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Aspect of Design and Developments in EAF

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 STEEL MAKING
Aspect of Design and Developments
in EAF
Riddhi Oza and S. K. Dutta
Metallurgical and Materials Engg. Dept., Faculty of Tech. & Engg.
The M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is more popular due to good quality product of alloy steels. Construction and design
aspects of EAF are highlighted. Developments in EAF, with the aim of i) reducing operational cost, ii) improving
efficiency of the furnace, and iii) quality of products, are also discussed.
Introduction
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is a furnace which supplies
heat to the charging materials for melting by means of an
electric arc. Arc furnaces are range in sizes and capacities
from small units of approximately one tonne capacity
(used in foundries for producing casting products) to larger
units of up to 400 tonnes used for secondary steelmaking.
Temperatures of industrial electric arc furnace can be
increased to 1,800°C; while small laboratory units can be
gone up to 3,000°C. The first EAFs were developed by Paul
Heroult of France, with a commercial plant established
in the United States in the year 1907. Figure 1 shows the
basic layout of EAF[1]. Arc furnaces differ from induction
furnaces, in that the charge materials is directly exposed
to an electric arc, and the current in the furnace terminals
passes through the charged materials. EAF process is
more popular due to: i) it requires less capital investment,
ii) it has readymade market and easily available of raw
material (i.e. scrap) from local market, iii) it requires less
installation period, and iv) it gives high metallic yield and
good quality product. High metallic yields compiled with
high-quality of the product obtained in EAFs are fully
exploited in the production of costly alloy steels. EAF can
be operated in AC or DC sources. But AC – EAFs are more
commonly used.
Fig. 1: Basic Layout of an EAF
IRON & STEEL REVIEW | 202 | DECEMBER 2014
VOL. 58 NO. 7
Construction
An electric arc furnace used for steelmaking consists
of a refractory-lined vessel, usually water-cooled in larger
sizes, covered with a refractory roof, and through which
one or three graphite electrodes enter into the furnace. The
furnace is primarily consisting of main parts as follows:
1. Furnace body
2. Roof
3. Gear for furnace body movement
4. Electrode, their holder and support
5. Electrical equipments like transformer, cables, electrode
control mechanism.
1) Furnace body
It consists of shell, walls, door and spout.
a) Furnace Shell
The furnace shell is typically made of carbon steel
sheets that are rolled and welded. The furnace shell must
have sufficient strength to hold weight of the lining and
metal and withstand the pressure of the lining which
expands on heating; it also should not be heated to more
than 100 to 150°C. The top of the shell is open and is
covered with a tight fitting but removable dome shaped
roof structure. Shape of the shell determines shape of
reaction chamber. Hearth can be cylindrical, conical or
cylindro-conical. The shell bottom is usually spherical
which ensures maximum strength. Other openings are
provided in the furnace shell for oxygen, lime and carbon
injections, oxy-fuel burners, etc. The hearth may be
hemispherical in shape, or in an eccentric bottom tapping
furnace. The hearth has the shape of a halved egg[2].
b) Furnace Walls
They are cylindrical in shape and extend from slag line
to top of the shell. Height depends on nature of charge
 STEEL MAKING VOL. 58 NO. 7

material. If the charge material is light in weight and lowered by manual or automatic controls. These controls can
oxygen lancing is done; then height of wall should be more. be operated manually when the bottoms of the electrodes
Gap is left in the wall during lining of wall for putting of are raised to the roof or when electrodes are shifted. The
taphole. The furnace is lined with refractory. Depending on mechanism of raising and lowering the electrodes are shown
type of melting practice, either acid or basic refractory are in Figure 4[2]. The furnace designer will make the electrode
used; generally basic lining is used to remove sulphur and circle as small as possible to increase the speed of melting.
phosphorus from the melt. For efficient melting, the arc must be stabilised to supply
uniform amount of energy. The electrodes should be vertical
c) Door
from all sightings around the furnace.
The shell has door openings cut into it and a cooling
frame welded around the door. The door-lifting supports
are also welded onto the shell. Charging door is
diametrically opposite to spout. The size of charging door
should be so chosen that free access for visual inspection
and fettling of the hearth and free entry of charging boxes
should be easily done. The door width is about 0.25 of
the diameter of reaction chamber and height is 0.8 of the
width. Door is lined with basic bricks and water cooled.
d) Spout
The spout opening is cut-out of the shell and the spout
frame attachment welded onto the shell. Tapping spout
is a U-shaped chute lined inside with fireclay brick. It Fig. 2: Furnace slide valve used to hold back slag
is attached to furnace shell at an angle of 10-12o. New
designs and changing the locations of tapholes may reduce
the physical and mechanical problems encountered with
the spout. One of these alternatives is the side slide gate
spout (Figure 2), and another is eccentric bottom tapping
with the use of a slide gate (Figure 3)[2].
2) Roof
The roof is a domed shape and rises about 1% in span
towards the centre. Roof has three holes to allow insertion
of the electrodes. There are three types of roofs: i) fixed
roof for small furnace and charging take place through the
door, ii) swing roof along with electrodes swings clearly
off the body of the furnace to allow charging from top; iii)
lifting roof is lifted from the furnace body and moves to one Fig. 3: Eccentric bottom taphole furnace (a) With slide gate attached to
side to facilitate top charging to the furnace. furnace bottom (b)

