressed air then mixed with fuel injected through nozzles.
The fuel and compressed air can be pre-mixed or the compressed air can be introduced directly into
the combustor. The fuel-air mixture ignites under constant pressure conditions and the hot
combustion products (what we like to call: aggravated gases) are directed through the turbine where
it expands rapidly and imparts rotation to the shaft. The turbine is also comprised of stages, each
with a row of stationary blades (or nozzles) to direct the expanding gases followed by a row of
moving blades. The rotation of the shaft drives the compressor to draw in and compress more air to
sustain continuous combustion. The remaining shaft power is used to drive a generator which
produces electricity. Approximately 55-65 % of the power produced by the turbine is used to drive
the compressor. To optimize the transfer of kinetic energy from the combustion gases to shaft

22 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

23 J., López, Digital & Content Marketing Specialist, Wärtsilä Finland Oy.
 38

rotation, gas turbines can have multiple compressor and turbine stages. Because the compressor
must reach a certain speed before the combustion process is continuous – or self-sustaining – initial
momentum is imparted to the turbine rotor from an external motor, static frequency converter, or
the generator itself. The compressor must be smoothly accelerated and reach firing speed before fuel
can be introduced and ignition can occur. Turbine speeds vary widely by manufacturer and design,
ranging from 2,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) to 10,000 rpm. Initial ignition occurs from one or
more spark plugs (depending on combustor design). Once the turbine reaches self-sustaining speed
above 50% of full speed; the power output is enough to drive the compressor, combustion is
continuous, and the starter system can be disengaged.
Simply put, in a compressor, to raise the pressure, the fluid must be slowed down as it passes through a
blade row. In a turbine, to drop the pressure, the fluid must be accelerated as it passes through a blade
row. By having alternate stationary and moving blade rows and making use of the change of frame of
reference, it is possible to always slow down (relative to the blade row) or always speed up the fluid. For
example: In a turbine the flow is accelerated in the stator (stationary blade row). However, because the
rotor row is moving, the flow appears to be moving more slowly in the relative frame and so can be re-
accelerated in the relative frame. This appears to be a deceleration in the absolute frame24.

1.5 Gas Turbine Performance

The thermodynamic process used in gas turbines is the Brayton cycle. Two significant performance
parameters are the pressure ratio and the firing temperature. The fuel-to-power efficiency of the
engine is optimized by increasing the difference (or ratio) between the compressor discharge
pressure and inlet air pressure. This compression ratio is dependent on the design. Gas turbines for
power generation can be either industrial (heavy frame) or aero derivative designs. Industrial gas
turbines are designed for stationary applications and have lower pressure ratios – typically up to
18:1. Aero derivative gas turbines are lighter weight compact engines adapted from aircraft jet
engine design which operate at higher compression ratios up to 30:1. They offer higher fuel
efficiency and lower emissions, but are smaller and have higher initial (capital) costs. Aero derivative
gas turbines are more sensitive to the compressor inlet temperature.
The temperature at which the turbine operates (firing temperature) also impacts efficiency, with
higher temperatures leading to higher efficiency. However, turbine inlet temperature is limited by
the thermal conditions that can be tolerated by the turbine blade metal alloy. Gas temperatures at
the turbine inlet can be 1200°C to 1400°C, but some manufacturers have boosted inlet temperatures
as high as 1600°C by engineering blade coatings and cooling systems to protect metallurgical
components from thermal damage. Because of the power required to drive the compressor, energy
conversion efficiency for a simple cycle gas turbine power plant is typically about 30 percent, with
even the most efficient designs limited to 40 %. A large amount of heat remains in the exhaust gas,
which is around 600˚C as it leaves the turbine. By recovering that waste heat to produce more useful
work in a combined cycle configuration, gas turbine power plant efficiency can reach 55 to 60
percent. However, there are operational limitations associated with operating gas turbines in
combined cycle mode, including longer startup time, purge requirements to prevent fires or
explosions, and ramp rate to full load.

3.6 Gas Compressors

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor. Compressors are similar to pumps: both
increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are
compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible;

24 University of Cambridge, Compressor and Turbine stages.

 39

Axial
Dynamic
Centrifugal Single Acting

Reciprocating Double Acting

Compressor Types

Diaphram

Positive Displacement Vane

Scroll

Rotery Liquid Ring

Screw

Lobe

Figure 26 Gas Compressor Types

while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids. The
main types of gas compressors are illustrated in Figure 26. where here we deal with two commonly
used Axial and Centrifugal compressors.

3.6.1 Axial-flow compressors

The dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress a
fluid. They are used where high flow rates or a compact design are required. The arrays of airfoils are
set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as
blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The
stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes,
decelerate and redirect the flow direction of the
fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next
stage (see Figure 27). Axial compressors are
almost always multi-staged, with the cross-
sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along
the compressor to maintain an optimum axial
Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1
design pressure ratio a compressor will not
function unless fitted with features such as
stationary vanes with variable angles (known as
variable inlet guide vanes and variable stators), the
ability to allow some air to escape part-way along
the compressor (known as inter-stage bleed) and Figure 27 Schematics of Axial Compressor
being split into more than one rotating assembly
(known as twin spools, for example). Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90% at
their design conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of
 40

components, tight tolerances and high quality materials. Axial-flow compressors are used in medium
to large gas turbine engines, natural gas pumping stations, and some chemical plants.

3.6.2 Centrifugal Compressors

Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or
impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the
rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the
gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts
the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are
primarily used for continuous, stationary service
in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and
petrochemical plants and natural gas processing
plants.[1][14][15] Their application can be from 100
horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower.
With multiple staging, they can achieve high
output pressures greater than 10,000 psi
(69 MPa). Many large snowmaking operations
(like ski resorts) use this type of compressor. They Figure 28 A single stage Centrifugal
are also used in internal combustion engines as Compressor
superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal
compressors are used in small gas turbine engines
or as the final compression stage of medium-sized gas turbines. (see Figure 28).

3.6 Nomenclature of Terms

Before going further, it is prudent to get familiarize our self with terminology used in industry
regarding components of turbomachines25. From personal experience, it is an important issue.
Some of these are shown in Error! Reference source not found. and shown alphabetically in Table 2
below.

Table 2 Glossary of Turbomachinery Terms

aspect ratio ratio of the blade height to the chord

axial chord Length of the projection of the blade, as set in the turbine, onto a line parallel to the
turbine axis. It is the axial length of the blade.
axial solidity Ratio of the axial chord to the spacing.
adiabatic insulated; occurring with no external heat transfer
blade exit angle Angle between the tangent to the camber line at the trailing edge and the turbine axial
direction.
blade height radius at the tip minus the radius at the hub
blade inlet angle between the tangent to the camber line at the leading edge and the turbine axial
angle direction
blower Rotary machine that produces a low-to-moderate pressure rise in a compressible fluid
(usually air), usually incorporated in a duct. See "fan" and "compressor."
bucket same as rotor blade

25David Gordon Wilson; "The Design of High-Efficiency Turbomachinery and Gas Turbines", pp 487-492,
published by the MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, 5th printing 1991.
 41

camber angle External angle formed by the intersection of the tangents to the camber line at the
leading and trailing edges. It is equal to the sum of the angles formed by the chord line
and the camber-line tangents
camber line Mean line of the blade profile. It extends from the leading edge to the trailing edge,
halfway between the pressure surface and the suction surface
CBE Compressor-burner-expander, or the "simple" gas-turbine "cycle."
CBEX Compressor (heat exchanger)-burner-expander-heat exchanger, or the "regenerated,"
"recuperated," or "heat-exchanger" gas-turbine "cycle."
chord Length of the perpendicular projection of the blade profile onto the chord line. It is
approximately equal to the linear distance between the leading edge and the trailing
edge.
chord line Two-dimensional blade section were laid convex side up on a flat surface, the chord line
is the line between the points where the front and the rear of the blade section would
touch the surface.
compressor rotary machine that produces a relatively high pressure rise (pressure ratios greater
than 1.1) in a compressible fluid
deflection Total turning angle of the fluid. It is equal to the difference between the flow inlet angle
and the flow exit angle
deviation angle the flow exit angle minus the blade exit angle
diffuser A duct or passage shaped so that a fluid flowing through it will undergo an efficient
reduction in relative velocity and will therefore increase in (static) pressure.
EGV at the exit of the compressor consisting of another set of vanes further diffuses the fluid
and controls its velocity entering the combustors and is often known as the Exit Guide
Vanes (EGV)
effectiveness term applied here to define the heat-transfer efficiency of heat exchangers
efficiency Performance relative to ideal performance. There are many types of efficiency requiring
very precise definitions
entropy A property of a substance defined in terms of other properties. Its change during a
process is of more interest than its absolute value. In an adiabatic process, the increase
of entropy indicates the magnitude of losses occurring
expander A rotary machine that produces shaft power from a flow of compressible fluid at high
pressure discharged at low pressure. Here the only types of expander treated are
turbines
flow exit angle angle between the fluid flow direction at the blade exit and the machine axial direction
flow inlet angle angle between the fluid flow direction at the blade inlet and the machine axial direction
head the height to which a fluid would rise under the action of an incremental pressure in a
gravitational field
hub the portion of a turbomachine bounded by the inner surface of the flow annulus
hub-tip ratio same as hub-to-tip-radius ratio
IGV An additional row of stationary blades that frequently used at the compressor inlet and
are known as Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV) to ensure that air enters the first-stage rotors at
the desired flow angle, these vanes are also pitch variable thus can be adjusted to the
varying flow requirements of the engine
hub-to-tip ratio of the hub radius to the tip radius
radio
incident angle the flow inlet angle minus the blade inlet angle
intensive Property that does not increase with mass; for instance, the pressure and temperature
property of a body of material do not double if an equal mass at the same temperature and
pressure is joined to it. (The energy, on the other hand, would double.)
 42

intercoolers heat exchangers that cool a gas after initial compression and before subsequent
compression
isentropic occurring at constant entropy
isothermal occurring at constant temperature
leading edge the front, or nose, of the blade
mean section the blade section halfway between the hub and the tip
meridional a plane cutting a turbomachine through a diametric line and the (longitudinal) axis
plane
nozzle blade same as stator blade, for turbines only
pitch the distance in the direction of rotation between corresponding points on adjacent
blades
pressure The concave surface of the blade. Along this surface, pressures are highest
surface
pump A machine that increases the pressure or head of a fluid. In connection with
turbomachinery it usually refers to a rotary machine operating on a liquid.
radius ratio same as hub-to-tip-radius ratio
recuperator a heat exchanger, defined in this book as one with nonmoving surfaces, transferring heat
from a hot fluid to a cold fluid
regenerated See "CBEX."
cycle
regenerator a heat exchanger, defined in this book as one having moving surfaces or valves switching
the hot and cold flows
reheat The effect of losses in increasing the outlet enthalpy, or in decreasing the steam wetness,
in a steam-turbine expansion. Also see "reheat combustor."
reheat a combustor fitted between two turbines to bring the gas temperature at inlet to the
combustor second turbine to approach the temperature at inlet to the first
root The compressor or turbine-blade section attaching it to its mounting platform. Rotor
blade root sections are normally at the hub, and stator- blade roots at the shroud
rotor the rotating part of a machine, usually the disk or drum plus the rotor blades
rotor blade a rotating blade
separation when a fluid flowing along a surface ceases to go parallel to the surface but flows over a
near-stagnant bubble, or an eddy, or over another stream of fluid
shroud the surface defining the outer diameter of a turbomachine flow annulus
solidity the ratio of the chord to the spacing
spacing same as pitch
stagger angle the angle between the chord line and the turbine axial direction (also known as the
setting angle)
stall the condition of operation (usually defined by the incidence) of an airfoil, or row of
airfoils, at which the fluid deflection begins to fall rapidly and/or the fluid losses
increase rapidly
static conditions or properties of fluids as they would be measured by instruments moving
(conditions) with the flow
stator the stationary part of a machine, normally that part defining the flow path
stator blade A stationary blade.
 43

suction surface The convex surface of the blade. Along this surface, pressures are lowest
surge the unstable operation of a high-pressure-ratio compressor whose stalls propagate
upstream from the high-pressure stages or components allowing reverse flow and the
discharge of the reservoir of high-pressure fluid, followed by re-establishment of
forward flow and a repetition of the sequence.
tip The outermost section of the blade or "vane."
total conditions or properties of fluids as they would be measured by stationary instruments
(conditions) that bring the fluid isentropically to rest
trailing edge the rear, or tail, of the blade
transverse the plane normal to the axis of a turbomachine
plane
turbine A rotary machine that produces shaft power by extracting energy from a stream of fluid
passing through it, using only fluid-dynamic forces (as distinct from "positive
displacement" or piston-and-cylinder-like machines).
turbomachines As for "turbine," except that the shaft power may be produced or absorbed, and the
energy may be extracted from or added to a stream of fluid.
working fluid Fluid that undergoes compression, expansion, heating, cooling, and other processes in a
heat-engine cycle. In an open-cycle gas turbine the working fluid is air

3.7 Component of Gas Turbine Engine

3.7.1 Inlet
The air inlet duct must provide clean and unrestricted airflow to the engine26. Clean and undisturbed
inlet airflow extends engine life by preventing erosion, corrosion, and Foreign Object Damage (FOD).
Consideration of atmospheric conditions such as dust, salt, industrial pollution, foreign objects (birds,
nuts and bolts), and temperature (icing conditions) must be made when designing the inlet system.
Fairings should be installed between the engine air inlet housing and the inlet duct to ensure
minimum airflow losses to the engine at all airflow conditions. The inlet duct assembly is usually
designed and produced as a separate system rather than as part of the design and production of the
engine.

26 “Fundamentals of Gas Turbine Engines”, Cast-Safty.org.

 44

Figure 29 Blade related terminology

3.7.2 Axial Compressor

The compressor is responsible for providing the turbine with all the air it needs in an efficient
manner. In addition, it must supply this
air at high static pressures. The example
of a large turboprop axial flow
compressor will be used. The
compressor is assumed to contain
fourteen stages of rotor blades and
stator vanes. The overall pressure ratio
(pressure at the back of the compressor
compared to pressure at the front of the
compressor) is approximately 9.5:1. At
100% (>13,000) RPM, the engine
compresses approximately 433 cubic
feet of air per second. At standard day
Figure 30 Compressor Flow Characteristics
air conditions, this equals
approximately 33 pounds of air per
 45

Figure 31 Pressure and Velocity profile through a Multi-Stage Axial Compressor

second. The compressor also raises the temperature of the air by about 550F as the air is compressed
and moved rearward. The power required to drive a compressor of this size at maximum rated power
is approximately 7000 horsepower. In an axial flow compressor, each stage incrementally boosts the
pressure from the previous stage. A single stage of compression consists of a set of rotor blades
attached to a rotating disk, followed by stator vanes attached to a stationary ring. The flow area
between the compressor blades is slightly divergent. Flow area between compressor vanes is also
divergent, but more so than for the blades. In general terms, the compressor rotor blades convert
mechanical energy into gaseous energy. This energy conversion greatly increases total pressure (PT).
Most of the increase is in the form of velocity (V), with a small increase in static pressure (PS) due to
the divergence of the blade flow paths. The stator vanes slow the air by means of their divergent duct
shape, converting 'the accelerated velocity (V) to higher static pressure (PS). The vanes are positioned
at an angle such that the exiting air is directed into the rotor blades of the next stage at the most
efficient angle. This process is repeated fourteen times as the air flows from the first stage through
the fourteenth stage. Figure 30 shows one stage of the compressor and a graph of the pressure
characteristics as the air flows through the stage. The stator removes swirl from the flow, but it is not
a moving blade row and thus cannot add any net energy to the flow. Rather, the stator rather
converts the kinetic energy associated with swirl to internal energy (raising the static pressure of the
flow). Thus typical velocity and pressure profiles through a multistage axial compressor look like
those shown in Figure 30. Alternatively, assuming incompressible, constant density, and with no
body force, we can use Bernoulli’s equations (Eq. 3.15; PT = PS + 1/2ρV2) where PT is the stagnation
pressure, a measure of the total energy carried in the flow, p is the static pressure a measure of the
internal energy, and the velocity terms are a measure of the kinetic energy associated with each
component of velocity27. The rotor adds swirl to the flow, thus increasing the total energy carried in

27 MIT OpenCourseWare
 46

the flow by increasing the angular momentum (adding to the kinetic energy associated with the
tangential or swirl velocity, 1/2rv2). The stator removes swirl from the flow, but it is not a moving
blade row and thus cannot add any net energy to the flow. Rather, the stator rather converts the
kinetic energy associated with swirl to internal energy (raising the static pressure of the flow). Thus
typical velocity and pressure profiles through a multistage axial compressor look like those shown in
Figure 31. In addition to the fourteen stages of blades and vanes, the compressor also incorporates
the inlet guide vanes and the outlet guide vanes. These vanes, located at the inlet and the outlet of the
compressor, are neither divergent nor convergent. The inlet guide vanes direct air to the first stage
compressor blades at the "best" angle. The outlet guide vanes "straighten" the air to provide the
combustor with the proper airflow direction. The efficiency of a compressor is primarily determined
by the smoothness of the airflow. During design, every effort is made to keep the air flowing smoothly
through the compressor to minimize airflow losses due to friction and turbulence. This task is a
difficult one, since the air is forced to flow into ever-higher pressure zones. Air has the natural
tendency to flow toward low-pressure zones. If air were allowed to flow "backward" into the lower
pressure zones, the efficiency of the compressor would decrease tremendously as the energy used to
increase the pressure of the air was wasted. To prevent this from occurring, seals are incorporated
at the base of each row of vanes to prevent air leakage. In addition, the tip clearances of the rotating
blades are also kept at a minimum by the use of coating on the inner surface of the compressor case.
All components used in the flow path of the compressor are shaped in the form of airfoils to maintain
the smoothest airflow possible. Just as is the case for the wings of an airplane, the angle at which the
air flows across the airfoils is critical to performance. The blades and vanes of the compressor are
positioned at the optimum angles to achieve the most efficient airflow at the compressor’s maximum
rated speed. Any deviation from the maximum rated speed changes the characteristics of the airflow
within the compressor. The blades and vanes are no longer positioned at their optimum angles. Many
engines use bleed valves to unload the force of excess air in the compressor when it operates at less
than optimum speed. 28 The example engine incorporates four bleed valves at each of the fifth and
tenth compressor stages. They are open until 13,000 RPM (~94% maximum) is reached, and allow
some of the compressed air to flow out to the atmosphere. This results in higher air velocities over
the blade and vane airfoils, improving the airfoil angles. The potential for airfoil stalling is reduced,
and compressor acceleration can be accomplished without surge.

3.7.3 Diffuser
All turbomachines and many other flow systems incorporate a diffuser (e.g. closed circuit wind
tunnels, the duct between the compressor and burner of a gas turbine engine, the duct at exit from a
gas turbine connected to the jet pipe, the duct following the impeller of a centrifugal compressor,
etc.)29. Air leaves the compressor through exit guide vanes, which convert the radial component of
the air flow out of the compressor to straight-line flow. The air then enters the diffuser section of the
engine, which is a very divergent duct. The primary function of the diffuser structure is aerodynamic.
The divergent duct shape converts most of the air’s velocity (Pi) into static pressure (PS) with the aid
of Bernoulli equation. As a result, the highest static pressure and lowest velocity in the entire engine
is at the point of diffuser discharge and combustor inlet. Other aerodynamic design considerations
that are important in the diffuser section arise from the need for a short flow path, uniform flow
distribution, and low drag loss. In addition to critical aerodynamic functions, the diffuser also
provides:

 Engine structural support, including engine mounting to the nacelle

28MIT, OpenCourseWare.
29 S. L.
Dixon, “Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery”, 5th edition, Senior Fellow at University
of Liverpool, 1978-1998.
 47

 Support for the rear compressor bearings and seals

 Bleed air ports, which provide pressurized air for:
 Airframe "customer" requirements (air conditioning, etc.)
 engine inlet anti-icing
 control of acceleration bleed air valves
 Pressure and scavenge oil passages for the rear compressor and front turbine bearings.
 Mounting for the fuel nozzles.

The primary fluid mechanical problem of the diffusion process is caused by the tendency of the
boundary layers to separate from the diffuser walls if the rate of diffusion is too rapid30. The result of
too rapid diffusion is always large losses in stagnation pressure. On the other hand, if the rate of
diffusion is too low, the fluid is exposed to an excessive length of wall and fluid friction losses become
Pre-dominant. Clearly, there must be an optimum rate of diffusion between these two extremes for
which the losses are minimized.

3.7.4 Nozzle
In a large number of turbomachinery components the flow process can be regarded as a purely nozzle
flow in which the fluid receives an acceleration as a result of a drop in pressure (see Figure 25). Such
a nozzle flow occurs at entry to all turbomachines and in the stationary blade rows in turbines. In
axial machines the expansion at entry is assisted by a row of stationary blades (called guide vanes in
compressors and nozzles in turbines) which direct the fluid on to the rotor with a large swirl angle.
Centrifugal compressors and pumps, on the other hand, often have no such provision for flow
guidance but there is still a velocity increase obtained from a contraction in entry flow area. In reality,
Nozzle and Diffuser work against each other. A nozzle increases the velocity of a fluid, while a diffuser
decreases the velocity of a fluid. Nozzles can be used by jets and rockets to provide extra thrust.
Conversely, many jet engines use diffusers to slow air coming into the engine for a more uniform flow.

3.7.5 Combustor
Once the air flows through the diffuser, it enters the combustion section, also called the combustor.
The combustion section has the difficult task of controlling the burning of large amounts of fuel and
air. It must release the heat in a manner that the air is expanded and accelerated to give a smooth and
stable stream of uniformly heated gas at all starting and operating conditions. This task combustion
liners must position and control the fire to prevent flame contact with any metal parts. The engine
under consideration here uses a can-annular combustion section with six combustion liners (cans).
They are positioned within an annulus created by inner and outer combustion cases. Combustion
takes place in the forward end or primary zone of the cans. Primary air (amounting to about one
fourth of the total engine’s total airflow) is used to support the combustion process. The remaining
air, referred to as secondary or dilution air, is admitted into the liners in a controlled manner (Figure
32). The secondary air controls the flame pattern, cools the liner walls, dilutes the temperature of
the core gasses, and provides mass. This cooling air is critical, as the flame temperature is above
1930C (3500F), which is higher than the metals in the engine can endure. It is important that the fuel
nozzles and combustion liners control the burning and mixing of fuel and air under all conditions to
avoid excess temperatures reaching the turbine or combustion cases. Maximum combustion section
outlet temperature (turbine inlet temperature) in this engine is about 1070C (>1950F). The rear third
of the combustion liners is the transition section. The transition section has a very convergent duct
shape, which begins accelerating the gas stream and reducing the static pressure in preparation for
entrance to the turbine section.

30 See 13.
 48

Figure 32 Combustor primary operating components

3.7.6 Axial Gas Turbine

This example engine has a four-stage
turbine. The turbine converts the
gaseous energy of the air/burned fuel
mixture out of the combustor into
mechanical energy to drive the
compressor, driven accessories, and,
through a reduction gear, the propeller.
The turbine converts gaseous energy
into mechanical energy by expanding
the hot, high-pressure gases to a lower
temperature and pressure. Each stage of
the turbine consists of a row of
Figure 33 Turbine Flow Characteristics
stationary vanes followed by a row of
rotating blades. This is the reverse of
the order in the compressor. In the compressor, energy is added to the gas by the rotor blades, then
converted to static pressure by the stator vanes. In the turbine, the stator vanes increase gas velocity,
and then the rotor blades extract energy. The vanes and blades are airfoils that provide for a smooth
flow of the gases. As the airstream enters the turbine section from the combustion section, it is
accelerated through the first stage stator vanes. The stator vanes (also called nozzles) form
convergent ducts that convert the gaseous heat and pressure energy into higher velocity gas flow (V).
In addition to accelerating the gas, the vanes "turn" the flow to direct it into the rotor blades at the
optimum angle. As the mass of the high velocity gas flows across the turbine blades, the gaseous
energy is converted to mechanical energy. Velocity, temperature, and pressure of the gas are
sacrificed in order to rotate the turbine to generate shaft power. Figure 33 represents one stage of
the turbine and the characteristics of the gases as it flows through the stage. A multi-stage turbine is
illustrates in Figure 32. The efficiency of the turbine is determined by how well it extracts
mechanical energy from the hot, high-velocity gasses. Since air flows from a high-pressure zone to a
low pressure zone, this task is accomplished fairly easily. The use of properly positioned airfoils
allows a smooth flow and expansion of gases through the blades and vanes of the turbine. All the air
 49

must flow across the airfoils to achieve maximum efficiency in the turbine. In order to ensure this,
seals are used at the base of the vanes to minimize gas flow around the vanes instead of through the
intended gas path. In addition, the first three stages of the turbine blades have tip shrouds to
minimize gas flow around the blade tips. We can apply the same analysis techniques to a
turbine. Again, the stator does no work. It adds swirl to the flow, converting internal energy into
kinetic energy. The turbine rotor then extracts work from the flow by removing the kinetic
associated with the swirl velocity.

Figure 34 Schematics of axial flow Turbine

3.8 Difference in Blading between Compressor and Turbine

There is quite a difference between Compressor and Turbine blading. Aside from shape of it, they
are number of stages and arrangement of it. While Compressor blades are generally thin and straight,
and resemble a tiny
rectangular wing with low Compressor
camber thickness. Turbine
blades are more curved. In • Area increase: pressure rise
particularly large and • Flow deceleration: thick boundary layers
recent engines, where
• Little flow turning: many stages
efficiency is critical,
turbine blades will often
be full of tiny holes for
cooling effects. The Turbine
difference best described
below and examples of
• Area decrease: pressure drop
blade shown in Figure • Flow acceleration: thin boundary layers
35. To distinguish • Large flow turning: few stages
between high pressure
 50

and low pressure stages (compressor or turbine does not matter), the length of the blade and its
torsion (i.e. how much the aerodynamic profile turns around the axis of the blade going from the root
to the tip) are key: shorter and more twisted blades will be high pressure ones, longer and straighter
blades will be low pressure. Note that two blades of the same length could come one from a high
pressure stage and the other from a low pressure one of a different engine: "short" and "long" are
relative to the engine size.

Typical Compressor Blade ( Air

Defence Museum) Typical Turbine Blade

Figure 35 Examples of typical Blades for Compressor and Turbine

3.8 Velocity Triangles in Turbomachines

An important aspect of
Turbomachinery is the velocity
triangle and their goal to change
the flow apparatus. It is basic
vector relationship between
relative and absolute frame.
Velocity triangles are typically
used to relate the flow properties
and blade design parameters in the
relative frame (rotating with the
moving blades), to the properties
in the stationary or absolute
frame. It uses the study of first
year Static, and by “unwrapping”
the compressor. That is, we take a
cutting plane at a particular radius
(see Figure 36). Here we have
assumed that the area of the
annulus through which the flow Figure 36 Velocity triangles for an Axial Compressor
passes is nearly constant and the
 51

density changes are small so that the axial velocity is approximately constant. Let’s examine the
velocities of the gas, as it passes through a rotor and a stator. At the point we’re examining, the rotor
is moving with a velocity U. The velocity of the gas relative to the rotor is denoted by C and V is
absolute velocity or V = C + U. The angle between the flow velocity C and the shaft axis is denoted by
α. The angle between the rotor blade angle and the shaft axis is denoted by β. The component of the
velocity C in axial direction is denoted by Ca. It is assumed to be constant along the compressor. Notice
the tangential velocity increase across the rotor for compressor. In some circles, they used W instead
of C or W = V – U. In drawing these velocity diagrams it is important to note that the flow typically
leaves the trailing edges of the blades at approximately the trailing edge angle in the coordinate frame
attached to the blade (i.e. relative frame for the rotor, absolute frame for the stator). We will mainly
look at axial compressors as they are the most used type of compressors. Also, axial compressors
work very similar to axial turbines where stator gives tangential velocity, and rotor moves in the
direction of tangential velocity, having work done on them by flow. Notice tangential velocity
decrease across turbine rotors. (Figure 36).

3.9 Energy Exchange with Moving Blades

The Euler turbine equation relates the power added to or removed from the flow, to characteristics
of a rotating blade row. The equation is based on the concepts of conservation of angular momentum
and conservation of energy. They are both turbomachinery: machines that transfer energy from a
rotor to a fluid, or the other way around. The working principle of the compressor and the turbine is
therefore quite similar.

3.9.1 Euler’s equation for turbomachinery 31

Let’s examine a rotor, rotating at a constant angular velocity ω. The initial radius of the rotor is r 1,
while the final radius is r2. A gas passes through the rotor with a constant velocity c. The rotor causes
a moment M on the gas. The power needed by the rotor is thus P = Mω. It would be nice if we can find
an expression for this moment M. For that, we first look at the force F acting on the gas. It is given by

dmc 
dFu   m c (15.1)
dt

Where we have used the assumption that c stays constant. Only the tangential component Fu
contributes to the moment. Every bit of gas contributes to this tangential force. It does this according
to
dFu  m
 dcu (15.2)

Where cu is the tangential velocity of the air. Let’s integrate over the entire rotor. We then find that

2 2 2
M   dM   r dFu  m
  r dc u  m
 (cu,2 r2  c u,1 r1 ) (15.3)
1 1 1

The power is now given by

31 “Compressor and turbines”, Aerostudents.

 52

P MωTωm
 (cu,2 r2  cu,1 r1 ) ω  m
 (cu,2 u 2  cu,1 u1 ) (15.4)

In this equation, T denotes Torque, u denotes the speed of the rotor at a certain radius r. We have
also used the fact that ω = u1/r1 = u2/r2. The above equation is known as Euler’s equation for
turbomachinery. From (Eq. 1.4) it is obvious that:

 If the tangential velocity increases across a blade row (where positive tangential velocity is
defined in the same direction as the rotor motion) then work is added to the flow (a
compressor).

 If the tangential velocity decreases across a blade row (where positive tangential velocity is
defined in the same direction as the rotor motion) then work is removed from the flow (a
turbine).

Furthermore, another form of Euler’s Turbomachinery equation, with aid of the steady flow energy
equation:

H2  H1  ω (cu,2 r2  cu,1 r1 )  Cp (T2  T1 ) where Cp  constant (15.5)

It relates the temperature ratio (and hence the pressure ratio) across a turbine or compressor to the
rotational speed and the change in momentum per unit mass. Note that the velocities used in this
equation are what we call absolute frame velocities (as opposed to relative frame velocities).32 It is
given fact that:

Figure 37 Velocity triangles in relation to incident angle

 If angular momentum increases across a blade row, then T2 > T1 and work was done on the
fluid (a compressor).

32 MIT, OpenCourseWare.
 53

 If angular momentum decreases across a blade row, then T2 < T1 and work was done by the
fluid (a turbine)

3.10 Compressors and their Reaction to Intake Distortion

During the design phase of an aircraft and its engine it is important that the compatibility aspects at
the aerodynamic interface between the aircraft intake and the engine are given sufficient
consideration because of the implications failures in this area may have33. On a macroscopic level and
in isolation from other effects, the isentropic relation can be applied. Compressors, as the name
implies, compress air by a repeated sequence of first adding kinetic energy to the flow and then
converting the kinetic energy to pressure by a process of flow deceleration. The elements within a
compressor achieving this process are a number of airfoils, either rotating or stationary. Work input
to the flow by a rotor row is achieved via change of the angular momentum of the flow, and these
properties are related to each other via the following equation,

  
H 2  H1  u 2 cu,2  u1 cu,1 where cwU (15.6)

Especially for axial

compressors where rotor
angular velocities at rotor
inlet and exit are very
similar to each other, it is
evident that an increase in
total enthalpy requires
changing the angular
velocity of flow. Velocity
triangles at rotor inlet and
exit exemplified in Figure
37 show how angular flow
velocities, rotor inlet flow
angles and rotor exit flow
angles are related to each
other. The symbol “c”
denotes velocity in the
absolute frame of reference.
Due to the rotational speed Figure 38 Compressor operating map
“u” of the rotor, rotor blades
experience flow velocities
within their rotating (or relative) frame of reference, denoted by the symbol “w”. For the sake of
simplicity, it is assumed that the flow at rotor inlet has no angular component (c u, 1 = 0), and the exit
flow angle of the rotor blade remains unchanged (in the rotor frame of reference). With these
assumptions, an increase in work input according to equation 1 can only be achieved by an increase
of cu,2. According to the dependencies shown in Figure 37, this requires reducing the axial velocity
component of the flow behind the rotor. Because of conservation of mass flow through the rotor, also
the axial velocity at rotor inlet will be reduced, leading to an increased incidence of the flow to the

33 Breuer, B., Bissinger, N., C., “Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering – Volume 8 - Chapter EAE 573-Basic
Principles – Gas Turbine Compatibility – Gas Turbine Aspects”.
 54

rotor blade. Translating the state of flow behind the rotor from the rotating frame of reference into
the stationary one, Figure 37 also shows that an increase of work delivered to the flow by the rotor
increases the incidence to the subsequent stator row as well. Therefore, an increase of work input to
the flow means increasing incidences to both rotor and stator airfoils. Therefore, an increase of work
input to the flow means increasing incidences to both rotor and stator airfoils. Very much like aircraft
wings, these airfoils have certain operating limits in terms of airfoil angle of attack or incidence. With
increasing incidence, rotor airfoils provide for a larger work input and hence pressure rise, but at the
same time the aerodynamic loading increases, up to a point where the flow separates. On a larger
scale, the pressure rise capability of a compressor is typically depicted using a compressor map
where pressure rise is depicted as a function of compressor mass flow for different rotational speeds.
An example map is provided with Figure 38, and for the sake of illustration, it also relates different
regimes of compressor operating range to an aircraft operating at different angles of attack. At low
pressure ratios, the airfoils operate with negative to small incidence, and usually elevated losses.
When the pressure ratio is increased, airfoil incidences now approach a condition with minimum
losses. Further increasing the pressure ratio is equivalent to further rise of airfoil aerodynamic
loading and losses increase due to formation of regions of separated flow. At the upper end of a speed
line, there is a point where regions of separated flow have enlarged to an extent where no further
pressure rise is achievable, in analogy to aircraft wings reaching the stall limit where no further
increase of lift can be provided34. The upper operational limit of a compressor map is called the surge
line, representing a condition where large flow separation prevents further pressure rise. The surge
line represents an operational limit for engine operation, since the occurrence of compressor surge
(sometimes also referred to as compressor stall) leads to a highly unsteady flow field within the
engine, quite often also entailing periods of reversed flow, that is air flowing in the “wrong” direction
through the compressor. Surge is associated with large fluctuations of power output. Furthermore, it
is accompanied by increased structural loads caused by the rapid changes of flow field state.
Compressor maps are usually established (either numerically or by means of testing) for a standard
set of inlet conditions. These inlet conditions are typically derived from simplified installation
assumptions and assume a simplified inlet profile with radial variations only, but uniform in
circumferential direction. Intake distortion considerations deal with conditions that deviate from
these design assumptions and aim to identify the consequences of these deviations with regard to
engine operation.

34 See 71.
 55

3.11 Effects of Turbine Temperature

The materials used in the turbine section of the engine limit the maximum temperature at which a
gas turbine engine can operate35. The first metal the hot gases from the combustion section strike is
the turbine inlet. The temperature of the gas stream is carefully monitored to ensure that over
temperature does not occur. Compromises are made in turbine design to achieve the optimum
balance of power, efficiency, cost, engine life, and other factors. As an example, our sample engine
can operate at a higher turbine inlet temperature than previous models due to improved materials
and design. The higher temperature allows for increased power and improved efficiency while
adding higher cost for the direct cooling of the first turbine stage airfoils and other components.
Figure 39 shows the temperature, velocity and pressure variation across a gas turbine engine36.

Pressure Temperature Velocity

Figure 39 Sample engine Perssure, Velocity and Temperature variation

To increase the overall performance of the engine and reduce the specific fuel consumption, modern
gas turbines operate at very high temperatures. However, the high temperature level of the cycle is
limited by the melting point of the materials. Therefore, turbine blade cooling is necessary to reduce
the blade metal temperature to increasing the thermal capability of the engine. Due to the
contribution and development of turbine cooling systems, the turbine inlet temperature has doubled
over the last 60 years. The cooling flow has a significant effect on the efficiency of the gas turbine. It
has been found that the thermal efficiency of the cooled gas turbine is less than the uncooled gas
turbine for the same input conditions (Figure 40). The reason for this is that the temperature at
the inlet of turbine is decreased due to cooling and therefore, work produced by the turbine is slightly
decreased. It is also known that the power consumption of the cool inlet air is of considerable concern

35“Fundamentals of Gas Turbine Engines”, Cast-Safety.org.

36Shahrokh Sorkhkhah, “Gas Turbine Fundamentals”, Faculty of Karaj , Azad University Design Director of Iran
Gas Turbine Company.
 56

since it decreases the net power output of the gas turbine37-38.

With this in mind, during the design phase of gas turbine it is very important to optimize the cooling
flow if you are considering both the performance and reliability. Cooled Gas turbine design is quite
complicated and requires not only the right methodology, but also the most appropriate design tools,
powerful enough to predict the results accurately from thermodynamics cycle to aerothermal design,
ultimately generating the 3D blade.
Different cooling methods that are employed depend on the extent of the cooling required. The

Figure 40 Turbine Inlet Temperature27

cooling flow passes through several loops internally and is then ejected over the blade surface to mix
with the main flow. The mixing of the cooling flow with the main flow alters the aerodynamics of the
flow within the turbine cascade. The cooling flow that is injected into the main flow needs to be
optimized, not only in terms of thermodynamic parameters, but also in terms of the locations to
ensure the turbine vanes and blade surfaces are maintained well below the melting surface. The
spacing between the holes, both in horizontal and vertical direction, affects not only the surface
temperature of the blade, but also the strength of the blade and its overall life.
Performing a 3D analysis for optimizing the flow, spacing, and location of cooling flow is
computationally expensive. One has to resort to reduced order 1D flow and heat network simplifies
the task of not only arriving at the optimal configuration of cooling holes and location, but also in
aerothermal design of the gas turbine flow path and generation of the optimized 3D blades with
reduced overall design cycle time. Designers are faced with the challenge of simplifying the complex
3D cooled blade and accurately modelling it.

37 Amjed Ahmed Jasim AL-Luhaibi, Mohammad Tariq, “Thermal Analysis of Cooling Effect on Gas Turbine Blade”,
eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308.
38 Posted by: Abdul Nassar, “Optimizing the Cooling Holes in Gas Turbine Blades”, SoftInWay® Incorporated,

2016.
 57

3.12 Compressor and Turbine Characteristics

The compressor has several important parameters. There are the mass flow m͘ , the initial and final
temperatures T02 and T03, the initial and final pressures p02 and p03, the shaft speed ω (also denoted
as N), the rotor diameter D, and so on39. Let’s suppose we’ll be working with different kinds of
compressors. In this case, it would be nice if we could compare these parameters in some way. To do
that, dimensionless parameters are used. By using dimensional analysis, we can find that there are
four dimensionless parameter groups. They are

 RT02
m p 03 ωD
, , and η (15.7)
p 02D 2 p 02 RT02

These parameter
groups are known as
the mass flow
parameter group, the
pressure ratio, the
shaft speed parameter
group and the
efficiency. The
efficiency can be
either polytrophic or
isentropic. (These
two efficiencies
depend on each other
anyway). The relation
between the four
dimensionless
parameters can be
captured in a graph,
known as a
characteristic. An Figure 41 Characteristics Graph of a Compressor
example of a
characteristic is shown in Figure 41. When applying dimensional analysis to a turbine, the same
results will be found. However, this time the initial and final pressures are p04 and p05. The initial and
final temperatures are T04 and T05.

3.12.1 Stall 40
Let’s examine the air entering the rotor. Previously, we have assumed that this air has exactly the
right angle of incidence “i” to follow the curvature of the rotor blade. In reality, this is of course not
the case. In fact, if the angle of incidence is too far off, then the flow can’t follow the curvature of the
rotor blades. The other phenomena associated with Stall is if there are pockets of low axial velocity
covering one or two blade passages (see Figure 42). This is called stall and usually starts at one rotor
blade. However, this stall alters the flow properties of the air around it. Because of this, stall spreads
around the rotor. And it does this opposite to the direction of rotation of the rotor. This phenomenon
is called rotating stall. Often, only the tips of the rotor blades are subject to stall. This is because the

39 MIT OpenCourseWare.
40 See previous
 58

velocity is highest there. This is

called part span stall. If,
however, the stall spreads to
the root of the blade, then we
have full span stall. For high
compressor speeds ω, stall
usually occurs at the last stages.
On the other hand, for low
compressor speeds, stall occurs
at the first stages. Generally, the
possibility of stalling increases
if we get further to the left of
the characteristic. (See also
Figure 41).

3.12.1 Compressor Surge 41

Let’s suppose we control the
mass flow m˙ in a compressor, Figure 42 Illustration of the propagation of a stall cell in the
running at a constant speed ω. relative frame
The mass flow m˙ effects the
pressure ratio p03/p02. There can either be a positive or a negative relation between these two. Let’s
examine the case where there is a negative relation between these two parameters. Now let’s
suppose we increase the mass flow m˙. The pressure at the start of the compressor will thus decrease.
However, the pressure upstream in the compressor hasn’t noticed the change yet. There is thus a
higher pressure upstream than downstream. This can cause flow reversal in the compressor. Flow
reversal itself is already bad. However, it doesn’t
stop here. The flow reversal causes the pressure
upstream in the compressor to drop. This causes
the compressor to start running again. The
pressure upstream again increases. Also, the
mass flow increases. But this again causes the
pressure downstream to increase. Flow reversal
thus again occurs. A rather unwanted cycle has
thus been initiated. This cyclic phenomenon is
called surge. It causes the whole compressor to
start vibrating at a high frequency (see Figure
43). Surge is different from stall, in that it effects
the entire compressor. However, the occurrence
of stall can often lead to surge. There are several
ways to prevent surge. We can blow-off bleed air. Figure 43 Classical Compressor surge cycles
This happens halfway through the compressor.
This provides an escape for the air. Another option is to use variable stator vanes (VSVs). By adjusting
the stator vanes, we try to make sure that we always have the correct angle of incidence i. Finally, the
compressor can also be split up into parts. Every part will then have a different speed ω. Contrary to
compressors, turbines aren’t subject to surge. Flow simply never tends to move upstream in a turbine.

41 MIT OpenCourseWare.
 59

3.12.3 Choked Flow

Let’s examine the pressure ratio p04/p05 in a turbine. Increasing this pressure ratio usually leads to
an increase in mass flow m˙. However, after a certain point, the mass flow will not increase further.
This is called choked flow42. It occurs, when the flow reaches supersonic velocities. Choked flow can
also occur at the compressor. If we look at the right side of Figure 41, we see vertical lines. So, when
we change the pressure ratio p03/p02 at constant compressor speed ω, then the mass flow remains
constant.

42 See previous.
 60

4 Primary Research in Turbomachinery

4.1 Research Spectrum
The design of turbomachinery is a complex task due to the complicated flow phenomena and
interaction of multi-disciplines which involves aerodynamics, heat transfer43, structural dynamic,
control theory, materials and manufacture engineering etc. Among these design processes,
aerodynamic analysis is the keystone of the design, which decides the performance of
turbomachinery directly.
While, without numerical
technologies (CFD simulation
and numerical optimization), it
is impossible to meet the
increasing rigorous
requirements of design. Hence,
the research on numerical
aerodynamic analysis and
numerical design of
turbomachinery are
outstandingly important. The
aerodynamic performance of
turbomachinery mainly
depends on the complex
internal flows which usually
are strongly three dimensional,
viscous and unsteady. Figure
44 shows the impact of CFD on
SNECMA fan performance over
a 30 year period (Escuret,
1998). The flows in blade
passages may be laminar, Figure 44 Impact of CFD on SNECMA fan performance, over a
turbulent and transitional, and period of 30 years
may include wake flow, and
secondary flows etc. In addition, there also may exist other complicated flow phenomena, such as
transition, boundary layer separation, shock and shock-boundary layer interaction, the unsteady
interaction between the blade rows, the interactions between the blade row and end-wall, etc. In
1999, a NASA report of “Numerical Simulation of Complex Turbomachinery Flows”44 stated four typical
complex flows in turbomachinery which have been investigated extensively and may remain being
the key research problems of turbomachinery in next few decades. These flows are:

 Unsteady flow
 Turbulence
 Film cooling
 Three dimensional flow in turbine including tip leakage effect

43 Xiaodong Wang, “CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade
Design”, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy at the Vrije Universiteit
Brussel July 2010
44 X. D. Wang, Sh. Kang, “Solving stochastic burgers equation using polynomial chaos decomposition”, J. Eng.

Therm., 31(3):393-398, 2010. (In Chinese)

 61

4.2 Application of CFD in Turbomachinery

Accurate and robust turbomachinery off-design performance prediction remains elusive.
Representation of transonic compression systems, most notably fans, is especially difficult, due in
large part to highly three-dimensional blade design and the resulting flow field45. Complex shock
structure and subsequent interactions (with blade boundary layers, end-walls, etc.) provide
additional complications. Surely, turbomachinery design has benefited greatly from advancements
in computational power and efficiency. However, practical limitations in terms of computational
requirements, as well as limitations of turbulence and transition modeling, make it difficult to use
CFD to analyze complex off-design issues. Accurate and robust turbomachinery off-design
performance prediction remains elusive. Representation of transonic compression systems, most
notably fans, is especially difficult, due in large part to highly three-dimensional blade design and the
resulting flow field. Complex shock structure and subsequent interactions (with blade boundary
layers, end-walls, etc.) provide additional complications. Surely, turbomachinery design has
benefited greatly from advancements in computational power and efficiency. However, practical
limitations in terms of computational requirements, as well as limitations of turbulence and
transition modeling, make it difficult to use CFD to analyze complex off-design issues.
For example, CFD analyses have only recently been used to explore the complex flow fields resulting
from inlet distortion through modern multistage fans. The time-accurate investigation by Hah, et al,
1998, which included unsteady circumferential and radial variations of inlet total pressure, is one of
the most complete in the open literature. Even so, Hah’s calculation was limited to two blade passages
with boundary conditions just upstream and downstream of the first rotor of a two-stage fan. As
discussed below, improvements to traditional numerical approaches are needed. With the
development of computer technology, the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations are
developed rapidly since 1980s. In the same time, a couple of turbulence models are proposed
successively to complete RANS model. In most design processes, the steady RANS simulations give
satisfied prediction of overall performance. While in elaborate design processes, unsteady RANS
(URANS) simulations are needed since the flows in turbomachinery are highly unsteady. Respecting
to the approximation level of geometry, CFD simulation of turbomachinery developed from 2-D to 3-
D, from planar cascade to annular cascade, from single blade passage to whole ring, from single stage
to multi stages. The increase of model accuracy to the real geometry has significant effects on
turbomachinery design. Figure 44 Exhibits the impact of CFD on the performance improvement of
aircraft engine in SNECMA (France) over a period of almost 30 years46. The evolution, from the initial
use of simple 2-D potential flow models in the early 1970s to the current applications of full 3D
Navier-Stokes code, has led to overall gain in efficiency close to 10 points47.

4.3 Quasi 3D flow (Q3D)

The definition Fully 3D methods replace the stream surface calculation of blade-to-blade (S1) and
hub-to-tip (S2) stream surface was introduced by Wu48 , and this viewpoint dominated the subject
until the early 1980s when fully three dimensional (3D) methods first became available. Wu’s static

45 Boyer, K., M., “An Improved Streamline Curvature Approach for Off-Design Analysis of Transonic Compression
Systems “, PhD. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001.
46 J. F. Escuret, D. Nicoud, and Ph. Veysseyre,”Recent advances in compressors aerodynamic design and analysis”,

AVT TP/1, RTO/NATO, 1998.

47 Xiaodong Wang, “CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade

Design”, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy at the Vrije universiteit
Brussel July 2010.
48 Wu, C. H. “A general through flow theory of fluid flow”, NACA paper TN2302, 1951.
 62

pressure S1/S2 approach was far ahead

of his time in that he saw flow velocity it
as a method of solution for fully 3D flow.
Wu’s ideas were considerably simplified
by circumferential distance assuming
that the S1 stream surfaces were surfaces
of revolution (i.e. untwisted) while the S2
stream surfaces were reduced to a single
mean stream surface that could be
treated as an axisymmetric flow (Figure
45). The axisymmetric hub-to-tip (S2)
calculation is often called the ‘Through
flow calculation’ and has become the
backbone of turbomachinery design,
while the ‘blade-to-blade’ (S1) calculation
remains the basis for defining the
detailed blade shape. Fully 3D methods
replace the stream surface calculation of Figure 45 Illustration of S1 and S2 surfaces
blade-to-blade (S1) and hub-to-tip (S2)
stream surface calations by a single calculation for the whole blade row. This removes the modelling
assumptions of the quasi 3-D (Q3D) approach but requires far greater computer power and so was
not usable as a design tool until the late 1980s. For similar reasons, early methods had to use coarser
grids that introduced larger numerical errors than in the Q3D approach. Radial equilibrium and
through-flow methods determine the meridional variations in the velocity field, but they assume that
the turbomachinery flow field is axisymmetric. Cascade analysis and blade-to-blade computational
methods consider the flow variations across the blade passages, but they neglect span wise variations
and radial flows. These two views of a turbomachine are very useful and both are essential in the
design process, but in reality the flow field in all axial turbomachinery, to some degree, varies in the
axial, radial, and tangential directions.