3) Gear for furnace body movement 5) Electrical Equipments

Body of furnace needs to be titled nearly through 450 on
the tapping side and 150 on the slagging side. The tilting
gear is operated either by hydraulic or electric. Hydraulic
tilting arrangement is very smooth.
4) Electrode System
A typical alternating current furnace has three
electrodes and for direct current furnace has one electrode.
Electrodes are round in section, and typically in segments
with threaded couplings, so that as the electrodes wear,
new segments can be added easily. The electrode can be
graphite or carbon. The electrodes are supported on three
separate arms and held to the electrode arm by a spring-
clamped, pneumatically released electrode holder. The
electrode arms support the electrodes, holders, bus tubes,
and transformer power cables. The electrodes are raised and
The electric arc furnace secondary electrical circuit
consists of several components including the delta closure,
power cables, bus tubes, etc. The regulating system
maintains approximately constant current and power
input during the melting of the charge. The mast arms
holding the electrodes carry heavy bus bars, which may
be hollow water-cooled copper pipes carrying current to
the electrode holders. Heavy water-cooled cables connect
the bus tubes/arms with the transformer located adjacent
to the furnace. To protect the transformer from heat, it
is installed in a vault. A mid-sized modern steelmaking
furnace would have a transformer rated about 60 MVA,
with a secondary voltage between 400 and 900 volts and
a secondary current in excess of 44 kilo amperes. To
produce a tonne of steel in an electric arc furnace requires
approximately 400 to 500 kWh per metric tonne.