4.3.1 Stream Surface of Second Kind - Through flow (S2)

Through flow calculations can be used in design (or inverse) mode to determine blade inlet and exit
angles and velocity variation from a specified span-wise work distribution, or in analysis (or direct)
mode when blade angles are specified and flow angles, work, and velocity distributions are predicted.
Through flow calculation programs are probably the most important tool of the turbine aerodynamic
designer. At the initial design stage a one-dimensional mean line calculation might be used to obtain
estimates of blade height and so to lay out a first approximation to the annulus line. Such mean line
calculations usually include estimates of blade loss and deviation, so that predictions of turbine
performance can be obtained, but these must be based only on the blade geometry mid-height so
high accuracy cannot be expected. Although span wise variations in flow are small for very high
radius ratio turbines these variations become significant at radius ratios below about 0.9. It is well
known that most turbine blades are remarkably tolerant to off-design incidences (compared to
compressor blades), but even so optimum performance, particularly at off-design conditions, cannot
be expected unless the blades are matched to the span wise variation in flow. The main objective of
a through flow calculation is, therefore, to provide a prediction of this span wise variation so that
suitable blade profiles can be selected to cope with the variations in inlet angle, turning, Mach
number, etc. The main problem encountered when developing through flow calculations for turbines,
as opposed to compressors, arises from the need to be able to calculate the flow through stages with
high-pressure ratio and in particular with regions of transonic relative flow. The latter is much more
easily handled by Streamline Curvature methods (SCM) than by stream function methods although
 63

severe difficulties arise even for the former type of method. Time-marching methods are much better
suited to calculating transonic flow but are not yet highly developed further use in through flow
calculations. Problems with calculating transonic flow are currently much more severe in steam
turbines than in gas turbines. The traditional use of streamline curvature method (SCM) approaches,
as most often discussed in the literature during the preliminary design phase, are discussed in detail
in49. The stream surface represented by

s(r, ψ, z)  0 (16.1)
As depicted in Figure 46. The through-flow solver provides a preliminary blade shape, continually
refined through solutions from higher-order and secondary flow models. One way to calculate a 3-D
flow field is to solve two sets of equations, one dealing with axis-symmetric flow in the meridional
plane, commonly referred to as the “S2” surface, and the other with blade-to-blade flow on a stream

Figure 46 Streamline Curvature method

surface of revolution, the “S1” plane (see Figure 45). The traditional formulation for the governing
momentum equation(s) is a first-order velocity gradient representation, one in the radial and one in
the tangential direction approach for off-design analysis along an axis-symmetric S2 surface. It is
generally accepted that any streamline curvature solution technique will yield satisfactory flow
solutions as long as the deviation, losses, and blockages are accurately predicted50.

4.3.3 Stream Surface of First Kind (Blade 2 Blade – S1)

These methods calculate the flow on a blade-to-blade (S1) stream surface given the stream surface
shape with the objective with an associated stream surface thickness and of designing the detailed
blade profile. The stream surface is best thought of as a stream tube radius which are obtained from
the through flow calculation. Accurate specification of the radius and thickness variation is essential
as they can have a dominant effect on the blade surface pressure distribution. As with through flow
methods the calculation may be in either direct (or analysis) mode, when the blade shape is

49 Chung-Hua Wu, “A General Theory of Three Dimensional Flow in Subsonic and Supersonic Turbomachines
of Axial-Radial- and Mixed Flow Types”, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Technical Note 260,
1952.
50 Boyer, K., M., “An Improved Streamline Curvature Approach for Off-Design Analysis of Transonic Compression

Systems “, PhD. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001.
 64

prescribed and its surface pressure distribution calculated, or in inverse mode, where the required
blade surface pressure distribution is prescribed and a blade shape is sought. Many different
numerical methods have been developed for this task. Initially streamline curvature (to be discussed
later) and stream function methods were popular, but both have difficulty coping be made to calculate
transonic flows with weak shock with transonic flow and they have now largely been abandoned.
Velocity potential methods can waves but they have seen limited use in turbomachinery. The
numerical methods described above are inviscid and need to be coupled to a boundary layer
calculation if they are to be used to predict blade loss. For com pressor blades the boundary layer
blockage must be included in the inviscid calculation as it significantly affects the blade surface
pressure distribution51. For most turbine blades the boundary layer is so thin that it may be
calculated separately after obtaining the surface pressure distribution from an inviscid calculation. A
recent alternative (N–S) equations which predict the boundary native to coupled inviscid/boundary
layer calculations is the direct solution of the Navier– layer growth as part of the main calculation.
These demand a much finer grid near to the blade surfaces than do inviscid calculations and so are
considerably more ‘expensive’. Nevertheless the N–S equations for blade to-blade flow are now
routinely solved as part of the design process, requiring only a few minutes CPU time on a modern
workstation. There remains controversy about the best turbulence and transition models to use and
about how many mesh points are necessary within the boundary layer.
A variety of blade–to-blade solvers are currently available in the design system. They range from
potential and streamline curvature method up to fully viscous, time marching solvers. The main use
of the blade-to-blade codes is to ensure that the vector diagrams set by thorough Flow are achievable
and within the bounds of blade thickness, loading and efficiencies. For examples, in turbine design
the suction surface diffusion is taken as a primary indicator as to the condition of the boundary layer.
The blade-to-blade code solves for the suction surface velocity ratio, or diffusion factor, and the
geometry is adjusted accordingly. Most of these codes are very similar to those available in other
design systems and have also been described elsewhere. However, three codes (TAYLOR, AEGIS and
NOVAKED2D) are different and worth mentioning52.

4.3.2 Theory of Radial Equilibrium in Through Flow (Cr = 0)

Consider a small element of fluid of mass dm shown in Figure 47, of unit depth and subtending
an angle dθ at the axis, rotating about the axis with tangential velocity, cθ, at radius r. The element is
in radial equilibrium so that the pressure forces balance the centrifugal forces (cr = 0):

 1  dmc θ2
p  dpr  dr  dθ  p r dθ   p  dp  dr dθ  (16.2)
 2  r

Writing dm = ρ r dϴ dr and ignoring terms of 2nd order we obtain:

1 dp cθ2
 (16.3)
ρ dr r
For an incompressible fluid and using thermodynamic relations the Radial Equilibrium Equation can
be written as:

51 Calvert, W. J. and Ginder, R. B., “Quasi-3D calculation system for the flow within transonic compressor blade
rows”, ASME paper 85-GT-22, 1985.
52 Ian K. Jennions, “Elements of a Modern Turbomachinery Design System”, GE Aircraft Engines, One Neumann

Way, MD X409, Cincinnati, OH 45215-6301,United States.

 65

(16.4)
dh 0 ds dc
 T  cx x  θ
c d
rcθ  or
dr dr dr r dr
dc
cx x  θ
c d
rcθ   0
dr r dr
1 dp 0 1 dp dc dc
  c x x  cθ θ or
ρ dr ρ dr dr dr
1 dp 0 dc
 cx x  θ
c d
rcθ 
ρ dr dr r dr

Equation (2.4) clearly states that equal work is delivered

at all radii and the total pressure losses across a row are
uniform with radius. It may be applied to two sorts of
problem: the design (or indirect) problem, in which the Figure 47 Radial Equilibrium
tangential velocity distribution is specified and the axial
velocity variation is found, or the direct problem, in which the swirl angle distribution is specified,
the axial and tangential velocities being determined.

4.4 Governing Equation of Rotating Frame of Reference

Accounting for the particular flow situation in turbomachinery, it is necessary to be able to describe
the flow behavior relatively to a rotating frame of reference that is attached to the rotor. Without loss
of generality, it is assumed that the moving part of turbomachinery is rotating steadily with angular
velocity ω around the machine axis along which a coordinate z is aligned. Define u as absolute
velocity, w is relative velocity, and v is as rotating system or blade ω⨯r, we have,

u
  w
  v
  w  ωr (16.5)
Absolute Relative Coordinate

Introducing this into the mass conversation and after some manipulation we obtain,

rρ
   ρw   0 (16.6)
t
Comparing with non-inertia frame of reference, it seems to keep the same expression where
subscript r refers to the rotating frame of reference. Without causing confusion, the subscript r can
be omitted in general. The total derivative (acceleration) is also can be redefined as

Du w v
   w.w   2w ω ω v (16.7)
Dt t t Coriiolis Centrifuga
l

The first item on right-hand side expresses the local acceleration of the velocity field within the
rotating frame of reference. The second term and third item denote the angular velocity acceleration
and the convective term within the rotating frame of reference, respectively. While, the fourth item
and last item are the Coriolis acceleration and the Centrifugal acceleration, respectively, which are
fictitious forces produced as a result of transformation from stationary frame to rotating frame of
 66

reference. Figure 48 shows the directions of the velocity and the acceleration, and relationship
between the absolute velocity, relative velocity and rotation (Schobeiri, 2005). Substituting the
acceleration in Eq. 16.7 distinctly, for an incompressible flow equations of motion and energy, in
rotating frame of reference can be obtained:

Figure 48 Coriolis and Centripetal forces created by the Rotating Frame of Reference

 ( w )  ( v)
Momentum:   w.(w )  ω  v  2ω  w  μw  p  F (16.7)
t t
  w
2
v
2

D ρ h   
  2 2   p

Energy :    kT     τ  w   w F  q H
Dt t
Which can written in scalar form of (r, ϴ, and z) with the aid of cylindrical coordinates. It should be
noted that WF is the work of body forces in rotating frame of reference, F is the body force, while the
subscript r is omitted here. The detailed derivation process of governing equations in rotating frame
of reference can be found in Schobeiri53. Alternatively, we can choose more compact form of integral
representation with arbitrary control volume V and differential surface area dA in a relative frame of
reference rotating steadily with angular velocity ω:

V d t dV   F  G dA  VS dV where W  ρ , ρu , ρE and

dW
v  u  rω
T
(16.8)

F  [ρv, ρu  v  p I, ρEv  pu]T G  [0 , τ , τ  v  q]T S  [0 , ρω  u , 0]T

Here F, G and S are respectively, the inviscid flux, viscous flux, and source vectors, and τ, I are stress
and identity tensors respectively. In addition, ρ, u, E, and p are the density, absolute velocity, total

53 M. T. Schobeiri, “Turbomachinery: Flow Physics and Dynamic Performance”, Springer, Berlin, 2005.
 67

enthalpy, and pressure, respectively and v is the relative velocity. Extended details in available in54.

4.5 Efficiency effects in Turbomachinery55

In the turbomachinery context a large number of efficiencies are defined such as thermodynamic or
mechanical efficiency. In the sections below the focus is put on the thermodynamic efficiencies. For
a given change of state of a fluid the efficiency is defined as the ratio between actual change in energy
to ideal change in energy in case of expansion or the inverse in case of compression,

actual change in energy

Expansion : η  (16.9)
ideal change in energy
ideal change in energy
Compression : η 
actual change in energy

4.5.1 Isentropic Efficiency

Depending on which process is taken as ideal process efficiencies are referred to as isentropic or
polytrophic efficiencies. In case of an isentropic efficiency the ideal process is represented by an
isentropic change of state from start to end pressure, i.e. the same pressures as for the real process.
This is illustrated in Figure 50 for an expansion process by means of an enthalpy-entropy diagram
(h-s diagram). In the above depicted process the changes in total energy are referred to, which is
expressed by indexing the efficiency by “tt”, i.e. “total-to-total”. With the aid of h0 = h + (1/2) c2 where
c is the flow velocity, the total-to-total isentropic efficiency (expansion and compression) is thus given
by
actual change in energy Δh 0 h 01  h 02
For Expansion : η tt    (16.10)
ideal change in energy Δh os h 01  h 02s
ideal change in energy Δh 0s h 02s  h 01
For Compression : η tt   
actual change in energy Δh 0 h 02  h 01

Figure 50 Expansion process Figure 49 Compression process

54“Simulation of unsteady turbomachinery flows using an implicitly coupled onlinear harmonic balance method”,
Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2011, GT2011.
55 Damian Vogt,” Turbomachinery Lecture Notes”, 2007.
 68

Note: For adiabatic real processes the entropy must always increase during the change of state. Due
to this increase in entropy the real change in energy is smaller than the ideal during expansion. In
other words, you get out less energy from the real process than you could have from an ideal one For
the compression process the increase in entropy signifies that you need to put in more energy to
compress a fluid than you would have in an ideal process Therefore the efficiency is always smaller
or equal to unity The only way to reduce entropy would be to cool a process. However in such case
we do no longer look into adiabatic processes. In certain cases the kinetic energy that is contained in
the fluid (i.e. the amount of energy that is due to the motion) cannot be used at the end of a process.
An example for such a process is the last stage of an energy producing turbine where the kinetic
energy in the exhaust gases is not contributing to the total energy produced. In such case a so-called
total-to-static isentropic efficiency is used, identified by indexing the efficiency by “ts”, i.e. “total-to-
static”. Note that it is necessary to include total and static states in this case. The total-to-total
isentropic efficiency (expansion) is thus given by:

1
actual change in energy h 01  h 02 Δh 0 1 c 22 
ηts        (16.11)
h 01h 2s c2 η 2h 0 
Δh 0s  2  tt
ideal change in energy
2

This relation shows that for values of c2 > 0 the total-to-static efficiency is always smaller than the
total-to-total efficiency. For further detailed aspects of efficiency in turbomachines the readers
should consult with 56-57.

56 S.L. Dixon, B.Eng., PH.D., “Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery”, Senior Fellow at the
University of Liverpool, UK.
57 Damian Vogt, “Efficiencies”, Turbomachinery Lecture Notes, 2007.
 69

5 Complex flow in Turbomachinery

5.1 Key Features of Transonic Fan (Turbine) Field

These features include highly 3-D flow fields, complex shock systems, and strong interactions
between the shock, boundary layer, and secondary flows (like the tip-leakage vortex). The goal is to
provide a basic understanding so that proper assessment of the chosen numerical approach can be
performed. As suggested by Figure 51, the flow fields of fan designs are complex and highly three-
dimensional, and almost always unsteady. The flow-path hub contour shown in Figure 51 suggests

Figure 51 Complex Flow phenomena compressors

significant radial velocity components, especially at the fan entrance and strong interactions between
the shock, boundary layer, and secondary flows (like the tip-leakage vortex). Secondary flows and
their interactions with other phenomena are another major source of flow complexity. Indeed,
Denton and Dawes, 1999, suggest the prediction of blade surface and end-wall corner separations to
be one of the most challenging tasks of 3-D, viscous solvers, largely due to the obvious dependence
on turbulence model. Additionally, the use of blade twist, sweep (viewed from the meridional plane)
and lean (observed looking axially through the machine) contributes to the 3-D flow effects.
A significant consideration in the design of transonic fan blades is the control of shock location and
strength to minimize aerodynamic losses without limiting flow. Custom-tailored airfoil shapes are
required to “minimize shock losses and to provide desired radial flow components. Figure 52 shows
features of the tip section geometry typical of a transonic fan. The shape of the suction surface is key
as it:
 70

 Influences the Mach number just ahead of the leading edge passage shock, and
 Sets the maximum flow rate.

As noted by Wisler, 1987, the cascade passage area distribution is chosen to provide larger-than-
critical area ratios; thus, maximum flow is determined by the first captured Mach wave, location
determined by the forward suction surface (induction surface). This maximum flow condition is often
referred to as leading edge choke, or in cascade parlance, “unique incidence” (note that “unique”
incidence is really a misnomer; here, “choking” incidence will be used). The flow induction surface
and fan operating condition (incoming relative Mach number at the airfoil leading edge) set the
average Mach number just ahead of the leading edge passage shock. A “traditional” convex suction
surface results in a series of Prandtl-Meyer expansion waves as the flow accelerates around the
leading edge. Increasing the average suction surface angle (relative to the incoming flow) ahead of
the shock reduces the average Mach number, and presumably reduces the shock losses. Common for
modern transonic fan tip sections is a concave induction surface, the so-called “pre-compression”
airfoil. As indicated in previous chapter, there are four major area of research going on in
turbomachinery, namely: Unsteady Flow, Film cooling, Turbulence and 3-D flow. We start with the
unsteadiness first.

Figure 52 Fan Tip section geometry

5.2 Sources of Unsteadiness in Turbomachinery

Turbomachinery flows are among the most complex flows encountered in fluid dynamic practice
(Lakshminarayana,)58. The internal flows within a blade passage of turbomachinery are strongly
three dimensional, viscous flows which may include laminar flow, turbulent flow and transitional
flow. Moreover, they are fully unsteady due to the interactions between blade rows in a stage or
multistage machine. There also exist secondary flows including the flows due to passage vortices in

58Lakshminarayana, B. “An assessment of computational fluid dynamic techniques in the analysis and design of
turbomachinery”, the 1990 freeman scholar lecture, J. Fluids Engineering Vol. 113(No. 3): 315-352, 1991.
 71

the end-wall range, radial flow near blade surfaces, and tip leakage flow and leakage vortex, shock
and shock boundary layer interaction in high speed conditions, wakes flows, even some specific
flows, for instance film cooling flows nearby the cooling holes. The complexity is mainly reflected in
the following areas:

1. Various forms of secondary flow caused by viscosity and complex geometry, which is
dominated by vortex flows: passage, leakage, corner, trailing, horseshoe and scraping
vortices, etc. These form three- dimensional and rotational nature of the flow.

2. Inherent unsteadiness (see below) due to the relative motion of rotor and stator blade
rows in a multi stage environment.

3. The flow pattern in the near-wall region includes: laminar, transitional and turbulent
flows; besides separated flows are often exist.

4. The flow may be incompressible, subsonic, transonic or supersonic; some

turbomachinery flows include all these flow regimes.

5. Due to the limitation of flow space, there are strong interactions of the solid wall surfaces
with above complicated phenomena. Besides, in gas turbines, the use of cooling gas makes
the flow more complex.

A good understanding of the unsteady flow in turbomachinery is necessary for advanced design as it
shown in Figure 53 with broad spectrum. According to Greitzer59, the unsteady flow in
turbomachinery can be classified into two groups: inherent unsteadiness and conditional
unsteadiness. The conditional unsteadiness is mainly caused by the sudden changes of the working
condition. For example when turbomachinery is working on the start stage, acceleration stage or off-
design condition, the fluctuation of working condition might lead to the unsteady rotating stall, surge,
flutter and flow distortion of turbomachines. Sometimes, the distortion of inlet flow or the asymmetric
outlet condition of vector nozzle also might lead to the unsteadiness. The inherent unsteadiness is
mainly due to the relative motion and interaction between rotor and stator and, generally speaking,
it could be divided as:

1. Interaction of potential flows in adjacent blade rows including Transient Fan.

2. Interaction between the wake flow and blade rows downstream.

3. Interaction between the secondary flows and blade rows.

4. Interaction wake-boundary layer.

5. Un-shrouded tip leakage flow interaction.

6. Film Cooling effects.

59 E. M. Greitzer, “Thermoaldynamics and fluid mechanics of turbomachinery”, AS1/E 9713, NATO, 1985.
 72

Figure 53 Flow structures with 5 to 6 orders of magnitudes variations in length and time scales
(LaGraff et al., 2006)

5.3 Interaction of Potential flows in adjacent blade rows

The first part comes from the changing of the relative position of rotor to stator which results in the
periodic fluctuation of the pressure or shocks. This fluctuation is propagated both upstream and
downstream as disturbance waves.

5.3.1 Interactions in Transonic Fan

The shock structure associated with transonic fans is complicated by the 3-D nature of the flow field
and operating range over which the fan must operate60. Figure 54 (A-B-C) illustrates some
typical features – leading edge oblique shock, aft passage normal shock below peak efficiency, and a
near-normal, detached bow shock near peak efficiency (and higher) loading conditions. Note that
throughout this report, loading refers to flow turning. For high tip-speed fans (inlet relative Mach
numbers greater than 1.4), the trend seems to be to design for an oblique leading edge shock through
higher loading conditions (near and at peak efficiency). This trend seems reasonable given the
continued need to reduce losses. Other flow field considerations in transonic fans include the
interrelationship between the rotor tip-clearance vortex structure and passage shock, high Mach
number stator flow, most notably in the hub region, and strong shock – boundary layer interaction.

60 Boyer, K., M., “An Improved Streamline Curvature Approach for Off-Design Analysis of Transonic Compression
Systems “, PhD. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001.
 73

A - Mach
number
contours

B - Install C - Chocking D - Near Pick Effeciency

Figure 54 Shock Structure in Transonic Fan

5.4 Interaction between Wake Flow and Blade Rows

The second part, unsteady wake, is a quite common flow phenomenon, not only in turbomachinery.
Due to the thickness of the trailing edge of blade, the flows after the blade generate a high dissipation
region, called wake, which is similar to the flow passed a circular cylinder where a famous wake flow
Von Karman Vortex Street can be observed. When a viscous flow passes a cylinder or an airfoil, a
regular vortex shedding can be found behind the cylinder, which results in a zone with fully turbulent
flow and high dissipation. The pressure on the surface of cylinder will fluctuate with the vortex
shedding. A similar flow phenomenon exists in the bypass flow after a blade. Figure 55 (Wang and
He, 2001), shows the results of unsteady simulation performed by Wang and He, in which the
 74

instantaneous pressure contour patterns

of wake for turbulent flow through
unsteady simulations are presented
clearly. The wake flow in multi-stage
turbomachinery is more complicated than
vortex shedding after circle cylinder since
it will be distorted and deformed by the
blade when flows through the blade row
downstream as shown clearly in Figure
56 by (Smith, 1966; Stieger & Hodson,
2005). This unsteady transport process
could last to the next few blade rows and
mix with new wake flows to forming
highly non-uniform unsteady flow in blade
passage.

5.5 Interaction between

Figure 55 Pressure contour of wake flow
Secondary Flows and Blade Rows
The third part is similar to the second one, in which the second flows are also sheared by the blade
rows downstream during the transport process. The distortion and mixing of these vortices will
enhance the non-uniformity of the flow. Schlienger et al. investigated the interaction between
secondary flows and blade rows through experiments on a low speed turbine with two stages. It is

Figure 56 Unsteady wakes convecting in blade passage

found that the characteristic of the unsteady flow field at the rotor hub exit is primarily a result of
the interaction between the rotor indigenous passage vortex and the remnants of the secondary flow
 75

structures that are shed from the first stator blade row. Moreover, there exist interactions among
secondary flows, wake and blade rows, which results in more complicated unsteady flow.
Matsunuma61 investigated this interaction effect on a low speed turbine of single stage, with the
instantaneous absolute velocity contour pattern at the nozzle exit shown in Figure 57 (Matsunuma,
2006). The experimental results suggest that the secondary vortices are periodically and three-
dimensionally distorted at the rotor inlet. A curious tangential high turbulence intensity region
spread at the tip side is observed at the front of the rotor, which is because of the axial stretch of the
nozzle wake due to the effects of the nozzle passage vortex and rotor potential flow field.

Figure 57 Instantaneous absolute velocity contour pattern at nozzle exit

5.6 Wake-Boundary Layer Interaction

In low-pressure turbines, the wakes from upstream blade rows provide the dominant source of
unsteadiness. Under low Reynolds number conditions, the boundary-layer transition and separation
play important roles in determining engine performance. An in-depth understanding of blade
boundary layer spatial-temporal evolution is crucial for the effective management and control of
boundary layer transition or separation, especially the open separation, which is a key technology
for the design of low-pressure turbines with low Reynolds number. Thus it is very important to
research the wake-boundary layer interaction. In low-pressure turbines with low Reynolds number,
boundary layer separation may occur as the blade load increases. Rational use of the upstream

61T.Matsunuma, “Unsteady flow field of an axial-flow turbine rotor at a low Reynolds number”, ASME-GT06,
number 90013, Spain, 2006.
 76

periodic wakes can effectively inhibit the separation by inducing boundary layer transition before
laminar separation can occur, so as to control loss generation.
A comprehensive and in-depth research of wake boundary layer interactions in low-pressure
turbines is given by Hodson & Howell (2005). They summarized the processes of wake-induced
boundary-layer transition and loss generation in low-pressure turbines. The periodic wake-
boundary layer interaction process is as follows:

 When the wake passes, the wake-induced turbulent spots form within attached flows in front of
the separation point, the turbulent spots continue to grow and enter into the separation zone,
and consequently inhibit the formation of separation bubble. The calmed region trails behind
the turbulent spots. It is a laminar-like region, but it has a very full velocity profile. The flow of
the calmed region is unreceptive to disturbances. Consequently, it remains laminar for much
longer than the surrounding fluid and can resist transition and separation. It is the combination
of the calming effect and the more robust velocity profile within the calmed region that makes
this aspect of the flow so important. After the interaction of the wake, boundary layer separation
occurs in the interval between the two wakes.

5.7 Unshrouded Tip Leakage Flow Interaction

The tip leakage flow is important in most turbomachinery, where a tip clearance with a height of
about 1-2% blade span exists between the stationary end wall and the rotating blades. An
unshrouded tip design is widely employed for a low stress and/or a better cooling in modern high-
pressure turbines. Pictorial representation of the tip leakage flow in unshrouded blades is given in
Figure 58. The leakage flow over unshrouded blades occurs as a result of the pressure difference
between the pressure and suction surfaces
and is dominated by the vortex shed near the
blade tip. The tip leakage flow has significant
effects on turbomachinery in loss production,
aerodynamic efficiency, turbulence
generation, heat protection, vibration and
noise. As a consequence of the viscous effects,
significant losses are generated by the tip
leakage flow in regions inside and outside the
tip gap. And the entropy creation is primarily
due to the mixing processes that take place
between the leakage flow and the mainstream
flow. Denton (1993) gave a simple prediction Figure 58 Flow over an unshrouded tip gap
model for the tip leakage loss of unshrouded
blades. So far, there are many researches about the leakage flow unsteady interactions in compressor.
For example, Sirakov & Tan (2003) investigated the effect of upstream unsteady wakes on
compressor rotor tip leakage flow. It was found that strong interaction between upstream wake and
rotor tip leakage vortex could lead to a performance benefit in the rotor tip region during the whole
operability range of interest. The experimental result of Mailach et al. (2008) revealed a strong
periodical interaction of the incoming stator wakes and the compressor rotor blade tip clearance
vortices. As a result of the wake influence, the tip clearance vortices are separated into different
segments with higher and lower velocities and flow turning or subsequent counter-rotating vortex
pairs. The rotor performance in the tip region periodically varies in time. Compared with in
compressor, very little published literature is available on the unsteady interactions between leakage
flows and adjacent blade rows in turbine. Behr et al. (2006) indicated that the pressure field of the
 77

second stator has an influence on the development of the tip leakage vortex of the rotor. The vortex
shows variation in size and relative position when it stretches around the stator leading edge.

5.8 Film Cooling Effects

According to the theory of Carnot cycle, increasing the inlet temperature of gas turbine is an effective
way to increase the efficiency and capacity of a turbine. In order to enhance the performance of jet
engine and gas turbine, the temperature of the gas flowing into a turbine blade passage has been
raised continually in recent years, which might result in the damage of blades, especially the leading
edge (LE) which is exposed to the hot gas directly. Although new high temperature materials have
been investigated and used constantly, it is obvious that they couldn’t follow the rising pace of the
inlet temperature.
Four types of cooling methods, such as
Convection cooling, Impingement cooling,
Film cooling and Effusion cooling, and their
hybrid methods are used in practical
engineering. Usually, the effusion cooling can
provides the best cooling among these four
methods, while it is seldom used because it will
weaken the structure strength of blades
greatly. Convection cooling and impingement
cooling are usually used in conditions where
the temperature is lower than 1600˚K since
they cannot provide protection to the surface of
blades. Film cooling is the only way can be used
in whole range of the temperature is higher
than 1600˚K. Figure 59 (Owen, 2009),
illustrates a typical high-pressure gas turbine
stage showing the rim seal and the wheel-space Figure 59 Typical high-pressure turbine stage
between the stator and the rotating turbine showing rim seal and wheel-space
disc. It is curved downstream under the press
and friction of hot main flow colored in pink in the figure, then forms a thin cooling film on the surface
which separates the blade surface from hot gas. Meanwhile, it takes the sporadic flames and radiant
heat to downstream. Hence, it can protect the blade surface effectively. In the next section we divert
our attention to the Secondary Flow which is another cause of unsteadiness and complication in
Turbomachinery.

5.9 General Review on Secondary Flows

The important 3D viscous flow phenomena within a blade passage of turbomachinery are boundary
layers and their separations, tip clearance flows and wakes, which are most responsible of energy
losses existing in blade passage. Hence, the losses in an axial compressor or turbine can be mainly
classified as62:

 Profile losses due to blade boundary layers and their separations and wake mixing; in high
speed condition, shock/boundary layer interaction may exist.
 End-wall boundary layer losses, including secondary flow losses and tip clearance losses.
 Mixing losses due to the mixing of various secondary flows, such as the passage vortex and

62 Sh. Kang, “Investigation on the Three Dimensional within a Compressor Cascade with and without Tip
Clearance”, PhD thesis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, September 1993.
 78

tip leakage vortex.

Among all these losses, the most complex one is the secondary flow loss. That is why considerable
research on the secondary flow phenomena has been done in last decades. Secondary flow is defined
as the difference between the real flow and a primary flow, which is related to the development of
boundary layer on end-wall and blade surface, the evolution of vortices in passage, and detached flows
or simply, the secondary flow in a blade row can be defined as any flow, which is not in the direction of
the primary or stream wise flow63. Based on topology analysis and experiments, as well as the
numerical simulations in recent decades, a couple of secondary flow models are proposed which are
presented below.

5.9.1 Classical View

The so-called classical secondary flow model, as illuminated in Error! Reference source not found.
(a-b), is proposed by Hawthorne64 for the first time according to the theory of inviscid flow in 1955.
This model presents the components of vorticity in the flow direction when a flow with inlet vorticity
is deflected through a cascade. The main vortex, so-called passage vortex, represents the
distribution of secondary circulation, which occurs due to the distortion of the vortex filaments of
the inlet boundary layer passing with the flow through a curved surface. The vortex sheet at the
trailing edge is composed of the trailing filament vortices and the trailing shed vorticity whose sense
of rotation is opposite to that of the passage vortex. The classical vortex model attributes the
secondary flow losses to the generation and evolution of vortex passage. However, this model is
relatively simple, in which the interaction between the inlet boundary layer and blade force was not
considered. Moreover, the vortex system within passage is only single passage vortex in half of the
passage height range with other vortices absences. The secondary flow losses can be visualized by
absence/presence of secondary vortex on Figure 60 (b).

5.9.2 Modern View

When a shear flow along the solid wall approaches a blade standing on the wall, the shear flow will
be separated from the wall and roll up into a vortex in front of the blade leading edge. This vortex is
called horseshoe vortex due to its particular shape. This well-known phenomenon is firstly observed
in the flow around cylinders. The oil flow visualizations by Fritsche65 show the evidence of the
horseshoe vortex in accelerating cascades. In 1966, Klein presents a finer cascade vortex model with
both the passage and horseshoe vortices as depicted in Error! Reference source not found.(a). While,
the pioneering work for detailed analysis of secondary flow patterns in turbine cascades in general
is done in 1977 by Langston et al 66 who proposed the well-known modern vortex model in cascade.
Three vortices are presented in this model, as depicted in Error! Reference source not found.(b).
Langston explains the interaction between the horseshoe vortex and the passage vortex, and the
development of the passage vortex. The big differences between Langston’s model and Klein’s model
exist in twofold67: by Langston et al68 who proposed the well-known modern vortex model in cascade.

63 Lei Qi and Zhengping Zou, “Unsteady Flows in Turbines”, Beihang University China.
64 W. R. Hawthorne,” Rotational flow through cascades part 1: the components of vorticity.” Journal of Mechanics
and Applied Mathematics, 8(3):266–279, 1955.
65 A. Fritsche. Str¨omungsvorg¨ange in schaufelgittern. Technische Rundschau Sulzer, 37(3), 1955.
66 L. S. Langston, “Three-dimensional flow within a turbine blade passage”, Journal of Engineering for Power,

99(1):21–28, 1977.
67 C. H. Sieverding, “Recent progress in the understanding of basic aspects of secondary flows in turbine blade

passages”, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 107(2):248–257, 1985.
68 L. S. Langston, “Three-dimensional flow within a turbine blade passage”, Journal of Engineering for Power,

99(1):21–28, 1977.
 79

Three vortices are presented in this model, as depicted in Error! Reference source not found.(b).
Langston explains the interaction between the horseshoe vortex
and the passage vortex, and the development of the passage vortex. The big differences between
Langston’s model and Klein’s model exist in twofold69:

(a) Classical View

(Hawthorne, 1955)

(b) Secoundary Losses in

presence of secoundary
vortex flow in classical
view

Figure 60 Classical Secondary Flow Model

69C. H. Sieverding, “Recent progress in the understanding of basic aspects of secondary flows in turbine blade
passages”, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 107(2):248–257, 1985.
 80

 Langston clearly
postulates that
the pressure side
leg of the leading
edge horseshoe
vortex, which has
the same sense of
rotation as the
passage vortex,
merges with and
becomes part of
the passage
vortex
 Langston clarifies
that the suction
side leg of the (a) Kline 1966
leading edge
horseshoe vortex
which rotates in
the opposite
sense to the
passage vortex,
continuing in the
suction side end-
wall corner, while
the presentation
of Klein suggests
that this vortex is
gradually
dissipated in
contact with the
(b) Langston, 1977
passage vortex.
Figure 61 Modern Secondary Flow Model
The first point from
Langston is supported by the light sheet experiment by Marchal and Sieverding70 in 1977. While, the
results of this experiment also show the counter-rotating vortex, called counter vortex by Langston,
in the trailing edge plane on the mid span side of the passage vortex rather than in the corner, which
is not consistent with the second point from Langston.

5.9.3 Latest View

In 1987, Sharma and Butler71 proposed a secondary flow pattern which is slightly different to that
from Langston. This pattern, shown in Error! Reference source not found. (a), demonstrates that the
suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex wraps itself around the passage vortex instead of adhering

70P. Marchal and C. H. Sieerding, “Secondary flows within turbomachinery blading’s”, CP 214, AGARD, 1977.
71O. P. Sharma and T. L. Butler, “Prediction of the end wall losses and secondary flows in axial flow turbine
cascade. Journal of Turbomachinery”, 109:229–236, 1987.
 81

to the suction side. This result is similar to the results of Moore72 and Sieverding73. However, in 1988,
another pattern is given by Goldstein and Spores74, shown in Error! Reference source not found. (b),
which is different to Sharma’s again. Based on mass transfer results, they suggested that the suction
side leg of the horseshoe
vortex stays above the
passage vortex and
travels with it. This flow
pattern is similar to that
suggested by Jilek75 in
1986. The major
difference among these
three models is the
location of the suction
side leg of the horseshoe
vortex. Since it is difficult
to be detected due to the
small size, most
literatures cannot
demonstrate develop of
(a) Sharma and Butler, 1987
this vortex clearly. In
1997, a very detailed
secondary flow
visualization study was
performed by Wang76.
They proposed a more
comprehensive but more
complicated secondary
flow the passage vortex
and travels with it. This
flow pattern is similar to
that suggested by Jilek77
in 1986. The major
difference among these
three models is the (b) Goldstein and Spores, 1988
location of the suction
side leg of the horseshoe Figure 62 Vortex pattern of Latest secondary flows
vortex. Since it is difficult
to be detected due to the

72 J. Moore and A. Ransmayr, “Flow in a turbine cascade part 1: losses and leading edge effects”, ASME-GT83,
number 68, 1983.
73 C. H. Sieverding and P. Van den Bosch,” The use of colored smoke to visualize secondary flows in a turbine-blade

cascade”, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 134:85–89, 1983.

74 R. J. Goldstein and R. A. Spores, “Turbulent transport on the end wall in the region between adjacent turbine

blades”, Journal of Heat Transfer, 110:862–869, 1988.

75 J. Jilek, “An experimental investigation of the three-dimensional flow within large scale turbine cascades”, ASME-

GT86, number 170, 1986.

76 H. P. Wang, S. J. Olson, R. J. Goldstein, and E. R. G. Eckert, “Flow visualization in a linear turbine cascade of high

performance turbine blades”, Journal of Turbomachinery, 119(1):1–8, 1997.

77 J. Jilek, “An experimental investigation of the three-dimensional flow within large scale turbine cascades”, ASME-

GT86, number 170, 1986.

 82

small size, most

literatures cannot
demonstrate develop of
this vortex clearly. In
1997, a very detailed
secondary flow
visualization study was
performed by Wang78.
They proposed a more
comprehensive but more
complicated secondary
flow pattern, as
illustrated in which
includes the passage
vortex, the horseshoe
vortex, the wall vortex
and the corner vortex.
The development of the
horseshoe vortex nearby
the end-wall is effected
by the boundary layer on
end wall and the blade
surface. In modern
advanced blade, the
leading edge radius of
blade is so small that can Figure 63 Turbine Secondary Flow Model after Takeishi et al.
be compared with the
thick of boundary layer. Hence, the separation of boundary layer on end wall generates the multi-
vortex structures at the leading edge of blade. Due to a strong pressure gradient the pressure side
leg of the horseshoe vortex moves toward the suction side after it enters the passage. Meanwhile it
entrains the main flow and the inlet boundary layer forming a multi-vortex leg. In 2001, Langston79
reviewed these new models after the Sieverding’s review. Laster in the same year, Zhou and Han80
gave a more comprehensive review of all these models. They concluded that the good understanding
of the secondary flow in turbomachinery can help greatly to control the vortices within passage and
decrease the losses, help greatly to control the vortices within passage and decrease the losses.

5.9.4 Comparing and Contrasting Secondry Flow in Turbine and Compressors

Another view begins by comparing and contrasting turbine and compressor secondary flows,
together with conclusions on the way forward to design in compressors81. A large amount of material
has been published on secondary flow effects in axial flow turbomachinery, both turbines and
compressors. Only a brief summary of these is given here. As will be seen in the next section, non-

78 H. P. Wang, S. J. Olson, R. J. Goldstein, and E. R. G. Eckert, “ Flow visualization in a linear turbine cascade of
high performance turbine blades”, Journal of Turbomachinery, 119(1):1–8, 1997.
79 L. S. Langston, “Secondary flows in axial turbines: a review”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 934

(Heat Transfer in Gas Turbine System):11–26, 2001.

80 X. Zhou and W. J. Han, “A review of vortex model development for rectangular turbine cascade”, (in Chinese).

Journal of Aerospace Power, 16(3):198–204, 2001.

81 N W Harvey, “Some Effects of Non-Axisymmetric End Wall Profiling on Axial Flow Compressor Aerodynamics.

Part I: Linear Cascade Investigation”, Proceedings of GT2008.

 83

axisymmetric end wall profiling has been pursued in recent years principally in the field of axial flow
turbines. Consequently, it is useful to compare and contrast turbine and compressor secondary flows.
Comprehensive reviews of turbine secondary flows are given in Sieverding [4] and Langston [5], and
of secondary loss generation in Denton [6]. Whilst secondary flows are induced by any total pressure
profile that enters a blade row and is subsequently deflected by it, the clearest understanding has
been obtained for the case when the total pressure profile is just due to the incoming end wall
boundary layers. Figure 63 shows a diagrammatic representation of turbine end wall secondary
flows taken from Takeishi et al. [3] (noting that the rotation of the vortices is generally exaggerated)
which has been describe this more fully, but the basic elements are:

 Rolling up of the inlet boundary layer into the horseshoe vortex at the airfoil leading edge.
The pressure surface side leg of this becomes the core of the passage vortex. The passage
vortex is the dominant part of the secondary flow and beneath it on the end wall a new
boundary layer is formed, referred to as cross-flow "B" in Figure 63, which starts in the
pressure side end wall corner.

 Upstream of this the inlet boundary layer is deflected across the passage (over turned),
referred to as cross-flow "A". The end wall separation line marks the furthest penetration of
the bottom of the inlet boundary layer into the passage and divides it from the new boundary
layer forming downstream of it. The dividing streamline between the suction and pressure
side flows is shown as the attachment line in Figure 63. It intersects with the separation line
at the saddle point.

 The new end wall boundary layer, cross-flow "B", carries up onto the airfoil suction surface
until it separates (along the airfoil "separation line") and feeds into the passage vortex. The
suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex, referred to as the counter vortex in Figure 63,
remains above the passage vortex and moves away from the end wall as the passage vortex
grows.

 A small corner vortex may occur in the suction surface/ end wall corner rotating in the
opposite sense to the passage vortex. This has the effect of opposing the overturning at the
end wall, although at the cost of additional loss.

One additional source of “classical” secondary flow that must be mentioned is the trailing edge
vorticity that originates as a vortex sheet downstream of the blade trailing edge due to the variation
in circulation along the span of the airfoil (and not shown). The scope for reducing this by modifying
the end wall flows does not appear to be great and has not been part of this study. The basic features
of compressor secondary flows are the same as those in a turbine blade row. However, there are a
number of important differences in the details between the two, Cumpsty82:

 The turning in a compressor blade row is much lower; typically 30 – 40 deg , compared to
100 deg in a turbine.

 From classical secondary flow theory, this would be expected to result in lower secondary
flows in a typical compressor row, for a comparable inlet total pressure profile.

 An additional feature, often overlooked, for turbine secondary flows is that once they have

82 Cumpsty N. A.,, (2004), “Compressor Aerodynamics”, Krieger Publishing Company.

 84

rolled up into vortices any further acceleration of the flow will stretch them feeding in more
kinetic energy (of rotation), Patterson [10]. This may have the effect of amplifying the benefit
of anything that delays the initial development of secondary flows on the end walls.

 Since the flow through a compressor blade row diffuses such vortex stretching will not occur.
Rather the diffusion will encourage more rapid mixing out of the vortices. It is suggested that
this is the reason why the smaller vortices (counter and corner) seen in turbine rows are not
often identified for compressor ones. In addition end wall over-turning in a compressor row
will be much more likely to result in flow separation, especially when the static pressure rise
across the row increases if the compressor moves up its characteristic.

5.9.5 3D Separation
A number of different flow regimes come under the heading of “three-dimensional separation”:

 If the aerodynamic loading is low enough, then the low momentum fluid in the airfoil suction
side/ end wall corner will separate off the blade surfaces (as in turbine secondary flows) but
will still have forward momentum.
 Where the loading is such that reverse flow does occur, then this may initially only be on one
of either the end wall or the airfoil suction surface refers to the former as “wall stall” and the
latter as “blade stall”.
 The combination of these two is known as “corner stall”. The resulting flow patterns are
illustrated in Figure 64. where the illustration of formation of hub corner stall together with
limiting streamlines and separation lines, (Lei et al.).

Distinct features of this are the reverse flow on both walls and the decrease of the chord wise extent
of this flow away from the end
wall. In terms of secondary
loss, it is difficult to generalize
on its magnitude in compressor
rows. This depends on the
details of the design; of which
diffusion factors, DeHaller
numbers and aspect ratio are
just a few. One example may
serve to indicate the potential
for losing aerodynamic
performance. With a small
leakage flow present, which
suppressed the corner stall, the
54% was reduced to 13%
(about 11% of the total). For a
turbine row with a similar
aspect ratio, the secondary
losses may be expected to be at
least 20% of the total, but again
this depends on the design
details. From the above it is
concluded that the scope for
reducing secondary loss in a Figure 64 Illustration of formation of hub corner stall together with
well-designed compressor row limiting streamlines and separation lines
 85

at its design condition (without corner stall) is likely to be less than for a typical turbine one. Rather,
reducing or mitigating penalizing features such as corner stall may be of more importance to the
compressor aerodynamic designer.

5.10 Turbulence Consideration

Recent advancements in computer improvements in turbulence modeling have brought
computational fluid dynamics improvements in turbulence improvements in improvements in
turbulence modeling have brought computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to the improvements in
turbulence modeling have brought computational fluid improvements in turbulence modeling have
brought computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to the forefront of turbo-machinery design and analysis.
The development, improvement, and application of turbo-machinery CFD dominate the literature.
Today, 3-D Euler, quasi-3-D viscous, and 3-D full Navier-Stokes analyses are integral parts of turbo-
machinery design. Fan rotors are designed using viscous 3D CFD models using these models the blade
geometry is tailored to control shock location, boundary layer growth and end-wall blockage. The
complexity of the turbo-machinery flow field limits CFD simulations to Reynolds averaged (RANS)
approximations. The flow field of a transonic fan over its entire operating range is particularly
troublesome; it contains all the flow aspects most difficult to represent – boundary layer transition
and separation, shock-boundary layer interactions, and large flow unsteadiness. Multistage
configurations further the complexity as “neither in the stator nor rotor frame of reference is the
deterministic flow steady in time”. Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) and Large-Eddy Simulations
(LES) are not currently practical for the fan/compressor flow field. The DNS explicitly solves for the
instantaneous flow field and requires extremely fine gridding to resolve the smallest length scales –
on the order of Re9/4. Thus, state-of-the-art turbo-machinery CFD involves solution of the RANS
equations and hence, some modeling of the physics. The Reynolds-averaging process-the
decomposition of the instantaneous flow field into mean and fluctuating components and subsequent
temporal averaging introduces more unknowns than available equations for solution. Key modeling
aspects are associated with this so-called “turbulent closure problem.” To obtain mathematical
closure, the Reynolds stress terms must be related to mean flow properties either empirically or
through a flow model which allows calculation of this relationship (eddy “viscosity,” mixing length,
transport equations). As noted by Simpson, 2000, “all the efforts of experimental turbulent shear flow
research are aimed at this central problem…” This closure issue is no different than that required of
1st order models. For example, through flow methods using the semi-actuator disk approach (like
SLC) require loss and flow angle relationships (empirically or through analytical models). The use of
RANS codes requires extensive computational resources. A viscous calculation with shock waves and
tip leakage typically requires about 300,000 grid points (Denton and Dawes, 1999), although as many
as 500,000 points may be needed (AGARD-AR- 355, 1998), per blade passage. In a recent multistage
application, Rhie, et al., 1998, used approximately 1.5 million grid points to represent three stages
(seven blade rows), taking advantage of the axisymmetric assumption (i.e., one modeled passage per
blade row).
The principal aerodynamic characteristics of most turbomachine flows are governed mainly by a
balance between pressure gradient and convection, while turbulence tends to affect mainly
secondary flow features and the losses83. This is at least so in low-load conditions in which the
boundary layers are relatively thin and attached. In high-load and off design conditions, however,
turbulence can contribute substantially to the aerodynamic balance and is thus a process of major
practical interest. In such circumstances, the boundary layers grow rapidly, separation can ensue on

83 W.L. Chen, F.S. Lien, M.A. Leschziner, “Computational prediction of flow around highly loaded compressor
cascade blades with non-linear eddy-viscosity models”, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 19 (1998)
307-319.
 86

both suction and pressure sides (depending on the blade geometry and the incidence angle) and
stream wise vorticity is intense ± all processes interacting strongly with the turbulence structure.
The sensitivity of major mean flow features to turbulence is especially high when the flow enters the
blade passage at an angle which departs materially from the design value, thus causing leading-edge
separation and high flow displacement, followed by transition in the separated shear layer. More
generally, transition tends to be a highly influential process in the majority of off-design flows in that
details of the location and evolution of transition can dictate the sensitive response of the boundary
layers to pressure gradients. The large majority of computational schemes for turbomachinery
currently involve the use of the linear (Boussinesq) relationships between stresses and strains,

 u u j  2
 ρui uj  μ T  i    ρκδij (.)
 x x  3
 j i 

coupled with algebraic expressions or, at most, differential equations for the turbulent velocity and
length scales to which the turbulent viscosity is related. This framework is accepted as being
adequate for thin shear flows and is able to reproduce transition in simple boundary layers, if
combined with appropriately constructed and calibrated transport equations for the variation of the
scales in low-Reynolds-number conditions. However, it fails to resolve turbulence anisotropy and to
represent correctly the effects of normal straining and curvature on the turbulent stresses. The last
two deficiencies are especially important in blade flows; first, because the state of turbulence at the
leading-edge impingement region is crucially important to the transitional behavior further
downstream, and second, because the blade curvature causes significant damping or augmentation
of turbulence transport in the boundary layers on the suction and pressure sides, respectively. It is
now generally accepted that the substantial variability in the strength of the interaction between
different strain types and the turbulent stresses can only be resolved, in a fundamentally rigorous
sense, through the use of second-moment closure, in which separate transport equations are solved
for all Reynolds-stress components. In particular, the very different stress-generation terms
contained in these equations give rise to that closure's ability to resolve anisotropy and hence the
influence of curvature, rotation and normal straining on the stresses. However, this type of closure is
complex, poses particular challenges in respect of its stable integration into general computational
schemes and is costly to apply in practice (Lien and Leschziner)84. A simpler and more economical
alternative, albeit one which rests on a weaker fundamental foundation, is to use nonlinear stress
/strain relations which can be made to return, upon the introduction of physical constraints and
careful calibration, some of the predictive capabilities of second-moment closure.

5.11 Case Study - Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of Turbine
Blades

5.11.1 Statement of Problem

Heat transfer in separated flows on the pressure side of a typical high lift turbine profile is
numerically investigated85. The numerical code was first validated on attached flows in turbine
blades. To obtain flow separation cases, the profile is subject to large negative incidences so that a
separation bubble is obtained at the pressure side. The numerical results are compared to available

84 Lien, F.S., Leschziner, M.A. “Second-moment closure for three dimensional turbulent flow around and within
complex geometries”. Computers and Fluids 25, 237, 1996.
85 P. De La Calzada, M. Valdes, and M. A. Burgos, “Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of Turbine

Blades”, Industria de Turbopropulsores S. A., Madrid, Spain.

 87

experimental data for code validation. It is shown how local minima and maxima values of the heat
transfer coefficient are related to the separation and reattachment points, where the velocity
component perpendicular to the wall is shown to have a significant effect on the heat transfer. The
increasing demand of more efficient gas turbine engines is further stressing the physical
understanding of aerothermal phenomena occurring in turbines. Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT)
has increased rapidly in the last decades enabled by the extensive use of increasingly effective cooling
technologies. Further reductions in weight and cost targets have also required the development of
thin low pressure turbine (LPT) profiles where flow separation might occur at the pressure side even
at design conditions. These operating conditions of LPT have introduced new challenges in terms of
understanding the aerothermal phenomena, as well as in the development of simulation tools able to
predict these phenomena. In particular, the accurate prediction of thermal effects due to separation
and reattachment of the flow on LPT profiles is an important new requirement.
The aim of the present investigation is to perform a detailed numerical study of the heat transfer
phenomena in separated flows at flow conditions representative of LPT airfoils. A comparison with
experimental data is performed, hence allowing the validation of the code and the confirmation of
the main flow features. Based on these numeric results, an attempt is made to understand and explain
the flow physics in the vicinity of separation and reattachment points that can influence the heat flux.
In particular, the relationship between the dynamic and thermal boundary layers and the importance
of the velocity component perpendicular to the wall in creating injection of flow towards the wall or
ejection of flow from the wall and their effect in the heat transfer is analyzed.

5.11.2 Literature Survey

Much attention has been paid to the investigation of large flow separation in simple cases, including
both velocity related measurements and heat transfer measurements. These include experimental
investigations of backward-facing steps as Vogel and Eaton 86 or Sparrow et al.87, where the
relationship between the separation region and the heat transfer features was studied.
Corresponding numerical investigations have been performed on similar configurations like the one
by Kaminejad et al.88 where only laminar conditions and very low Reynolds numbers are considered.
The effect of turbulence was taken into account for example by Rhee and Sung89, where good
agreement with experimental data was also found for very low Reynolds numbers. More recently,
Rhee and Sung also investigated the effect of local forcing on the separation and reattaching flow.
However, very little attention has been paid to the heat transfer in large separated flow regions in
turbine representative conditions. Bassi et al.90 present CFD results on the separated flow region of
a HPT airfoil with cutter trailing edge with no cooling ejection, but only a short discussion about the
separated flow physics is included. Regarding experimental investigations, Rivir et al.91 have
measured the flat plate heat transfer in a region of turbulent separation, and Bellows and Mayle 92

86J. C. Vogel and J. K. Eaton, “Combined Heat Transfer and Fluid Dynamic Measurements Downstream of a
Backward-Facing Step “, Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 107, pp. 922-929, 1985.
87 E. M. Sparrow, S. S. Kang, and W. Chuck, Relation Between the Points of Flow Reattachment and Maximum

Heat Transfer for Regions of Flow Separation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 1237-1246, 1987.
88 H. Kazeminejad, M. Ghamari, and M. A. Yaghoubi, “A Numerical Study of Convective Heat Transfer from a

Blunt Plate at Low Reynolds Number”, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 125-133, 1996.
89 G. H. Rhee, and H. J. Sung, “A Low-Reynolds Number, Four Equation, Heat Transfer Model for Turbulent

Separated and Reattaching Flows”, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow, vol. 18, pp. 38-44, 1997.
90 F. Bassi, S. Rebay, M. Savini, S. Colantuoni, and G. Santoriello, “A Navier-Stokes Solver with Different Turbulence

Models Applied to Film-Cooled Turbine Cascades”, Paper No. 41, AGARD-CP-527, 1993.
91 R. B. Rivir, J. P. Johnston, and J. K. Eaton, “Heat Transfer on a Flat Surface under a Region of Turbulent

Separation”, Turbomachinery, vol. 116, pp 57-62, 1997.

92 R.J. Bellows and R. E. Mayle, “Heat Transfer Downstream of a Leading Edge Separation Bubble,”,

Turbomachinery, vol. 108, pp. 131-136, 1986.

 88

have measured the heat transfer on a blunt body leading edge separation bubble both for cases of
high Reynolds number93. More recently, De la Calzada and Alonso94 performed a numerical
investigation of large flow separation region at the pressure side of a turbine profile but not
comparison with experimental results was included. Lutum and Cottier presented a similar
investigation, but results indicated that simulations were not able to reproduce experimental heat
transfer results at the pressure side separation region especially for low turbulence levels. From
experimental investigations, it is known qualitatively that separated flow regions are characterized
by large and rapid variations of the heat transfer (e.g., Rhee and Sung). Furthermore, the heat transfer
presents a local minimum and a local maximum in the vicinity of separation and reattachment points
respectively, with regions where the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) is much larger than that of
attached flows95. Taking into account that separated flow regions are usually characterized by high
turbulence levels and large scale unsteadiness, there is a tendency in the heat transfer community to
explain the heat transfer phenomena in separated flows in terms of the generation of turbulence
rather than in terms of the dynamic and thermal boundary layers relationship.

5.11.3 CFD Modeling

In the present investigation, an in-house CFD solver is used for calculations. This code solves the
RANS equations written in conservative form in an absolute frame of reference. The scheme used is
based upon Jameson et al96. Convective terms are discretized using a cell vertex scheme, and the
viscous terms are computed by means of the Hessian matrix. Integration in time is performed using
an explicit five stage Runge-Kutta scheme where the viscous and artificial dissipation terms are
evaluated in the first, third, and fifth stages. The code runs on unstructured meshes which are built
by a quasi-structured layer all along the walls, where viscous effects are expected to be dominant and
by a fully triangular unstructured mesh in the rest of the flow domain obtained by Steiner
triangulation97. For turbulence simulation, the two equations κ-ω model from Wilcox98 is
implemented. More details of the numerical code can be found in Corral and Contreras99.
Numerical results are post processed to obtain heat and mass transfer relevant parameters at the
walls. This is performed by computing velocity and temperature variation in the direction
perpendicular to the wall so that heat transfer and friction coefficient as well as Stanton number can
be computed, as defined below. The local Stanton number is the equivalent for the temperature to
the local skin-friction coefficient for the velocity. Although the local Stanton number variations do
not represent variations in heat flux alone but also take into account the local velocity value, it is the
most adequate parameter to describe the thermal boundary layer behavior and to develop special
correlations for heat transfer estimation (i.e., Reynolds-Colburn analogy).

93 W. Merzkirch R. H. Page, and L. S. Fletcher, “A Survey of Heat Transfer in Compressible Separated and
Reattached Flows”, AIAA Journal, Vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 144-150, 1988.
94 P. De La Calzada and A. Alonso, “Numerical Investigation of Heat Transfer in Turbine Cascades with Separated

Flows”, Turbomachinery, vol. 125, no. 2, pp. 260-266, 2003.

95 R. B. Rivir, J. P. Johnston, and J. K. Eaton, “Heat Transfer on a Flat Surface under a Region of Turbulent

Separation”. Turbomachinery, vol. 116, pp 57-62, 1997.

96 A. Jameson, W. Schmidt, and E. Turkel, “Numerical Solution of the Euler Equations by Finite Volume Method

using Runge-Kutta Time Stepping Schemes”, AIAA, Paper 81-1259, 1981.

97 R. Corral and J. Fernandez-Castañeda, “Surface Mesh Generation by Means of Steiner Triangulation”, Proc.

29th AIAA Fluid Dynamics Conference, vol. 39, pp. 176-180, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1998.
98 D. C. Wilcox, “Reassessment of the Scale Determining Equation for Advanced Turbulence Models”, AIAA J.,

vol. 26, pp. 1299-1310, 1988.

99 R. Corral and J. Contreras, “Quantitative Influence of the Steady Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions on Blade-

to-Blade Computations”, Proc. 45th ASME Gas Turbine and Aero engine Congress, Exposition and Users
Symposium, ASME Paper 2000-GT-515, Munich, 2000.
 89

 T 
 k 
HTCx  n  w τw
Ch x   , Cf x  (.)
ρ e C p u e (T0  Tw )ρ e C p u e 1
ρ e u e2
2
Note, that the total temperature is used in the definitions instead of the adiabatic wall temperature,
even though compressible effects and therefore viscous dissipation may be important since the
representative cases for LPT usually imply an exit Mach number of around 0.5, as we have in our
study. However, the difference between the aforementioned coefficients and the corresponding
compressible definitions can be kept sufficiently low if the wall temperature for the computations is
properly chosen. In our particular cases, the total temperature is defined as in the experiments and
the wall temperature is taken around 25 K higher than the fluid temperature, which keeps the
difference between compressible and incompressible heat and mass transfer coefficient values lower
than 2% even at regions with Mach numbers around 0.5. This wall temperature value also develops
a thermal boundary layer whose magnitude is large enough to avoid high sensitivity to any random
numerical errors in the resolution of the temperature field around the wall.

5.11.4 Description of the Blade and Computational Grids, and Results for Attached Flow
The T106-300 blade section has been used as a generic geometry representative of a typical highly
loaded LPT airfoil100 (see Figure 65 for cascade geometry and conditions details). In this
investigation, the T106 blade profile is subject to extremely large negative incidences in order to have
a large separation bubble on
the pressure side. Mach and
Reynolds numbers are
varied around typical LPT
values. The generated grid is
hybrid in nature with higher
definition in regions
adjacent to the wall, trailing
edge and leading edge, as
shown in Figure 66. Due to
the expected flow separation
at the pressure side when
the profile is subject to high
negative incidence, on this
investigation the viscous
mesh is extended to a region
larger than attached flows
would require for this
Reynolds number. The
objective of this large region Figure 65 T106-300 Cascade geometry and aerodynamic design
with high definition is to conditions
capture the shear layers and
flow features on the pressure side large bubble. However, in order to avoid any mesh sensitivity the
same grid consisting of 8,623 nodes was kept unchanged for all cases, including the attached flow

100 H. Hoheisel, “Test Case E/CA-6, Subsonic Turbine Cascade T106, Test Cases for Computation of Internal Flows

in Aero Engine Components”, AGARD-AR-275, 1990.

 90

achieving a range of y+ values at the pressure side in the order of y+< 3. Results at design conditions
are shown pressure distribution is considered to match well with the experiments, in particular on
the major part of the suction side.
Since we are interested mainly in the flow along the pressure side, no attention will be paid to the
separation bubble at the back suction surface that the code does not predict probably due to a too
soon turbulence generation and boundary layer transition. Although the level of pressure achieved
by the numerical results at the pressure side of the profile is lower than the experimental data, the
heat transfer level matches well with the experiments.
However, more HTC oscillations are found in the experiments compared with the smoother results
predicted by the numerical simulation. It is interesting to note that the heat transfer measurements
at the acceleration region of the leading edge decrease to lower values than the CFD results. This
might indicate that the profile is subject to a slightly larger negative incidence in the experiments,
hence creating an acceleration-deceleration behavior achieving a higher final pressure as shown by
the results. The final acceleration region towards the trailing edge has a more pronounced effect on
the numerical simulation, where the heat transfer value shows higher increase due to the expected
thinning of the boundary layer with the increase in the external velocity.

5.11.5 Separated Flow with Large Separation Bubble

Results at the extreme conditions of 37.7° negative incidence (i.e., inlet angle β1 = 90°) are shown
first. The comparison between numerical and experimental results in terms of pressure distribution
along the airfoil is presented in Figure 67. The separation region is characterized by low velocities
and a fairly constant pressure distribution. However, at the reattachment region the static pressure
increases reaching a local maximum (i.e., local minimum value of Cp in Figure 67), which indeed
indicates the reattachment point. The experimental results indicate, to some extent, a shorter
separation bubble which reattaches earlier, hence starting earlier also the acceleration towards the
trailing edge. This may be related to the already identified higher pressure at the pressure side
predicted by the CFD, which might indicate
some slight difference in local incidence angle
between the experiments and the
simulations.
Some more detail about the flow can be
identified by comparing experimental and
numerical heat transfer results shown in
Figure 67. Both experimental and numerical
results show two local minima and maxima
between the extreme values achieved at
leading and trailing edges (these extreme
values are not shown in the graph). The first
minimum occurring at around 0.03 x/L
corresponds to the expected reduction in heat
transfer rate.
In Figure 68 (A-D) the Mach number, total
Pressure, Temperature, Velocity vectors
fields are plotted where the large bubble at
the pressure side can be clearly identified.
Helped by the streamlines traces, the multiple
bubble configuration can be also identified. In Figure 66 2-D hybrid mesh around the T106 blade
this particular case, two bubbles appear. As
confirmed in Figure 68(D) by the velocity vectors, one small bubble is stretched towards the
pressure wall, developing at the center of the full separation region whose vortex is rotating
 91

counterclockwise, and one large bubble, rotating clockwise is extending up to the external shear layer
along the major part of the pressure side, having its vortex core at the rear part of the separation
region while extending its vortex influence also to the front part.
Detail of the temperature field and flow velocities in the regions of flow separation and reattachment
are plotted in Figure 68 (C-D). At points 1 and 3, the flow is separating and a large component of the
velocity perpendicular and directed away from the wall exists. This flow configuration takes heat
from the side walls and ejects it, creating an ejection stagnation or fountain-like region where the
wall thermal field is penetrating the main flow helped by the perpendicular component of the
velocity, hence increasing the effective thermal boundary layer and decreasing the heat transfer rate.

Figure 67 Blade profile pressure coefficient

This phenomena is particularly clear in front of point 3, where the increase in the thermal boundary
layer thickness can be easily identified by the extension of the high temperature region close to the
wall in Figure 68. Point 3 corresponds to the separation of an internal second bubble, which must
also exist in the experiment configuration since the local minimum can be also identified in
measurements in Figure 9. Points 2 and 4 correspond to reattachment points where there is an
important component of the velocity perpendicular and towards the wall, hence taking fresh fluid to
the wall and creating an injection stagnation region where the thermal boundary layer is reduced
and heat transfer is increased.
To further investigate the thermal boundary layer developing through the separation region the
temperature profiles developing along straight lines perpendicular to the wall, marked a-d in Figure
68 (B). Note, that the y coordinate is non-dimensionalized with the thermal boundary layer
thickness, which is basically coincident with the thickness of the separated region. Dotted lines
represent the temperature distribution of the corresponding adiabatic wall case where static
temperature only varies as a result of the velocity profile (being the stagnation temperature
fundamentally constant), while solid lines show the temperature distribution within the re-
circulation region at different distances from the wall in the case with heat transfer and heated wall.
 92

The lowest wall temperature gradient is obtained at the leading edge separation point 1 (line a),
where even with the thermal boundary layer being relatively thin the fluid temperature shows a low
gradient specially close to the wall driven by the ejection of heated flow from the wall through the
ejection stagnation region configuration. On the contrary, the highest heat flux is achieved at the main
bubble reattachment point 4 (line d) where, additionally to the thin thermal boundary layer
thickness, the fluid temperature variation is mainly concentrated at the wall in a region about 10%
of that thickness, hence increasing the temperature gradient at the wall. This reduction of the
effective boundary layer thickness is driven by the injection stagnation region configuration, where
the velocity component perpendicular to the wall is forcing the thermal boundary layer to be
squeezed towards the wall.
As an additional proof showing that there is low coupling between the dynamic and thermal
boundary layers and their gradients in separated regions, the relationship between the velocity
parallel to the wall and temperature gradients at the wall is investigated. It is widely accepted that
the Reynolds-Colburn analogy is only reliable in attached flows only for modest, near-zero, pressure

(B) Pressure Contours

(A) Mach No.

(C) Temperature (D) Velocity vectors

Figure 68 Flow field at the front and middle parts of the separation bubble
 93

gradients, and with a constant wall temperature. The computed local skin-friction coefficient
(absolute value), the Stanton number, and the Reynolds-Colburn analogy are shown in Figure 69 to
further demonstrate that the analogy between dynamic and thermal boundary layer is not valid for
separated flows even when no pressure gradient exists. Only at the rear acceleration region where
attached flow is ensured, the Reynolds analogy tends to follow the correlation showing a
conventional relationship between dynamic and thermal boundary layers and their gradients at the
wall.
Furthermore, unlike the Stanton number, the skin friction approaches zero not only at the separation
and reattachment regions but also along the major part of the separated flow region, hence
confirming that the Reynolds-Colburn analogy is not applicable. This is clear proof that there is a very
weak coupling between velocity parallel to the wall and thermal boundary layers in separated flows.
On the contrary, it is the convective transport of fluid in a direction normal to the wall and the fluid
conduction effects in low velocity regions what drive the heat transfer phenomenon, hence
supporting once again the prime role of the stagnation region configurations on the heat transfer
mechanism.

Figure 69 Heat transfer coefficient for different negative incidences

5.11.5.1 Inlet Flow Angle Effects

Inlet flow angles of 90°, 100°, 110° (i.e., -37.7, -27.7°, and -10.7° incidence angle, all with separated
flows at pressure side), and 127.7° (i.e., 0° incidence angle, with pressure side attached flow) have
been simulated for the nominal isentropic exit Re = 1.5 x 105 and an isentropic exit Mach number of
0.5. The results in terms of HTC and Stanton number are presented in Figure 69 and Figure 70. As
expected, the size of the bubble is decreasing with the reduction of the negative incidence angle as
can be concluded from the location of the maximum values of Stanton numbers in Figure 70. All the
 94

I separated flow cases show relatively large bubbles varying the reattachment points from 0.5 x/L for
-17.7° incidence up to 0.6 x/L for -37.7° incidence. Unlike the HTC whose local maximum value at
reattachment point is maintained almost constant along the attached acceleration region up to the
trailing edge region, the Stanton number clearly generates a more pronounced local maximum value
at the reattachment point driven by the combination of maximum heat flux and static pressure (i.e.,
minimum external velocity).
It is noticeable that in all separated flow cases the same multiple bubble configuration is obtained as
indicated by the presence, within the separated region, of one additional local minimum and one
additional local maximum in heat transfer parameters although it is less evident in the slight negative
incidence case (i.e., -17.7° incidence). Generally, it can be concluded that the separated region always
generates a redistribution in the heat flux by decreasing the value at the front separation region and
by increasing it at the rear reattachment region. The higher or lower surface averaged effective value
will depend on the particular geometry and conditions.

Figure 70 Stanton number for different negative incidences

5.11.5.2 Reynolds Number Effect

Reynolds number effect is investigated by simulating different cases with the same incidence and exit
Mach numbers but different fluid conditions so that the Reynolds number is changed. In order to
achieve the required effect in the simulations, only the pressure level is modified. Figure 71 and
Figure 72 present the results when the Reynolds number is varied between 150,000 and 400,000.
The dependence of heat flux on Reynolds number at separating and impingement regions can be
obtained analytically on simple cases. At impingement points the case of plane and axisymmetric
laminar flows can be integrated to obtain the known dependence of the heat flux on the Reynolds
number to the power of 0.5101. Similarly, at separating points expansion equations can be obtained

101 F. M. White, “Viscous Fluid Flow”, McGraw-Hill, pp. 162 and 248, 1991.
 95

which also show a dependence on Reynolds number to the power of 0.5 in simple cases as wedge
and Howarth's decelerating flow 102. However, these methods are of difficult application to complex
cases as presented here where a shear flow impinges on the wall with an inclination angle (i.e., the
bubble reattachment occurring in our case), or where the separation occurs within a region of
already separation bubble (i.e., the secondary bubble appearing in our case).
In our simulation cases, the HTC (i.e., heat flux) also increases with Reynolds number as expected.
However, the maximum values at the reattachment point in these cases increases with an exponent
approximately equal to 0.3. It is interesting to note that the Stanton number varies inversely with the

Figure 71 Heat transfer coefficient for different Reynolds number

Reynolds number, as shown in Figure 72. By applying the definition relationship between HTC and
Stanton number Ch in Eqs. (3) and (4), it can be seen that the ratio HTC/Ch must retain a dependence
on Reynolds to the power of 1. Therefore, the Stanton number dependence on the Reynolds number
should vary with and exponent of -0.7 in these cases according to the exponent 0.3 found for the HTC,
which is indeed confirmed by the maximum values at the reattachment point shown in Figure 72.
One interesting feature is that, for all Reynolds numbers investigated, the size of the bubble and the
internal structure (i.e., multiple bubble configuration) is the same, as can be concluded from the
location of local maxima and minima in the figures. Although it could be expected that increasing the
Reynolds number would reduce the size of the separation bubble, in this particular case the
reattachment is driven by the acceleration of the flow and the role played by the Reynolds and the
corresponding boundary layer instability and potential transition is expected to be very minor. This
is a completely different behavior compared to cases in which there is no flow acceleration, and the
reattachment is driven by boundary layer transition.

H. W. Kim and D. R. Jeng, “Convective Heat Transfer in Laminar Boundary Layer Near the Separation Point”,
102

ASME Proc. of the 1988 National Heat Transfer Conference, vol. 3, pp. 471-476, 1988.
 96

In these latter cases, the increase of turbulence produces an early transition and reattachment and
an increase in heat flux due to the stronger reattachment vortex on a blunt flat plate subject to
pulsating conditions. Although the implemented numerical turbulence model was able to produce
high turbulence and the corresponding boundary layer transition on the suction surface to avoid the
back surface separation, at the pressure side the turbulence generation is concentrated on the
external shear layer and from there it is convected downstream to the trailing edge and the
downstream wake. Therefore, it is thought that in cases like this the turbulence is not a strong enough
mechanism to force sufficient flow entrainment and perturbation to the shear layer to produce an
early reattachment of the boundary layer, and it is then expected that the size of the separation
bubble will depend weakly on the Reynolds number and turbulence.

Figure 72 Stanton number for different Reynolds numbers

5.11.6 Concluding Remarks

A better understanding of the flow physics and the heat transfer mechanisms in large separated flow
regions have been achieved by means of a numerical investigation on the T106-300 typical LPT airfoil
subject to large negative incidence. Flow separation is characterized by a pronounced reduction in
HTC at the separation region, close to the leading edge where the minimum value is achieved, and by
an increase at the reattachment region where the maximum value is achieved. Those are extreme
values, much lower and higher than the ones obtained for attached flows. It is concluded that the
velocity component perpendicular to the wall is the main contributor to the generation of ejection
and impingement stagnation configurations, where the flow is taken from or towards the wall, hence
affecting the thermal field in those regions and contributing to create a lower or higher temperature
gradient at the wall and the corresponding HTC values.
By analyzing the Reynolds-Colburn analogy all along the pressure side of the profile, the low coupling
between the velocity component parallel to the wall and the thermal field and their gradients within
the separation region is confirmed. Additionally, it is also shown that an important variation in HTC
 97

values can occur within the separation region due to the presence of secondary separation bubbles
which can create additional separation and reattachment points. This is confirmed by both numerical
and experimental results for the high negative incidence (i.e.,-37.7° incidence), which show the
presence of one additional local maximum and one local minimum in HTC values that must indicate
the presence of additional corresponding reattachment and separation points, hence indicating the
presence of and the additional secondary separation bubble. Moreover, it is also shown by the
numerical results that the multiple bubble configuration is found for all separated cases investigated
here (i.e., negative incidence varying from -17.7° to -37.7°). Finally, the variation of the heat transfer
with the Reynolds number is investigated. The numerical results show no variation of the separation
bubble size with Reynolds number varying from 150,000 to 400,000. A dependence of the HTC on
the Reynolds number to the power of 0.3 is obtained in the separation region, in particular at the
maximum value occurring at the main bubble reattachment point on the rear part of the separation
bubble103.

103P. De La Calzada, M. Valdes, and M. A. Burgos, “Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of
Turbine Blades”, Industria de Turbopropulsores S. A., Madrid, Spain.
 98

6 Rotor-Stator Interaction Treatment (RST)

6.1 Physical Perspectives
Turbomachinery flows are naturally unsteady mainly due to the relative motion of rotors and stators
and the natural flow instabilities present in tip gaps and secondary flows104. Full scale, time
dependent calculations for unsteady turbomachinery flows are still too expensive to be suitable for
daily design purposes. One of the reasons for this large cost is the fact that in practical
turbomachinery of these reduced order models requires that the engineer/designer be aware of a
method's capabilities as well as its limitations. The key trade off in the computation of unsteady
turbomachinery flows is between the accuracy of the method and the cost or computational
efficiency with which a solution can be obtained. Highly accurate and well resolved models tend to
be limited by the available computing power, while most reduced-order models usually neglect a
significant amount of the physics and are therefore not credible for the evaluation of the performance
and heat transfer characteristics of a turbomachine. A balance between these extremes is clearly
desirable. In order to include the unsteady effects while keeping the computational requirements
reasonable, two types of approximations can be distinguished. The first approach involves rescaling

Figure 73 Schematics of 3-D concept at IGV/Rotor/Stator interface

the geometry (typically by altering the blade counts and their chords to maintain solidity) such that
periodicity assumptions hold in an azimuthal portion of the domain that is much smaller than the full
annulus. A second alternative involves the use of the original geometry but compromises the fidelity

104Xiaodong Wang, “CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade
Design”, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy at the Vrije Universiteit
Brussel July 2010.
 99

of the time integration method105. Figure 73 shows a schematics of 3-D point of view in either case.
All of these approximations can be considered to be different variations of reduced-order models. In
order to use the same solver, the flows in stator and rotor should be calculated in the stationary frame
of reference and the rotating frame of reference, respectively. However, a critical problem is how to

Figure 74 Interface between Rotor/Stator

transfer the information downstream and upstream

at the interface of stator and rotor. The quality of the Steady Un-staedy
flow predictions for multistage turbomachinery Mixing Plane Sliding Mesh
strongly depends on the treatment of rotor/stator Frozen Rotor Harmonic Balance
interaction. Figure 74 illustrates the interface Time Transformation
between them. Two general approaches as steady Table 3 Rotor/Stator Interaction Schemes
and unsteady interactions are available as detailed
in Table 3.

6.2 Different Between

Multi-Passage and Multi-
Stages
Before going any further, it is
worth mentioning two
terminology which is been
used often in literature. They
are Multi-Stage and Multi-
Passage. The difference been
best expalne through the
Figure 75. It could thought of
a matrix notation. While Figure 75 Difference between Passage and Stages

105 Arathi K. Gopinath_, Edwin van der Weidey, Juan J. Alonsoz, Antony Jamesonx, Stanford University, Stanford,

CA 94305-4035, Kivanc Ekici {and Kenneth C. Hallk, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0300, “Three-
Dimensional Unsteady Multi-stage Turbomachinery Simulations using the Harmonic Balance Technique”
 100

passages are the columan of matrix and usually treated the same in terms of gridding and analysis,
the rows are stages and treated another way as they have usually different geometry and conditions.
Adjacent blade rows contain unequal numbers of blades and shape, therefore, in principle, a proper
simulation requires solution of all blades in each row. However, some vendors such as ANSYS© has
developed a suite of tools that enables more efficient solution for a number of analysis types. The key
attribute of these tools is that the full wheel solution can be obtained by solving only one or at most
a few blades per row106.

6.2 Steady Treatment of Interface

6.2.1 Mixing Plane
The simplest treatment of R/S interface is the stage or Mixing Plane method proposed by Denton107.
This method assumes the exiting flows of stator become uniform flows before entering the inlet of
domain of rotor. A block computational domain
of Rotor, Guided Vanes, Mixing Planes and
applied boundary is shown in Figure 77. A pitch
wise averaging of the flow solution is needed at
R/S interface before transferring the
information of both sides. The essential idea
behind the mixing plane concept is that each
fluid zone is solved as a steady-state problem108.
At some prescribed iteration interval, the flow
data at the mixing plane interface are averaged
in the circumferential direction on both the
stator outlet and the rotor inlet boundaries. The
averaging process could be choice of three types
of averaging methods: area-weighted Figure 77 Block Computational domain for a
averaging, mass averaging, and mixed-out Rotor with guiding vanes
averaging. By performing
circumferential averages at specified
radial or axial stations, "profiles'' of
boundary condition flow variables can
be defined. These profiles, which will be
functions of either the axial or the radial
coordinate, depending on the
orientation of the mixing plane, are then
used to update boundary conditions
along the two zones of the mixing plane
interface. In the examples shown in
Figure 76 profiles of averaged total
pressure (P0), direction cosines of the
local flow angles in the radial, tangential,
and axial directions (αr, αt, αz), total
Figure 76 Axial rotor/stator interaction (Schematics
temperature (T0), turbulence kinetic illustrating the Mixing Plane concepts)
energy (k), and turbulence dissipation

106 Turbomachinery Simulation, ANSYS blog.

107 J. D. Denton, “The calculation of three-dimensional viscous flow through multistage Turbomachinery”,
Journal of Turbomachinery, 114(1):18–26, 1992.
108 Release 12.0 © ANSYS, Inc. 2009-01-22.
 101

rate (ε) are computed at the rotor exit and

used to update boundary conditions at the
stator inlet. Likewise, a profile of static
pressure (Ps), direction cosines of the local
flow angles in the radial, tangential, and
axial directions (αr, αt, αz), are computed at
the stator inlet and used as a boundary
condition on the rotor exit. Note that the
meshes on both sides of the interface
should cover the same range in span wise,
the averaging is performed along the same
azimuthal mesh lines. However, a full non-
matching mixing plane109 can be used to
overcome this limitation. Better, the
isolated simulation on single stator or
rotor, the interaction of potential flows in
considered in this method. However, the
impact of secondary flows and separation Figure 78 A compressor Pressure Distribution on a
flow are erased. This physical surface using a Mixing Plane
approximation tends to become more
acceptable as rotational speed is increased. The mixing plane method is by far the most often used
R/S modeling in industry design and optimization. Unfortunately it doesn’t capture the whole
physics. This is usually evident by visual inspection of in interface (mixing) plane as an imaginary
line between the cascades. Figure 78 displays a compressor Pressure Distribution on a surface at
constant radius half way between the hub and the casing using a Mixing Plane computation.

6.2.2 Frozen Rotor

If the exchange of information at the interface is by interpolation directly without averaging, one has
the Frozen Rotor method. The difference is, Mixing Plane mixes the flow and apply the average
qualities on the interface for upstream and downstream components; while frozen rotor will
pass the true flow to down steam and vice versa. So if you are interested in the wake effect on the
downstream component performance then you should use frozen rotor method. Its disadvantage is
that, if gives you the solution at the single relative position. So if you want to get the wake effect on
the downstream component for all relative positions (as happens in reality) then you should go for
the true transient method. As the name indicates, the relative position of rotor and stator is fixed.
Hence, the result of the frozen rotor method is equivalent to a certain point of the unsteady
simulation which means the flow solutions will dependent on the relative position between rotor and
stator. Since the information exchange on R/S interface is through interpolation, the mesh on both
sides of the R/S interface should cover the same pitch range. That means the periodic of the rotor
domain and stator domain should be kept the same,

KSPS  K R PR (18.1)

Where, KS and KR are relative prime which stand for the number of passages in the stator domain and
rotor domain, respectively. Ps and PR denote the pitch of stator and rotor separately. An
approximation of the blade number can be made if Ks and Kr are large in order to reduce the
computational cost, which is called Domain Scaling. For instance a turbine with 29 blades of stator

109 NUMECA International, Brussels, “Fine/Turbo User Manual V8”, October 2007.
 102

and 31 blades of rotor can be

approximated by a turbine with 30
blades of both stator and rotor,
then only one passage is needed to
mesh for both stator and rotor.
However, the simulation results
are only the approximated result
to the real model. The Frozen Rotor
method is used firstly by Brost et
al.110 in simulations of an axial
turbine where the simulated
results have a good accordance
with the transient results of the
measurement.
While, the flow field in a passage
usually changes a lot during the
period. Therefore, this method is
only used in some specific
simulations. The information
Figure 79 Predicted Total Pressure calculated by the frozen
exchange processes of mixing
rotor
plane and frozen rotor methods
depend on the boundary type of
the R/S interface. The detail settings for different boundary types and the corresponding exchange
strategies can be found in111.

6.3 Unsteady Treatment of Interface

6.3.1 Sliding Mesh (MRF)
Full unsteady simulations that integrate the governing equations in time can be performed to model
the nonlinear unsteady disturbances by marching time accurately from one physical time instant to
the next. The flow fields within multiple blade rows are solved simultaneously and the meshes within
adjacent rows are moved relative to one another with each time step. However, the computational
expense of this approach can be significant. This is because sub-iterations are required at each time
instant, the time step size is necessarily small to preserve time accuracy, and many time steps are
required to reach a time periodic solution. Additionally, multiple passages must be meshed to achieve
spatial periodicity, unless so-called phase-lagged boundary conditions are used to reduce the size of
the computational domain to a single blade passage in each blade row112. For unsteady simulation, a
natural idea is to simulate several different transient positions of rotor related to stator which leading
to the traditional unsteady treatment of R/S interface is the Sliding Mesh method proposed by Rai113.
For unsteady simulation, a natural idea is to simulate several different transient positions of rotor
related to stator which leading to the traditional unsteady treatment of R/S interface is the Sliding

110 V. Brost, A. Ruprecht, and M. Maih, “Rotor-Stator interactions in an axial turbine, a comparison of transient
and steady state frozen rotor simulations”, Conference on Case Studies in Hydraulic Systems-CSHS03, 2003.
111 NUMECA International, Brussels, “Fine/Turbo User Manual V8 (including Euranus)”, October 2007.
112 J. M. Weiss, K. C. Hall, “simulation of unsteady turbomachinery flows using an implicitly coupled nonlinear

harmonic balance method”, Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2011, GT2011.

113 M. Rai, “Application of domain decomposition methods to turbomachinery flows”, ASME Advances and

Applications in Computational Fluid Dynamics, volume 66, 1988.

 103

Mesh method proposed by Rai114. In this method, the computational domain is divided into two parts:
rotor domain and stator domain. The mesh for rotor domain rotates with rotor. The R/S interface
becomes a sliding face and the exchanges of solution information are through the interpolation to the
dummy cells on both side without any averaging. At each time step, the rotor is set at its correct
position and equations are solved for that particular time step for the whole computation domain.
The final solution is therefore a succession of instantaneous solutions for each increment of the rotor
position. More precisely to set up sliding mesh simulation115,

1. Create periodic zones.

2. Set up the transient solver and cell zone and boundary conditions for a sliding mesh.
3. Set up the mesh interfaces for a periodic sliding mesh model.
4. Sample the time-dependent data and view the mean value.

The methodology is based on the use of Moving Least Squares (MLS) approximation in a high-order
finite volume framework116. Here we present two different approaches based on MLS approximation
for the transmission of information from one grid to another. The intersection approach: the flux at
the interface edge is split between the cell having an interface edge coincident (Figure 80 A). The
halo cell approach: a halo-cell is created as a specular image of the interface cell (Figure 80 B).
Moreover, two kind of stencil has been tested: the half stencil which take in account only cells from
the grid in which the cell is placed and the full stencil which includes cells from the two grids117.

Figure 80 Half stencil and full stencil reconstruction with: A) Intersection, B) Halo-cell

6.3.2 Non-Linear Harmonic Balanced Method (NLHB)

The sliding mesh method simulates the full unsteady flow, which is still quite computational
expensive for industrial requirements. In the past decade, a harmonic frequency-domain methods
are developed, e.g., using potential flow model and Euler equations. However, all of the previous

114 M. Rai, “Application of domain decomposition methods to turbomachinery flows”, ASME Advances and
Applications in Computational Fluid Dynamics, volume 66, 1988.
115 Reza Amini, “Using Sliding Meshes”.
116 S. Khelladi, X. Nogueira, F. Bakir and I. Colominas, “Toward a higher-order unsteady finite volume solver Based

on reproducing kernel particle method”, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 200, pp.
2348-2362, 2011.
117 Hongsik, Xiangying Chen, Gecheng Zha, “Simulation of 3D Multistage Axial Compressor Using a Fully

Conservative Sliding Boundary Condition”, multistage turbomachinery are developed and implemented;
Proceedings of the ASME, 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition IMECE2011,
November 11-17, 2011, Denver, Colorado, USA.
 104

harmonic methods
adopt the linear
assumption, so that the
nonlinear interaction
between unsteady
disturbances and the
time-averaged flow is
completely neglected. A
nonlinear harmonic
method is developed by
He118 following the
framework of Giles119
which is based on an
asymptotic theory. In
this technique
convergence of Fourier- Figure 81 Relative velocities obtained using HB techniques
based time methods
applied to turbomachinery flows. The focus is on the harmonic balance method, which is a time-
domain Fourier-based approach standing as an efficient alternative to classical time marching
schemes for periodic flows. Fourier series decomposes a periodic signal into a sum of an infinite
number of harmonics (sine and cosine functions) of different frequencies and amplitudes. These
frequencies are discrete, not all frequencies are present. Since it is impossible to estimate an infinite
series, you choose the number of terms you wish to consider, starting from the first. More the number
of terms considered, closer is the series to the original signal. In the literature, no consensus exists
concerning the number of harmonics needed to achieve convergence for turbomachinery stage
configurations. It is shown that the convergence of Fourier-based methods is closely related to the
impulsive nature of the flow solution, which in turbomachines is essentially governed by the
characteristics of the passing wakes between adjacent rows. As a result of the proposed analysis, a
priori estimates are provided for the minimum number of harmonics required to accurately compute
a given turbomachinery configuration. Their application to several contra-rotating open-rotor
configurations is assessed, demonstrating the practical interest of the proposed methodology. This
method solves the steady transport equations for the time-averaged flow and the time harmonics.
For turbomachinery, the Blade Passing Frequencies (BPF) are the fundamentals in time domain of the
periodic disturbances from the adjacent blade rows. The solving of the generated perturbation
amplitudes in a row is performed in the frequency domain by a steady transport equation associated
with BPFs and subharmonics. The deterministic stresses are calculated directly from the in-phase
and out-of-phase components of the solved harmonics. Using this method, only one passage is
needed that saves the computational cost greatly. He et al., Vilmin et al. validated this method with
simulations on a 3D radial turbine and a multistage axial compressor. Therefore, this method is
adopted in the unsteady simulation of a low speed axial turbine. The physical quantity can be
decomposed into a time-averaged value and a sum of perturbations, which in turn can be
decomposed into N harmonics120. Figure 81 displays Harmonic function method in obtaining

118 L. He, “Modelling issues for computation on unsteady turbomachinery flows. In Unsteady Flows in
Turbomachines”, Von K´arm´an Institute for Fluid Dynamics, 1996.
119 M. B. Giles, “An approach for multi-stage calculations incorporating unsteadiness”, ASME-GT92, number 282,

Cologne, Germany, 1992.

120 S. Vilmin, E. Lorrain, and Ch. Hirsch, ” Unsteady flow modeling across the rotor/stator interface using the

non-linear harmonic method”, In ASME-GT06, number 90210, Spain, 2006.

 105

relative velocities (courtesy of NUMECA.com). Since the Harmonic method is widely used, it is
warranted a bit more exploring which will be dealt in the coming section.

6.3.3 Profile Transformation (Pitch Scaling)

In typical turbomachinery applications, it is
very common that one or both blade rows
have a prime number of blades per wheel.
Formerly in such cases, it was necessary to
model the whole 360° wheel in order to attain
the required level of accuracy. It is possible to
reduce the size of the computational problem
(memory and computational time) by solving
the blade row solution for one or two
passages per row, while still obtaining
reasonably accurate solutions, therefore
providing a solution to the unequal pitch
problem between the blade passages of
neighboring rows. This (ANSYS121, Galpin122),
a scaling procedure applied automatically to
solution profiles as part of the TRS Figure 82 Phase shifted Periodic Boundary
implementation, whenever the rotor-stator
pitch ratio is not unity. In this approximate method, single blade passages per row with different
pitch lengths can be modeled without the need to geometrically scale or modify the blade geometry.
Regular periodicity is imposed for each passage and flow profiles across rotor/stator interfaces are
automatically stretched or compressed as needed according to the pitch ratio while maintaining full
conservation. Multiple passages can be used to reduce pitch scaling errors for the ensemble. Since
this implementation is fully implicit and conservative a fast and robust transient solution can be
obtained at a fraction of the time for a full domain model. While in this method overall machine
performance is usually predicted well, detailed flow features such as blade passing signals will be
inaccurate due to imposing instantaneous periodicity on the phase-shifted boundaries.123

6.3.4 Time Transformation Method (TT) using Phase-Shifted Periodic Boundary Conditions124
Barrowing from ANSYS CFX©, the basic principle of a phase-shifted periodic condition is that the
pitch-wise boundaries R1/R2 and S1/S2 are periodic to each other at different instances in time. For
example the relative position of R1 and S1 at t0 is reproduced between sides R2 and S2 at an earlier
time t0-Δt. Where Δt is defined by (PR-PS)/VR. Here PR and PS are rotor and stator pitches respectively,
and VR is the rotor velocity as shown in Figure 83. The Time Transformation
method handles the problem of unequal pitch described above by transforming the time coordinates
of the rotor and stator in the circumferential direction in order to make the models fully periodic in
“transformed” time. Let the r, ϴ, and z coordinate axis represent the radial, tangential (pitch wise)
and axial directions of the problem described in Figure 83. Mathematically, the condition of

121 ANSYS CFX Version 12 documentation, ANSYS Inc., 2009.

122 Galpin P.F., Broberg R.B., Hutchinson B.R., “Three-Dimensional Navier Stokes Predictions of Steady State
Rotor/Stator Interaction with Pitch Change”, 3rd Annual Conference of the CFD Society of Canada, June 27-1995,
Banff, Alberta, Canada.
123 “A comparison of advanced numerical techniques to model transient flow in turbomachinery blade rows”,

Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2011 GT2011.

124 ANSYS CFX-Solver Theory Guide, Release 15, 2013.
 106

enforcing the flow spatial periodic boundary conditions on both rotor and stator passages,
respectively, is given by
U R1 r, θ, z, t   U R2 r, θ  PR , z, t  Δt 
 (18.2)
 U R1 r, θ, z, t   U R2 r, θ  PR , z, t 
U S1 r, θ, z, t   U S2 r, θ  PS , z, t  Δt 

 U S1 r, θ, z, t   U S2 r, θ  PS , z, t 
Using the following set of space-time transformations to the problem above as:

Δt
r  r , θ  θ , z  z, t  t  (18.3)
PR  PS

Figure 83 Phase Shifted Periodic Boundary Conditions

The equations that are solved are in the computational (r’, ϴ', z’, t’) transformed space-time domain
and need to be transformed back to physical (r, ϴ, z, t) domain before post-processing. The periodicity
is maintained at any instant in time in the computational domain and it is evident that the rotor and
stator passages are marching at different time step sizes. We have the time step sizes
in the rotor and stator related by their pitch ratio as:

PR ΔtS
 (18.4)
PS Δt R

Where nΔtS = PR/VR and nΔtR = PS/VR. The simulation time step size set for the run is used in the stator
passage(s) ΔtS and program computes the respective rotor passage time step size ΔtP based on the
rotor-stator interface pitch ratio as described above. When the solution is transformed back to
physical time, the elapsed simulation time is considered the stator simulation time. Required that the
pitch ratio fall within a certain range, as described by the inequality:
 107

Mω P Mω
1  S  1 (18.5)
1  M θ PR 1  Mθ

Where Mω is the Mach number associated with the rotor rotational speed (or signal speed in the case
of an inlet disturbance problem), Mϴ is the Mach number associated with the tangential Mach
number, and the ratio of PS to PR is the pitch ratio between the stationary component and the rotating
component. For most compressible turbomachinery applications (for example, gas compressors and
turbines), Mω is in the range of 0.3-0.6, enabling pitch ratios in the range of 0.6-1.5. Note that
according to ANSYS CFX© these limits are not strict, but approaching them can cause solution
instability.

6. 4 Revisiting Non-Linear Harmonic Balance (NLHB) Methodology

Given the time periodic nature of these flows, one can model the unsteady flow in turbomachines
using nonlinear, harmonic balance techniques. Roughly speaking, the family of nonlinear harmonic
methods expands the unsteady flow field in a Fourier series in time and solves for the Fourier
coefficients. He125, and Ning126 developed a harmonic method in which the unsteady harmonics are
treated as perturbations. Hall, Thomas, and Clark127 developed a full harmonic balance method,
which allows for arbitrarily large disturbances and any number of harmonics. The method is
computationally efficient and stores the unsteady nonlinear solutions as the working variables at
several time levels over one period of unsteadiness, rather than storing the Fourier coefficients them-
selves. Gopinath and Jameson128 and others have applied this approach to turbomachinery
applications. For an excellent recent survey of Fourier methods applied to turbomachinery
applications, see the survey paper by He129. In all these methods, the harmonic balance equations are
solved by introducing a pseudo-time derivative term and then marching the coupled equations to a
steady state. Using the frequency-domain or time-linearized technique, it is possible to first compute
the time-mean (steady) flow by solving the steady flow equations using conventional CFD techniques.
One then assumes that any unsteadiness in the flow is small and harmonic in time (eiωt). The
governing fluid equations of motion and the associated boundary conditions are then linearized
about the mean flow solution to arrive at a set of linear variable coefficients equations that describe
the small disturbance flow. The time derivatives d/dt are replaced by jω where ω is the frequency of
the unsteady disturbance, so that time does not appear explicitly. The resulting time-linearized
equations can be solved very inexpensively, but unfortunately cannot model dynamic nonlinearities.

125 He, L., 1996. “Modelling issues for time-marching calculations of unsteady flows, blade row Interaction and
blade flutter”, VKI Lecture Series “Unsteady Flows in Turbomachines”, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics.
126 Ning, W., and He, L., 1998. “Computation of Unsteady Flows around Oscillating Blades Using Linear and Non-

Linear Harmonic Euler Methods”. Journal of Turbomachinery, 120(3), pp. 508–514.

127 Hall, K. C., Thomas, J. P., and Clark, W. S., 2002. “Computation of Unsteady Nonlinear Flows in Cascades Using

a Harmonic Balance Technique”. AIAA Journal, 40(5), May, pp. 879–886.

128 Gopinath, A., and Jameson, A., 2005. “Time Spectral Method for Periodic Unsteady Computations over Two and

Three- Dimensional Bodies”. AIAA Paper 2005-126.

129 He, L., 2010. “Fourier methods for turbomachinery applications”. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 46(8), pp.

329 – 341.
 108

6.4.1 Temporal and Spatial Periodicity Requirement

Consider unsteady flows that are temporally and spatially periodic. In particular, temporal and
spatial periodicity requires that

U (x , t)  U (x , t  T) (18.6)
U (x  G , t)  U (x , t  Δt)

Where T is the temporal period of the unsteadiness, G is the blade-to-blade gap and Δt is the time lag
associated with the inter blade phase lag. Similarly, for cascade flow problems arising from vibration
of the airfoils with fixed inter blade phase angles σ, or incident gusts that are spatially periodic. As an
example, consider a cascade of airfoils where the source of aerodynamic excitation is blade vibration
with a prescribed inter blade phase angle σ and frequency ω. Then T = 2π/ω and Δt = σ/ω. Because
the flow is temporally periodic, the flow variables may be represented as a Fourier series in time with
spatially varying coefficients.

6.4.2 Boundary Conditions

We first consider the flow field kinematics of two adjacent blade rows where the first row has B1
blades spinning with rotational rate ω1 rad/s and the second has B2 blades spinning with rotational
rate ω2 rad/s. The flow field within the stage can be decomposed into a Fourier series in the rotational
direction characterized by a set of Nm1, m2 nodal diameters as

N m1,m2  m1B1  m2 B2 (18.7)

Where m1 and m2 can take on all integer values. In the frame of reference of the first and second
blade row, the frequency of the unsteady disturbance associated with any nodal diameter is

ω1,m2  m2 B2 (ω1  ω2 ) , ω2,m1  m1B1 (ω2  ω1 ) (18.8)

Note that in either row the unsteady frequency associated with a given nodal diameter is a function
of the blade count and relative rotation rate of the adjacent row. Furthermore, associated with
each unsteady frequency is an inter blade phase angle:

B2 B1
σ1,m2  m 2 2π , σ m1 ,2  m1 2π (18.9)
B1 B2

In the frame of reference of the second row. Clearly the inter blade phase angles associated with a
given nodal diameter are a function of the pitch ratios between the two rows. Note that the pitch in
each row is given by G1 = 2π/B1 and G2 = 2π/B2 in the first and second rows, respectively.

6.4.3 Solution Method

Since the solution U is periodic in time, we can represent it by the Fourier series:
 109

M
U ( x, t)   Uˆ
m M
m (x) e imt (18.10)
N 1
where ˆ ( x)  1  U
U
~ -imt n
m n ( x, t n ) e
N n 0

can considered complex conjugate of each other. Here, ω is the fundamental frequency of the
disturbance, M is the number of harmonics retained in the solution: Ûm are the Fourier coefficients,
and Ũn are a set of N = 2M + 1 solutions at discrete time levels tn = nT/N distributed throughout one
period of unsteadiness, T. At any U is vector of conserved variables and can be expressed as

ρ (x, t)   R n (x, t) eint , ρu (x, t)   U n (x, t) eint , v(x, t)   Vn (x, t) eint ,..... (18.11)
n n n

At any location in the flow field domain we can transform the time level solutions into Fourier
coefficients and vice versa using a discrete Fourier transform operator [E] and its corresponding
inverse E−1 as follows
~
ˆ EU ~ ˆ
U or U  E1 U (18.12)

Where E and E−1 are square matrices of dimension N × N, and the Fourier coefficients and time level
solutions have been assembled into the vectors Ũ as

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
U  [U0 , U1 , U 2 , ....... UN1 ]T (18.13)

The solutions at each discrete time level are obtained by applying the governing equations to all the
Ũ simultaneously
~
U   
~ ~ ~
V t dV   [ F  G ]  dA   S dV
V
(18.14)

Where the flux and source vectors F͂͂,͂͂ G̃ , and S͂͂͂͂ are evaluated using the corresponding time level
solution. The time derivative in Eqn. (18.14) is evaluated by differentiating Eqn. (18.10) with respect
to time and then employing Eqn. (18.12) as follows:

~
U E 1 ˆ E 1 ~ ~
 U U  [D] U (18.15)
t t t

Where [D] is the pseudo-spectral, N × N matrix operator. Substituting Eqn. (18.15) for the time
derivative in Eqn. (18.14) yields the desired harmonic balance equations:
 
~ ~ ~  ~
V
[D] U dV   [F  G]  dA   S dV
V
(18.16)
 110

The harmonic balance equations are discretized using a cell centered, polyhedral-based, finite-
volume scheme. Second order spatial accuracy is achieved by means of a multi-dimensional, linear
reconstruction of the solution variables. The convective fluxes are evaluated by a standard upwind,
flux-difference splitting and the diffusive fluxes by a second-order central difference. A pseudo-time
derivative of primitive quantities, ∂Q/∂τ, with Q = {p, u, T}, is introduced into Eqn. (18.16) to facilitate
solution of the steady harmonic balance equations by means of a time marching procedure. An Euler
implicit discretization in pseudo-time130 produces the following linearized system of equations:

 U  S U 
  Δτ [ A ]   [ D]  ΔQ  Δτ R (18.17)
 Q  Q Q 

where R' is the discrete residual of Eqn. (18.17), and ΔQ' are the resultant primitive variable
corrections across one pseudo-time step, Δτ. Operator [A] is the Jacobian of the discrete inviscid and
viscous flux vectors with respect to primitive variables Q and introduces both center coefficients as
well as off-diagonals arising from the linearization of the spatially discretized fluxes. The coupled
system given by Eqn. (18.17) contains equations from all time levels linked at every point in the
domain by the pseudo-spectral operator [D]. The result is is a large system, and solving it all at once
would be rather intractable. However, we can exploit the point coupled nature of the system and
employ approximate factorization to produce the following two step scheme:

 U  S  ~
  Δτ [ A]   ΔQ  Δτ R (18.18)
 Q  Q 
 U 1 U  ~
[I]  Δτ [D]  ΔQ  ΔQ (18.19)
 Q Q 

Where ΔQ̃ ' represents provisional corrections to the solution. In the first step, Eqn. (18.18), the time
levels are no longer coupled and we can solve for the ΔQ̃ ' one time level at a time. With the exception
of the physical time derivative appearing in Eqn. (18.18), the evaluation of fluxes, accumulation of
the residual, and the process of assembling and solving Eqn. (18.16) at each time level proceeds
exactly as for a single, steady-state solution in the time domain. Here we employ an algebraic
multigrid (AMG) method to solve the linear system (Eqn. 18.16) and obtain the provisional ΔQ̃ ’. In
the second step the complete corrections ΔQ' for the current iteration are obtained by inverting Eqn.
(18.19) at each point in the domain given all the ΔQ̃ ' computed in step one.

6.4.4 Fourier 'Shape Correction' for Single Passage Time-Marching Solution

The Fourier modelling approach to nonlinear flows was proposed in 1990 foTr time-marching
solutions of unsteady turbomachinery flows131. This was the first Fourier method for
turbomachinery. The objective at the time was to enable an unsteady flow solution to be carried out

130 Weiss, J. M., Maruszewski, J. P., and Smith, W. A., 1999, “Implicit Solution of Preconditioned Navier-Stokes
Equations Using Algebraic Multigrid”, AIAA Journal, 37(1), Jan., pp. 29–364
131 L. He, "An Euler Solution for Unsteady Flows around Oscillating Blades", ASME, Journal of Turbomachinery,

Vol.112, No.4, pp.714-722, 1990.

 111

in a single blade passage domain but without requiring a large amount of computer memory, as in
the Erdos's Direct Store method. The main ingredient is to carry out the temporal Fourier transform
at the ‘periodic boundaries of the single blade passage domain. Then the Fourier harmonics
(temporal shape) are used to correct the corresponding boundaries according to the phase shift
periodicity. The method was then called ‘Shape Correction’. The validity of the single passage Shape-
Correction method can be examined by comparing with the direct multi-passage solution. Figure 84
shows Stagnation Pressure contours under inlet distortion for NASA Rotor 67 where the Left shows
whole passage annulus solution, and the Right, single passage solution as reconstructed. It was
shown that the Fourier modelling as implemented in the Shape-Correction can capture flow
disturbances and responses with large nonlinearity (e.g. a large scale shock oscillation in fan blade
passage under an inlet distortion of long circumferential wave length. Given only 3-5 harmonics were
required for capturing sufficiently accurately the temporal variation, the computer memory
requirement is very low compared to the Erdos’s Direct Store approach. A key advantage of splitting
flow components represented by Fourier harmonics is the ability in dealing with multiple
disturbances with distinctive frequencies (He 1992). The generalized shape correction has been
applied to unsteady flows in multi-rows (IGT-rotor-stator) with vibrating rotor blades for
optimization of intra-row gap effects on both aerothermal performance and flutter stability,

Figure 84 Stagnation Pressure Contours under inlet distortion for NASA Rotor 67

6.4.4 Case Study 1 – 2D Compressor Stage

In this section we compare results obtained from the implicitly coupled, non-linear harmonic balance
method described above with solutions from a full, unsteady simulation based on the standard dual
time-stepping approach. The test case consists of a model two-dimensional compressor stage;
specifically, the first stator and second rotor rows of the five row. There are three stator blades to
every four rotor blades. The two blade rows are separated by an axial gap equal to 0.25 times the
aerodynamic chord of the rotor. The Mach number at the inlet to the stator is 0.68 and the relative
Mach number entering the rotor is 0.71. The static-to-total pressure ratio across the stage is 1.2.
Three separate Euler calculations are made using the nonlinear harmonic balance method in which
one, two and three harmonics, respectively, are retained for the blade passing frequencies in both
the stator and rotor. Contours of instantaneous pressure, representative of the flow field within the
 112

compressor stage and computed

using three harmonics in each blade
row, are shown in Figure 86 using
nonlinear harmonic balance method.
Note that computations are
performed on just the center blade
passage outlined in each row. The
solutions shown in the passages
above and below are phase-shifted
reconstructions included for clarity.

6.4.5 Case Study 2 - 3D Flow in

Turbine Cascade
3D flow in turbine cascade in which
the Harmonic Balance (HB) method is
applied for modeling rotor/stator Figure 85 Computational mesh for HB and TRS methods
interaction and pressure fluctuations
near trailing edges. Computational
results are compared with Transient
Rotor/Stator (TRS) results which
shows importance of unsteady
effects132. The harmonic balance
method requires only a single blade
passage be meshed. A structured HOH
mesh is generated for each of the two
blade rows, as shown in Figure 85. The
inlet and exit grid planes for each of the
blade rows correspond to the axial
planes where test data is available. The
blade passage mesh is made up of 1.3
million cells with a near wall spacing of
y+ = 1.0 - 2. The HB solver models the
fluid as an ideal gas with turbulence
closure provided by the Spalart-
Allmaras turbulence model. The solver
is run with a CFL number of 5.0, and
separate trials are conducted retaining
one, three, and five modes. The solver
has converted to a periodic, unsteady Figure 86 Instantaneous pressure distribution within the
solution within 4000 - 5000 iterations. compressor stage using (NLHB)
The TRS solver uses a time step is equal
510-5s. This value correspond 5 steps per vane passing (10 inner iterations per time step).

132 Grigoriev A.V., Iakunin A.I.,

Kuznechov N.B., Kondratiev V.F., Kortikov N.N., “Application of Harmonic Balance
Method to The Simulation of Unsteady Rotor/Stator Interaction In The Single Stage”, JSC ‘Klimov’, St - Petersburg,
Russia.
 113

Assessment of the effectiveness of the two methods of calculation is carried out on the basis of the
comparison of time required for obtaining of non-stationary periodic solutions on the interval of
time, sufficient for the passage of at least one rotation of the impeller. The HB-results showed that
CPU time is increased in 7 times for 5 modes compared time when calculating with one mode. Using
3 modes CPU time is increased (for one
iteration) in 3.3 times in comparison with
one-mode approximation. The acceleration of
the calculation, which is defined as the ratio of
the CPU time required to obtain a periodic
solution using the TRS method to the CPU
time of the decision on the HB method is 1:2 -
five modes, 1:1 - three modes and 3:1 - one
mode. Hence, the substantial savings (three
times) is observed only in the case of one –
mode approximation. It is important to note
that in all cases the calculations were carried
out at the same calculation grid, including two
blades. Figure 88, Figure 87 present Figure 87 Instantaneous predictions of turbulent
viscosity at mid-span turbine for the TRS
instantaneous predictions of turbulent
viscosity at mid - span for the HB and TRS
solutions. The stator wake enters the rotor passage and grows both laterally and in the stream wise
direction. This process continues as the stator wake is “chopped” by the leading edge of the rotor
blade and convects downstream. Figure 89 Illustrates the velocity magnitude change on the
interface line between two rows. Velocity profile has two minima, one of them (with great shame)
corresponds to edge wakes of the vane and the second minimum is associated with upstream acting
of blade leading edge on flow in axial gap.

Figure 89 velocity profile on interface line

Figure 88 Instantaneous predictions of between two rows
turbulent viscosity at mid-span turbine for the
HB
114
 115

7 Radial Flow

Up to now we were mostly concern with Axial flows. Now we pay homage to Radial flows which
designed in many everyday life tools. According to dictionary, having the working fluid flowing
mainly along the radii of rotation.

7.1 Centrifugal Compressor

Centrifugal compressors, as depicted in Figure
90, sometimes termed Radial compressors, are
a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-
absorbing turbomachinery133. The idealized
compressive dynamic turbo-machine achieves a
pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity
to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or
impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted
to an increase in potential energy/static
pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser.
The pressure rise in impeller is in most cases
almost equal to the rise in the diffuser section.

7.1.1 Theory of operation

In the case of where flow simply passes through
a straight pipe to enter a centrifugal
compressor; the flow is straight, uniform and
has no vorticity. As illustrated below α1 = 0°. As
the flow continues to pass into and through the
centrifugal impeller, the impeller forces the flow Figure 90 Centrifugal impeller with a highly
to spin faster and faster. According to a form of polished surface likely to improve performance
Euler's fluid dynamics equation, known as pump
and turbine equation, the energy input to the fluid is proportional to the flow's local spinning velocity
multiplied by the local impeller tangential velocity. In many cases the flow leaving centrifugal
impeller is near the speed of sound (340 m/s). The flow then typically flows through a stationary
compressor causing it to decelerate. These stationary compressors are actually static guide vanes
where energy transformation takes place. As described in Bernoulli's principle, this reduction in
velocity causes the pressure to rise leading to a compressed fluid.

7.1.2 Similarities to Axial Compressor

Centrifugal compressors are similar to axial compressors in that they are rotating airfoil based
compressors as shown in the adjacent figure.134,135 It should not be surprising that the first part of
the centrifugal impeller looks very similar to an axial compressor. This first part of the centrifugal
impeller is also termed an inducer. Centrifugal compressors differ from axials as they use a greater
change in radius from inlet to exit of the rotor/impeller. The 1940s-era German Heinkel HeS 011
experimental aviation turbojet engine was the first aviation turbojet design to have any sort of

133 Shepard, Dennis G. “Principles of Turbomachinery”, McMillan. ISBN 0-471-85546-4. LCCN 56002849, 1956.
134 Lakshminarayana, B. (1996). “Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery”, New York: John Wiley
& Sons Inc. ISBN 0-471-85546-4.
135 Japikse, David & Baines, Nicholas C., “Introduction to Turbomachinery”, Oxford: Oxford University press.

ISBN 0-933283-10-5, 1997.

 116

"mixed compressor" design in its fore-sections, as it had a single-stage "diagonal flow" main
compressor ahead of a triple-stage axial unit, driven by a twin-stage turbine.

7.1.3 Components of a simple Centrifugal Compressor

A simple centrifugal compressor has four components: inlet, impeller/rotor, diffuser, and collector.
Figure 91 shows each of the components of the flow path, with the flow (working gas) entering the
centrifugal impeller axially from right to left (blue). As a result of the impeller rotating clockwise
when looking downstream into the compressor, the flow will pass through the volute's discharge
cone moving away from the figure's viewer. The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple
pipe. It may include features such as a valve, stationary vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow)
and both pressure and temperature instrumentation. All of these additional devices have important
uses in the control of the centrifugal compressor.

Figure 91 Cut-away view of a turbocharger showing the centrifugal compressor

7.1.3.1 Inlet
The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple pipe. It may include features such as a valve,
stationary vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow) and both pressure and temperature
instrumentation. All of these additional devices have important uses in the control of the centrifugal
compressor.

7.1.3.2 Centrifugal Impeller

The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal impeller, Figure 90, which
contains a rotating set of vanes (or blades) that gradually raises the energy of the working gas. This
is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the gases can reach higher velocities and
 117

energy levels through the impeller's increasing radius. In many modern high-efficiency centrifugal
compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling near the speed of sound. Impellers are designed
in many configurations including "open" (visible blades), "covered or shrouded", "with splitters"
(every other inducer removed) and "w/o splitters" (all full blades). Figure 91 show open impellers
with splitters. Most modern high efficiency impellers use "back sweep" in the blade shape136-137.
Euler’s pump and turbine equation plays an important role in understanding impeller performance.

7.1.3.3 Diffuser
The next key component to the simple centrifugal compressor is the diffuser. Downstream of the
impeller in the flow path, it is the diffuser's responsibility to convert the kinetic energy (high velocity)
of the gas into pressure by gradually slowing (diffusing) the gas velocity. Diffusers can be vaneless,
vane or an alternating combination. High efficiency vane diffusers are also designed over a wide
range of solidities from less than 1 to over 4. Hybrid versions of vane diffusers include: wedge,
channel, and pipe diffusers. There are turbocharger applications that benefit by incorporating no
diffuser. Bernoulli's fluid dynamic principle plays an important role in understanding diffuser
performance.

Figure 92 Jet engine cutaway showing the centrifugal compressor and other parts.

7.1.3.4 Collector
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When the diffuser
discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum. When the diffuser
discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull's horn or a French horn, the

136Japikse, David. “Centrifugal Compressor Design and Performance”. Concepts ETI . ISBN 0-933283-03-2.
137 Aungier, Ronald H. (2000). “Centrifugal Compressors, A Strategy for Aerodynamic Design and Analysis”. ASME
Press. ISBN 0-7918-0093-8.
 118

collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a collector’s purpose is to gather
the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver this flow to a downstream pipe. Either the
collector or the pipe may also contain valves and instrumentation to control the compressor.

7.1.4 Applications
Below, is a partial list of centrifugal compressor applications each with a brief description of some of
the general characteristics possessed by those compressors. To start this list two of the most well-
known centrifugal compressor applications are listed; gas turbines and turbochargers.

7.1.4.1 In gas turbines and auxiliary power units

In their simple form, modern gas turbines operate on the Brayton cycle. Either or both axial and
centrifugal compressors are used to provide compression. The types of gas turbines that most often
include centrifugal compressors include turboshaft, turboprop, auxiliary power units, and micro-
turbines. The industry standards applied to all of the centrifugal compressors used in aircraft
applications are set by the FAA and the military to maximize both safety and durability under severe
conditions. Centrifugal impellers used in gas turbines are commonly made from titanium alloy
forgings. Their flow-path blades are commonly flank milled or point milled on 5-axis milling
machines. When tolerances and clearances are the tightest, these designs are completed as hot
operational geometry and deflected back into the cold geometry as required for manufacturing. This
need arises from the impeller's deflections experienced from start-up to full speed/full temperature
which can be 100 times larger than the expected hot running clearance of the impeller.

7.1.4.2 Automotive engine and diesel engine turbochargers and superchargers

Centrifugal compressors used in conjunction with reciprocating internal combustion engines are
known as turbochargers if driven by the engine’s exhaust gas and turbo-superchargers if
mechanically driven by the engine. Ideal gas properties often work well for the design, test and
analysis of turbocharger centrifugal compressor performance.

7.1.4.3 Natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the consumer
Centrifugal compressors for such uses may be one or multi-stage and driven by large gas turbines.
The impellers are often if not always of the covered style which makes them look much like pump
impellers. This type of compressor is also often termed an API-style. The power needed to drive these
compressors is most often in the thousands of horsepower (HP). Use of real gas properties is needed
to properly design, test and analyze the performance of natural gas pipeline centrifugal compressors.

7.1.4.4 Oil refineries, natural gas processing, petrochemical and chemical plants
Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often one-shaft multi-stage and driven by large steam or
gas turbines. Their casings are often termed horizontally split or barrel. Standards set by the industry
(ANSI/API, ASME) for these compressors result in large thick casings to maximize safety. The
impellers are often if not always of the covered style which makes them look much like pump
impellers. Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design, test and analyze their performance.

7.1.4.5 Air-conditioning and refrigeration and HVAC

Centrifugal compressors quite often supply the compression in water chillers cycles. Because of the
wide variety of vapor compression cycles (thermodynamic cycle, thermodynamics) and the wide
variety of workings gases (refrigerants), centrifugal compressors are used in a wide range of sizes
and configurations. Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design, test and analyze the
performance of these machines.
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7.1.4.6 In industry and manufacturing to supply compressed air

Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often multistage and driven by electric motors. Inter-
cooling is often needed between stages to control air temperature. Note that the road repair crew
and the local automobile repair garage find screw compressors better adapt to their needs Ideal gas
relationships are often used to properly design, test and analyze the performance of these machines.
Carrier’s equation is often used to deal with humidity.

7.1.4.7 In air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases

Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often multistage using inter-cooling to control air
temperature. Ideal gas relationships are often used to properly design, test and analyze the
performance of these machines when the working gas is air or nitrogen. Other gases require real gas
properties.

7.1.4.8 Oil field re-injection of high pressure natural gas to improve oil recovery
Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often one-shaft multi-stage and driven by gas turbines.
With discharge pressures approaching 700 bar, casing are of the barrel style. The impellers are often
if not always of the covered style which makes them look much like pump impellers. This type of
compressor is also often termed API-style. Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design,
test and analyze their performance.

7.2 Radial turbine

A radial turbine is a turbine in which the flow of the working fluid is radial to the shaft138. The
difference between axial and radial turbines consists in the way the fluid flows through the
components (compressor and turbine). Whereas for an axial turbine the rotor is 'impacted' by the
fluid flow, for a radial turbine, the flow is smoothly orientated perpendicular to the rotation axis, and
it drives the turbine in the same way water drives a watermill. The result is less mechanical stress
(and less thermal stress, in case of hot working fluids) which enables a radial turbine to be simpler,
more robust, and more efficient (in a similar power range) when compared to axial turbines. When

Figure 93 Ninety degree inward-flow radial turbine stage

it comes to high power ranges (above 5 MW) the radial turbine is no longer competitive (due to heavy
and expensive rotor) and the efficiency becomes similar to that of the axial turbines.

138 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

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7.2.1 Advantages and challenges

Compared to an axial flow turbine, a radial turbine can employ a relatively higher pressure ratio
(≈4) per stage with lower flow rates. Thus these machines fall in the lower specific speed and power
ranges. For high temperature applications rotor blade cooling in radial stages is not as easy as in axial
turbine stages. Variable angle nozzle blades can give higher stage efficiencies in a radial turbine stage
even at off-design point operation. In the family of hydro-turbines, Francis turbine is a very well-
known IFR turbine which generates much larger power with a relatively large impeller.

7.2.2 Types of Radial Turbines

Radial flow turbines may be classified as:
 Inward flow radial (IFR) turbines
 Cantilever turbine
 90 degree turbine (see Figure 93)
 Outward flow radial (OFR) turbines (see Figure 94)

7.2.2.1 Cantilever Radial Turbine

In cantilever IFR turbine the blades are limited to the region of the rotor tip extending from the rotor
in the axial direction. The cantilever blades are usually of the impulse type (or low reaction), such
that there is little change in relative velocity at inlet and outlet of the rotor. Aerodynamically, the
cantilever turbine is similar to an axial-impulse turbine and can even be designed by similar methods.
The fact that the flow is radially inwards hardly alters the design procedure because the blade radius
ratio r2/r3 is close to unity anyway.

7.2.2.2 90 Degree IFR Turbine

The 90° IFR turbine or centripetal turbine is very similar in appearance to the centrifugal
compressor, but with the flow direction and blade motion reversed.

Figure 94 Outward Flow Radial Turbine

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7.2.2.3 Outward-flow radial stages

In outward flow radial turbine stages, the flow of the gas or steam occurs from smaller to larger
diameters. The stage consists of a pair of fixed and moving blades. The increasing area of cross-
section at larger diameters accommodates the expanding gas. This configuration did not become
popular with the steam and gas turbines. The only one which is employed more commonly is the
Ljungstrom double rotation type turbine. It consists of rings of cantilever blades projecting from two
discs rotating in opposite directions. The relative peripheral velocity of blades in two adjacent rows,
with respect to each other, is high. This gives a higher value of enthalpy drop per stage. (see Figure
94).
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8 Best Practice Guidelines for Turbo Machinery CFD

Here we pay attention to the summary of the most important knowledge and experience a CFD
engineer needs in order to perform CFD simulations of turbo-machinery components139. The guide is
mainly aimed at axial turbo-machinery. The goal is to give a CFD engineer, who has just started
working with turbo-machinery simulations, a head start and avoid some of the most difficult pit-falls.
Experienced turbo-machinery CFD engineers can also use the guidelines in order to learn what other
experts consider best practice. The intended audience is expected to know basic CFD terminology
and have basic turbo-machinery knowledge, but no detailed knowledge about CFD for turbo-
machinery is needed. Before starting a new turbo machinery simulation it is wise to think carefully
of what it is that should be predicted and what physical phenomena that affect the results. This
chapter contains a brief overview of the various types of simulations and some hints of what can be
predicted with them.

8.1 Quasi-3D (Q3D) or 3D Simulation

8.1.1 2-D Simulations
These are often used in the early design phase in order to obtain a typical 2D section of a blade. For
cases with many long blades or vanes, like low-pressure turbines, a 2D simulation can also provide
reasonable results. If the area of the flow-path changes significantly in the axial direction it might be
necessary to instead make a quasi-3D simulation.

8.1.2 Quasi-3D (Q3D) Simulation

Two-dimensional flow analyses in the hub-to-shroud and blade-to-blade surfaces to approximate the
3-D flow in a blade passage. It is a 2-D simulation in which extra source terms are used to account for
the acceleration/deceleration caused by a changing channel height or growing end-wall boundary
layers. Codes focused on turbomachinery applications often have the possibility to perform quasi-3D
simulations, but most general purpose CFD codes cannot do this type of simulations, or require user
coding to implement the correct source terms in the equations.

8.1.3 Full 3D simulations

Are necessary if a true 3D geometry is needed to obtain correct secondary flows and/or shock
locations. For low-aspect-ratio cases with only a few short blades, like for example structurally
loaded turbine outlet guide vanes, the secondary flow development is important and a 3D simulation
is often necessary in order to obtain reasonable results. For applications where the end-wall
boundary layers grow 3D possibility and you require it. Many codes require special routines or
hidden commands to enable very quickly and interact with a large part of the flow-field it is necessary
to perform a full 3D simulation. This is often the case in compressors and fans, where the negative
pressure gradients make the boundary layers grow much quicker than what they do in for example
turbines. For cases where the shock location is very critical, like in transonic compressors, it is also
often necessary to perform a 3D simulation in order to obtain reasonable shock locations. Figure 95
shows the flow range from 2D to 3D by different vendor codes.

139 CFD on line series.

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3D transient Solver from ANSYS

Q3D Solver from

NUMECA
2-D Steady state
transonic viscous flow

Figure 95 Different Flow (2D, Q3D, and full 3D)

8.2 Single vs Multi-Stage Analysis

8.2.1 Single Stage
Many single-stage computations are still performed for turbomachinery design and analysis, and
before the introduction of multi row computations, CFD could only be applied to single blade rows in
isolation. For such computations, it is essential to ensure that the boundary conditions applied are
accurate. These can be extracted from a through-flow computation of the whole machine, and this is
the normal approach for design work, or alternatively, experimental measurements of the inlet and
exit flow field are applied as boundary conditions. The agreement between CFD and experimental
data shown here is better than average. There is a close match in the shape of all the characteristic
curves and the absolute levels of pressure ratio and choking mass flow are accurately reproduced.
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However, the stall point is not predicted accurately, and should not be expected to be, since stall is
inherently unsteady and involves the full-annulus flow field. Also, at part speeds, the predicted
efficiency values are noticeably lower than the measured values.

8.2.2 Multi-Stage Analysis

8.2.2.1 Steady Mixing-Plane simulations
Since the mixing-plane method was first introduced in [Denton & Singh 1979] it has become the
industry standard type of rotor-stator simulations. A mixing-plane simulation is steady and only
requires one rotor blade and one stator blade per stage. Between the rotating blade passage and the
steady vane passage the flow properties are circumferentially averaged in a so-called mixing-plane
interface. This will of course remove all transient rotor-stator interactions, but it still gives fairly
representative results. In some commercial codes (CFX for example) mixing-plane interfaces are also
called stage-interfaces.

8.2.2.2 Steady frozen rotor simulations

In a frozen rotor simulation the rotating and the stationary parts have a fixed relative position. A
frame transformation is done to include the rotating effect on the rotating sections. This will give a
steady flow and no transient effects are included. With a frozen-rotor simulation rotating wakes,
secondary flows, leading edge pressure increases etc. will always stay in exactly the same positions.
This makes a frozen rotor simulation very dependent on exactly how the rotors and the stators are
positioned. Most often a mixing-plane simulation gives better results. Frozen rotor simulations are
mainly performed to obtain a good starting flow-field before doing a transient sliding-mesh
simulation.

8.2.2.3 Unsteady Sliding Mesh stator-rotor simulations

This is the most complete type of stator-rotor simulation, and very CPU intensive. In most engines
the number of stators and rotors do not have a common denominator (to avoid instabilities caused
by resonance between different rings). Hence, to make a full unsteady sliding-mesh computation it is
necessary to have a mesh which includes the full wheel with all stators vanes and all rotor blades.
This is often not possible, instead it is necessary to reduce the number of vanes and blades by finding
a denominator that is almost common and then scales the geometry slightly circumferentially. Here
is an example: Real engine: 36 stator vanes, 41 rotor blades Approximated engine: 41 stator vanes,
41 rotor blades, making it possible to simulate only 1 stator vane and 1 rotor blade Scaling of stator:
All stator vanes are scaled by 36/41 = 0.8780 circumferentially.

8.2.2.4 Unsteady Harmonic Balance simulations

To overcome the computational costs associated with sliding mesh, a technique called Harmonic
Balance is used. The analysis exploits the fact that many unsteady flows of interest in turbomachinery
are periodic in time. Thus, the unsteady flow conservation variables may be represented by a Fourier
series in time with spatially varying coefficients. This assumption leads to a harmonic balance form
of the Euler or Navier–Stokes equations, which, in turn, can be solved efficiently as a steady problem
using conventional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) methods, including pseudo time marching
with local time stepping and multigrid acceleration. Figure 96 Displays a full analyses blade solution
using a harmonic balanced techniques, courtesy of (CD-Adapco.com). To relax the fundamental linear
assumption while taking advantage of the high solution efficiency, a nonlinear harmonic method was
proposed. Similarly to the time-domain Fourier model, the unsteadiness is represented by the
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Fourier series. But now each harmonic will be balanced (‘harmonic balancing’) respectively in the
nonlinear flow equations. Consequently, for a Fourier series retaining N harmonics, we will have 2N
equations for the complex harmonics. In addition, the time-averaged flow will now be different from
the steady flow due to the added deterministic stresses. So in total we have 2N+1 steady-like flow
equations, which are solved simultaneously to reflect the interactions between the unsteady
harmonics and the time mean flows. The interactions among the harmonics are included in a more
complete nonlinear harmonic formulation by Hall’s harmonic balance formulations. The nonlinear
harmonic approach have been extended to effectively solve rotor-rotor/stator-stator interactions in
multistage turbomachines140.

Figure 96 Full Blade Simulation using Harmonic Balanced Method

8.2.2.5 Hybrid steady-unsteady stator-rotor simulations

Hybrid steady-unsteady methods have been proposed in literature (Montomoli et al., 2011) in order
to have an unsteady simulation embedded in a multistage steady study. There are several advantages
related to this method: mainly grid size and number of iterations.

8.2.2.6 Other advanced multi-stage methods

Time-inclined, Adamszyk stresses, etc.

8.3 Inviscid or Viscid

For attached flows close to the design point and without any large separations it is often sufficient

140 L. He, T. Chen, R.G.

Wells, Y.S. Li and W. Ning, ‘Analysis of Rotor-Rotor and Stator-Stator Interferences in Multi-
stage Turbomachines’, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol.124, No.4, pp. 564-571, Oct, 2002.
 126

with an in-viscid Euler simulation in order to obtain reasonable blade loadings and pressure
distributions. Note that in-viscid Euler simulations should only be used if the boundary layers are
judged to not have a significant effect on the global flow-field. A viscous Navier-Stokes simulation is
necessary in order to predict losses, secondary flows and separations. As soon as separations are of
interest it is of course also necessary to do a viscous simulation. Note that with today’s computers it
is often not time and resources that make users run in-viscid Euler simulations. Running viscous
Navier-Stokes simulations is now so quick that it is not a time problem anymore. Euler simulations
are still interesting though, since with an in-viscid Euler simulation you don't have to worry about
wall resolutions, y+ values, turbulence modeling errors etc.

8.4 Transient or Steady-State

Most turbo-machinery simulations are performed as stationary simulations. Transient simulations
are done when some kind of transient flow behavior has a strong influence on the global flow field.
Examples of transient
simulations are detailed
simulations of rotor-stator
interaction effects,
simulations of large unsteady
separations etc. Sometimes
when you perform a steady
stationary simulation you can
see tendencies of unsteady
behavior like for example
periodic vortex shedding
behind blunt trailing edges.
This is often first seen as
periodical variations of the
residuals. If the unsteady
tendencies are judged to not Figure 97 Transient Blade Row extensions enable efficient multi-
affect the overall simulation stage CFD simulation
results it might be necessary
to coarsen the mesh close to the vortex shedding or run a different turbulence model in order to make
the simulation converge. Sometimes you are still forced to run a transient simulation and average the
results if you don't obtain a converged steady solution. Figure 97 shows the transient blade row
extensions enable efficient multi-stage CFD simulation ( courtsys of ANAYS.com).

8.5 Meshing
In turbomachinery applications structured multi-block hexahedral meshes are most often used for
flow-path simulations. In most solvers a structured grid requires less memory, provides superior
accuracy and allows a better boundary-layer resolution than an unstructured grid. By having cells
with a large aspect ratio around sharp leading and trailing edges a structured grid also provides a
better resolution of these areas. Many companies have automatic meshing tools that automatically
mesh blade sections with a structured mesh without much user intervention. Unstructured meshes
are used for more complex and odd geometries where a structured mesh is difficult to create. Typical
examples where unstructured meshes are often used are blade tip regions, areas involving leakage
 127

flows and secondary air systems, film

cooling ducts etc. When meshing avoid to
create large jumps in cell sizes. Typically
the cell size should not change with more
than a factor of 1.25 between neighboring
cells. For structured meshes also try to
create fairly continues mesh lines and
avoid discontinuities where the cell
directions suddenly change. For multi-
block structured meshes avoid placing the
singular points where blocks meet in
regions with strong flow gradients since
most schemes have a lower accuracy in
these singular points. Figure 98 shows a
typical meshing for a turbomachinery Figure 98 Typical meshing of a Turbomachinery stage
stage.

8.5.1 Mesh size Guidelines

It is difficult to define, a priori, the mesh size. The required mesh size depends on the purpose of the
simulation. If the main goal is to obtain static pressure forces a coarse mesh is often able to obtain a
good solution, especially when an accurate resolution of the boundary layers is not required. For 2D
in-viscid simulations of one blade a mesh with say 3,000 cells is most often sufficient. For 3D in-viscid
blade simulations a mesh size of about 40,000 cells is usually sufficient. On in-viscid Euler simulations
the cells should be fairly equal in size and no boundary layer resolution should be present. Avoid
having too skewed cells. For loss predictions and cases where boundary layer development and
separation is important the
mesh needs to have a boundary
layer resolution. The boundary
layer resolution can either be
coarse and suitable for a wall
function simulation or very fine
and suitable for a low-Re
simulation. For further
information about selecting the
near-wall turbulence model
please see the turbulence
modeling section. In 3D single-
blade simulations a decent
wall-function mesh typically
has around 100,000 cells. This
type of mesh size is suitable for Figure 99 Multi-block grid for the space shuttle main engine fuel
quick design iterations where it turbine
is not essential to resolve all
secondary flows and vortices.
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A good 3D wall-function mesh of a blade section intended to resolve secondary flows well should
have at least 400,000 cells. A good low-Re mesh with resolved boundary layers typically has around
1,000,000 cells. In 2D blade simulations a good wall-function mesh has around 20,000 cells and a
good low-Re mesh with resolved boundary layers has around 50,000 cells. Along the suction and
pressure surfaces it is a good use about 100 cells in the stream wise direction. In the radial direction
a good first approach is to use something like 30 cells for a wall-function mesh and 100 cells for a
low-Re mesh. It is important to resolve leading and trailing edges well. Typically at least 10 cells,
preferably 20 should be used around the leading and trailing edges. For very blunt and large leading
edges, like those commonly found on HP turbine blades, 30 or more cells can be necessary. Cases
which are difficult to converge with a steady simulation and which show tendencies of periodic
vortex shedding from the trailing edge, can sometimes be "tamed" by using a coarse mesh around the
trailing edge. This, of course, reduces the accuracy but can be a trick to obtain a converged solution
if time and computer resources do not allow a transient simulation to be performed. Figure 99 shows
a multi-block grid for the space shuttle main engine fuel turbine (AIAA 98-0968).

8.5.2 Boundary Mesh Resolution

For design iteration type of simulations where a wall function approach is sufficient y+ for the first
cell should be somewhere between 20 and 200. The outer limit is dependent on the actual Re number
of the simulations. For cases with fairly low Re numbers make sure to keep the maximum y+ as low
as possible. For more accurate simulations with resolved boundary layers the mesh should have a y+
for the first cell which is below 1. Some new codes are now using a hybrid wall treatment that allows
a smooth transition from a coarse wall-function mesh to a resolved low-Re mesh. Use some extra care
when using this type of hybrid technique since it is still fairly new and unproven. Outside of the first
cell at a wall a good rule of thumb is to use a growth ratio normal to the wall in the boundary layer of
maximum 1.24. For a low-Re mesh this usually gives around 40 cells in the boundary layer whereas
a wall-function mesh does not require more than 10 cells in the boundary layer. If you are uncertain
of which wall distance to mesh with you can use a y+ estimation tool to estimate the distance needed
to obtain the desired y+. These estimation tools are very handy if you have not done any previous
similar simulations. As a rule of thumb a wall-function mesh typically requires around 5 to 10 cells
in the boundary layer whereas a resolved low-Re mesh requires about 40 cells in the boundary layer.

8.5.3 Periodic Meshing

To reduce the time, efforts and complexity of meshing the rotational periodicity of the impeller
geometry is taken advantage. Axial machines and rotating fluid zone of radial & mixed flow machines
are meshed using this approach. Choosing a single periodic flow passage is the first step in this
approach. The periodic angle of the flow passage is decided by the number of vanes/blades present.
For example, Periodic angle or Angle of Rotational Periodicity = 360°/number of blades.

 For a radial turbine with 16 blades, Angle of rotational periodicity → 360°/16 =22.5° (single
blade passage)
 For a pump with 4 blades, Angle of rotational periodicity → 360°/4 =90° (single blade
passage)

This periodic geometric sector can be chosen in two different ways.

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 Flow passage between two blades (suction side of first blade to the pressure side of next
blade).
 To have one complete blade inside the periodic flow passage.

There are two different scenarios based on the flow physics. If the flow physics is also periodic (most
axial flow machines), the mesh is generated only for a single blade fluid passage (ϴ), regardless of the
number of blades and is directly used for simulation. But if the flow physics is not periodic (radial &
mixed flow machines with volute), the mesh is generated for the single periodic flow passage / sector
and is copy rotated to get mesh for the complete geometry (360°). Meshing software provides an
option for periodic meshing to ensure both sides of periodic passage has same number of nodes and
same node location with a rotational offset of ϴ.

8.6 Boundary Conditions

Turbomachinery CFD employs multi-region approach, the computational model is split into a
number of regions. Any number of regions is allowed. Each region has its own independent mesh
and case set-up. Regions are like serial connected and communicate via interfaces. Typically, velocity
is prescribed at the inlet and pressure is prescribed at the outlet. Describing different types of
boundary conditions and when they should be used not easy as it sound. For each of the analysis
methods, boundary conditions must be specified at the inlet and exit of the computational domain.
In addition, for averaging
plane methods, average flow
properties must be
transferred between the blade
rows at grid interfaces141. It is
common practice to force the
flow to be axisymmetric at
these boundaries. Although
axisymmetric boundary
conditions are simple to apply
and tend to be numerically
robust, they can reflect
outgoing waves and thereby
hinder convergence and
contaminate the interior
solution. Axisymmetric
boundary conditions can be
particularly bad at the inlet of
transonic compressors or at
the exit of transonic turbines,
and between closely-spaced Figure 100 Pressure contour plot, 2nd order spatial discretization
scheme

141Rodrick V. Chima, “Calculation of Multistage Turbomachinery Using Steady Characteristic Boundary

Conditions”, AIAA 98-0968.
 130

blade rows. Giles142 presented a unified theory for the construction of Non-reflecting boundary
conditions for the Euler equations (NRBC’s). The boundary conditions are based on the linearized
Euler equations written in terms of perturbations of primitive variables about some mean flow.
Wave-like solutions are substituted into the flow equations, and the solution is circumferentially
decomposed into Fourier modes. The zeroth mode corresponds to the mean flow and is treated
according to one-dimensional characteristic theory. This allows average changes in incoming
characteristic variables to be specified at the boundaries. Simply put, since the numerical solution is
calculated on a truncated finite domain, and one must prevent any nonphysical reflections of
outgoing waves at the far-field boundaries that could contaminate the numerical solution. This
becomes essential in turbomachinery applications in which the boundaries are often not very far
from the blades, because the physical spacing between the blade rows can be quite small. It therefore
becomes highly important for an accurate simulation to construct nonreflecting boundary conditions
(NRBCs). Preventing spurious reflections that would corrupt the solution is not only important to get
an accurate prediction of the flow field, but also to get more efficient computations; convergence rate
is enhanced due to an improvement of the transmission of outgoing waves, allowing smaller meshes
to be used143. Figure 100 compares a contour plot the pressure Vs. y-coordinate for both Riemann
BC and NRBC’s in a supersonic cascade for a 2-D flow (F. De Raedt, 2015). The most notable
observation is that at the outflow, when Riemann BC are applied, the pressure lines diverge from the
boundary and rarely cross that boundary. This is a direct result of the reflectivity of the boundary
conditions. When the boundary is far away from the airfoil, the effectiveness of these reflections on
the airfoil flow-field is minimal, as observed by comparing the long flow-field simulations of the
Riemann BC and NRBC. However when the boundary is close to the airfoil, the simulations using
Riemann BC become completely inaccurate. In contrast the short flow-field simulations using the
NRBC result in very similar pressure contours to those of the long flow-field. This clearly
demonstrates the effect of the NRBC implementation. One can have a closer look at the boundary
itself to further clarify this comparison144.

8.7 Turbulence Modeling

Selecting a suitable turbulence model for turbo-machinery simulations can be a challenging task.
There is no single model which is suitable for all types of simulations. Which turbulence model CFD
engineers use has as much to do with beliefs and traditions as with knowledge and facts? There are
many different schools. However, below follows some advices that most CFD engineers in the turbo-
machinery field tend to agree upon. For attached flows close to the design point a simple algebraic
model like the Baldwin-Lomax model can be used. Another common choice for design-iteration type
of simulations is the one-equation model by Spalart-Allmaras. This model has become more popular
in the last years due to the many inherent problems in more refined two-equation models. The big
advantage with both the Baldwin-Lomax model and the Spalart-Allmaras model over more advanced
models is that they are very robust to use and rarely produce completely unphysical results. In order
to accurately predict more difficult cases, like separating flows, rotating flows, flows strongly affected
by secondary flows etc. it is often necessary to use a more refined turbulence model. Common choices

142 Giles, Michael B., “Nonreflecting Boundary Conditions for Euler Equation Calculations,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 28,
No. 12, Dec. 1990, pp. 2050-2058.
143 “Three-Dimensional Nonreflecting Boundary Conditions for Swirling Flow in Turbomachinery”, Journal of

Propulsion and Power Vol. 23, No. 5, September–October 2007.

144 F. De Raedt, “Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions for non-ideal compressible fluid flows”, Master of Science at

the Delft University of Technology, 2015.

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are two-equation models like the k-ε model. Two-equation models are based on the Boussinesq eddy
viscosity assumption and this often leads to an over-production of turbulent energy in regions with
strong acceleration or deceleration, like in the leading edge region, regions around shocks and in the
suction peak on the suction side of a blade. To reduce this problems it is common to use a special
model variant using, for example, Durbin's realizability constraint or the Kato-Launder modification.
Note that different two-equation models behave differently in these problematic stagnation and
acceleration regions. Worst is probably the standard κ-ε, model, κ-ω model are slightly better but still
do not behave well. More modern variants like Menter's SST κ-ω model also has problems, whereas
the v2f model by Durbin behaves better.

8.8 Aero-Mechanics
Now let’s look at the challenges of aeromechanics. Whereas the aerodynamicist generally prefers
designs with very thin blades, the structural engineer prefers thick blades to minimize stress and
optimize vibration characteristics. Those interested in material cost and weight would no doubt side
with the aerodynamicist, whereas those responsible for honoring the machine warranty would favor
the structural viewpoint. Achieving agreement requires a balance, and that is where the field of
aeromechanics comes in. Aeromechanics is by no means new. What is new is the fidelity with which
engineers can practically consider both the fluid mechanics and the structural aspects of the solution.
The real behavior of rotating blades is indeed very complex, and the mechanical loads are very high.
For example, a single low-pressure steam turbine blade rotating at operating speed generates a load
of several hundred tons! Long, thin blades are susceptible to vibration. Engineers strive to design
blades whose natural frequencies do not coincide with the disturbances that arise due to operating
speed, etc. That is complicated enough, but there are also periodic disturbances that can originate
from more distant blade rows or aerodynamic effects145.

Figure 101 Analysis provided vibration required for flutter analysis

145 ANSYS Blog.

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In the past, analysis of fluids and structural dynamics was mostly separate and simplified. But for
some time, at least in principle, the ability to perform high-fidelity coupled analysis has been
available. In reality, solving for time-dependent, three-dimensional fluid-structure interaction is very
time-consuming and expensive, even on today’s high performance computing systems. Engineers
have opted for more practical, usually disconnected and often lower-fidelity analysis methods.
Recently, practical yet high-fidelity multiple physics solution methods have emerged.
Prediction of aerodynamic blade damping, or “flutter,” is one such method. The procedure is to first
solve for the mechanical modes of vibration, and then feed that information to the CFD simulation.
The unsteady CFD simulation deforms the blade in the presence of the flow field and predicts
whether the blade is aerodynamically damped, and hence stable, or not. This high-fidelity approach
is practical because it provides a solution to the full wheel (all of the many blades in a given row) by
solving only for one or at most a few blades in the blade row of interest. Cyclic symmetry is the
enabling structural technology here, while the Fourier Transformation method is key on the CFD
side. Tightly coupled these two efficient methods provides great advances in computing fidelity and
speed. Predicting forced response is essentially the inverse workflow to flutter. Figure 101 shows
where analysis provides the mechanical modes of blade vibration required for flutter analysis. First,
the unsteady fluid dynamic loads are predicted, and made available to the structural solver. After a
mechanical harmonic response simulation, the engineer evaluates the results for acceptable levels of
blade displacement, strain and stress. The concept of Nodal Diameter is explained next.

8.8.1 Nodal Diameter

Natural frequency is the frequency at which an object vibrates when excited by force. At this
frequency, the structure offers the least resistance to a force and if left uncontrolled, failure can occur.
Mode shape is deflection of object at a given natural frequency. A guitar string is a good example of
natural frequency and mode shapes. When struck, the string vibrates at a certain frequency and
attains a deflected shape. The eigenvalue
(natural frequency) and the accompanying
eigenvector (mode shape) are calculated to
define the dynamics of a structure. A turbine
bladed disk has many natural frequencies and
associated mode shapes. In the case of a bladed
disk, the mode shapes have been described as
Figure 102 Examples of Nodal Diameter
nodal diameters. The term nodal diameter is
derived from the appearance of a circular geometry, like a disk, vibrating in a certain mode. Mode
shapes contain lines of zero out-of-plane displacement which cross the entire disk as shown in Figure
102. In other words, a node line is a line of zero displacement and the displacement is out of phase
on the sides of the line represented by white and gray shades in Figure 102. These are commonly
called nodal diameters. Hence the natural frequency and nodal diameter are required to describe a
bladed disk mode146.

8.9 Near Wall Treatment

For on-design simulations without any large separated regions it is often sufficient to use a wall-

146Mohamed Hassan, “Vibratory Analysis of Turbomachinery Blades”, Master of Mechanical Engineering,

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Hartford, Connecticut, December, 2008.
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function model close to the wall, preferably with some form of non-equilibrium wall-function that is
sensitized to stream wise pressure gradients. For off-design simulation, or simulations involving
complex secondary flows and separations, it is often necessary to use a low-Re model. There exist
many low-Re models that have been used with success in turbo machinery simulations. A robust and
often good choice is to use a one-equation model, like for example the Wolfstein model, in the inner
parts of the boundary layer. There are also several Low-Re κ-ε models that work well. Just make sure
they don't suffer from the problem with overproduction of turbulent energy in regions with strong
acceleration or deceleration. In the last few years Menter's low-Re SST κ-ω model has gained
increased popularity.

8.10 Transition Prediction

Transition refers to the process when a laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and transitions to
a turbulent boundary layer. There are two types of transition - natural transition, where inherent
instabilities in the boundary layer cause the transition and by-pass transition, where convection and
diffusion of turbulence from the free-stream into the boundary layer cause the transition. Most
transitions in turbo machinery are by-pass transitions caused by free-stream turbulence and other
external disturbances like wakes, vortices and surface defects. Simulating transition in a CFD code
accurately is very difficult. Often a separate transition model needs to be solved in order to specify
the transition location and length. Predicting natural transition in a pure CFD code is not possible.
Predicting by-pass transition in a pure CFD code is almost impossible, although there are people who
claim to be able to predict by-pass transition with low-Re two-equation models. However, this is
usually on special test cases and with simulations that have been tuned for these special cases, see
for example [Saville 2002]. In reality transition is a very complex and sensitive process where
disturbances like incoming wakes and vortices from previous stages, surface roughness effects and
small steps or gaps in the surfaces play a significant role.
The turbo machinery codes that have transition prediction models often use old ad-hoc 147 models
like the Abu-Ghannam and Shaw model [Abu-Ghannam 1980] or the Mayle model [Mayle 1991].
These models can be quite reliable if they have been validated and tuned for a similar application. Do
not trust your transition predictions without having some form of experimental validation. Menter
has also recently developed a new form of transition model that might work fairly well, but it is still
too new and untested. For some turbo machinery applications, like modern high-lift low-pressure
turbines, transition is critical. For these applications a CFD code with a transition model that has been
tuned for this type of applications should be used.

8.11 Numerical Consideration

Use at least a second order accurate scheme for the flow variables. Some codes require a first order
scheme for the turbulent variables (κ - ε) in order to converge well. It might be sufficient with a first
order scheme only on the turbulence variables, but a second order scheme is of course preferable.

8.12 Convergence Criteria

To know when a solution is converged is not always that easy. You need some prior experience of
your CFD code and your application to judge when a simulation is converged. For normal pure aero

147 Latin phrase meaning “for this purpose”.

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simulations without resolved walls, i.e. with wall functions or in-viscid Euler simulations,
convergence can most often be estimated just by looking at the residuals. Exactly what the residuals
should be is not possible to say, it all depends on how your particular code computes and scales the
residuals. Hence, make sure to read the manuals and plot the convergence of a few global parameters
before you decide what the residuals should be for a solution to converge. Note also that many
manuals for general purpose CFD codes list overly aggressive convergence criteria that often produce
un-converged results. For simulations with resolved walls it is good to look at the convergence of
some global properties, like total pressure losses from the inlet to the outlet. For heat transfer
simulations it is even trickier since the aerodynamic field can look almost converged although the
thermal field is not converged at all. If doing heat transfer simulations make sure to plot the heat-
transfer, run for some time, and plot it again to make sure that it doesn't change anymore. With very
well resolved walls and heat transfer it can sometimes take 10 times longer for the thermal field to
converge.

8.13 Single or Double Precision

With today’s computers and cheap memory prices it often does not cost much extra to run in double
precision. Before using single precision you should first investigate how your software and hardware
works with double precision. If the extra time and memory needed for double precision is negligible
you should of course always run in double precision. With double precision you never have to worry
about round-off errors. Always using double precision is one way of avoiding one type of pit-falls in
the complex world of CFD simulations. Use double precision when you have resolved boundary layers
(Y+ around 1) and when you use advanced physical models like combustion, free-surface simulations,
spray and transient simulations with quick mesh motions.

8.14 Heat Transfer Prediction

Besides listing the general heat transfer mechanisms involved (namely conduction, convection,
radiation) heat transfer prediction in CFD may be seen as or split into two cases. Mesh consists of
fluid domain(s): you want to know how heat inserted into the fluid domain (e.g. via the flowing
medium) changes the temperature field along the flow path. Be it a steady or transient run, a fluid
which enters with a given temperature will usually experience temperature variations, for instance,
caused by convective boundary conditions, prescribed temperature profiles at flow obstacles etc.
Mesh consists of fluid and solid domain(s): additionally to the above, you want info too w.r.t .the
(spatial, temporal or even spectral) temperature field distribution in surrounding, confining or
immersed solids like channel walls or heat exchanger tubes. This is also called conjugate heat transfer
CHT in the CFD context. CHT requires a good boundary layer resolution; usually the wall mesh needs
to be rather refined, to obtain realistic heat flux results at the fluid/solid interface. Flow and heat
transfer convergence require different time step settings, to properly capture changes in flow and
heat quantities respectively. In either case, verify (strict necessity depends on CFD code used, CFX
for instance checks and assists in regard) that model dimensions, boundary conditions and
properties are in consistent units, hold appropriate values. Check temperature-dependence of
properties and other numbers before the run. In heat transfer predictions (depending on the CFD
code in use) besides the flow solver, you may have to activate the thermal solver too, as a job
specification.
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