IRON & STEEL REVIEW | 204 | DECEMBER 2014

 STEEL MAKING
Fig. 4: Apparatuses for raising and lowering electrodes. [(a) Arrangement
of electrode, (b) Electrode arm arrangement with power-operated
electrode holder, (c) Arrangement of electrode arm using power operated
electrode holders using piston]
Design of Furnace
The calculations for design of different parts of an
electric arc furnace are on the basis of the Figure 5[3].
➢ Shape and dimensions of the bath
The hearth is usually conical-spherical with the banks
inclined at an angle of 450. This form ensures quick
melting.
Since density of steel at melting point is 6.88 x 103 kg/
m 3, hence one tonne of molten steel occupies 0.145 m3
i.e. Vm=0.145 m3. Therefore, 100 tonnes molten steel will
occupy 14.5 m3. (Vm is volume of liquid steel.)
The volume of slag, Vslag=15% of Vm i.e., Vslag=0.15 x
14.5=2.175 m3.
Therefore, total volume will be 16.675 m3.
Fig. 5: Cross-sectional cut-out of an EAF for design basis of calculations
IRON & STEEL REVIEW | 206 | DECEMBER 2014
VOL. 58 NO. 7
➢ Height of reaction chamber
The diameter-to-depth ratio of the bath operating by the
basic process is usually taken as:
D = 5H ---- (1)
Where, D = bath diameter, m
H = total depth of the bath, m.
In existing furnaces, the height (h1), of the spherical
portion is roughly 1/5 of the total bath depth:
h1 = 0.2H ---- (2)
And the depth of the conical portion:
h2 = 0.8H ---- (3)
The total volume of the bath, Vb , is the sum of the
volumes of the truncated cone and that of the spherical
segment.
By virtue of the relationships given above:
Vb = 0.0968 D3 (m3) ---- (4)
Therefore,
0.0968 D3 = 16.675 (m3).
Therefore, from equations 1, 2 and 3; getting the
following values:
D = 5.564 m, H = 1.113 m,
h1 = 0.223 m, h2 = 0.89 m.
Diameter of spherical bottom,
d = D - 2(h2) = 5.564 - 2(0.89) = 3.784 m.
➢ Dimensions of the reaction chamber
The banks of a furnace are usually made of 0.1 to 0.2 m
above the door sill level or the bath surface, to ensure that
the slag does not contact the brickwork or reach the joint
between the wall blocks and banks.
The diameter of the reaction chamber is:
Drc = D + 0.2 (m) ---- (5)
Drc = 5.564 + 0.2 = 5.764 m.
It is recommended that the following relationship be used
in determining the height of the reaction chamber (H1),
H1= (0.4 to 0.6) Drc ---- (6)
For large-capacity furnaces, taking the lower value (i.e. 0.4)
Therefore, H1= 2.306 m
The height of the roof (h3 ) is:
h3 = 0.15 D1 ---- (7)
Where, D1 is ≈ 1.0 m wider than Drc.
D1 = Drc + 1.0,
h3 = 0.15 (Drc + 1.0) ---- (8)
Therefore, h3 = 0.15 (5.764 + 1.0) = 1.015 m
The total height of the roof above the bath level is given
as:
H2 = H1 + h3 ---- (9)
H2 = 2.306 + 1.015 = 3.321 m.
 STEEL MAKING
The recommended slope (S) for the inclination of the
wall is roughly 10% of the height from the line of banks to
roof skewbacks:
Slope (S) = H1 x 0.1 = 2.306 x 0.1 = 0.2306 m
The diameter of the reaction chamber at the level of the
roof skewbacks (i.e. at the level of the upper edge of the
furnace shell) is:
D1 = Drc + 2S ---- (10)
D1 = 5.764 + 2 x 0.221 = 6.206 m.
The thickness of the lining is found by thermal analysis
from the condition that the furnace shell should not be
heated above 200°C at the end of the furnace campaign.
With the refractory lining d m thick, the furnace will have
the following inside diameter of the shell:
Di.sh = Drc + 2 d ---- (11)
Where, d = 0.6 m for 100 to 200 tonnes capacity furnace.
Therefore, Di.sh = 5.764 + 2 x 0.6 = 6.964 m.
Thickness of shell is kept around 0.05 m.
Therefore, outer side diameter of the shell:
Do.sh = 7.064 m.
Transformer Power and Furnace Productivity
Power of transformer can be found by means of energy
balance for a given capacity and tap to tap time. Table 1
shows some recommendations on transformer power for
furnaces of different size, which are based on experiences
in many countries[3].
By analogy with the existing furnaces, the transformer
power (Pap) may be taken as 35 MVA. Noting the
inevitable switching off of the furnace during melting
required to push the scrap from the banks, partial
operation of the furnace at a reduced voltage when the
arcs are open and radiation of much heat onto the walls
and roof, the average power consumed during the melting
period can be found by using a factor of 0.8 – 0.9:
Pav = 0.8 Pap = 0.8 x 35,000 = 28,000 KVA ---- (12)
Useful power consumed during the melting period:
Pu = Pav cos j hel = 28,000 x 0.85 x 0.9 = 21,420 KW --(13)
➢ Voltage taps
For normal course of a melting process, it is necessary
to vary the power and the length of arc during various
periods of heat. This is achieved by tapping the high
voltage winding of the furnace transformer. The melting
period is carried out at full power of the transformer and
long arcs (the highest voltage tap), while refining can
Table 1: Recommended Transformer Power for Furnaces
Furnace Capacity (t) g 25 50 75 100 150 200 250 400
Transformer Power for Alloy Steel, (MVA) 15 - 18 20 - 25 -- 30 - 35 -- 55 - 70 -- --
Transformer Power for Carbon Steel, (MVA) 18 - 22 28 - 32 30 - 45 40 - 50 45 - 60 60 - 80 90 120
Transformer Power for Super-powerful Furnace, (MVA) -- 40 -- 60 -- 125 -- 200
IRON & STEEL REVIEW | 208 | DECEMBER 2014
VOL. 58 NO. 7
be done at a reduced power and short arcs (a lower tap).
High power can be supplied to furnaces more easily by
increasing the secondary voltage.
The upper voltage tap of the secondary voltage for small
furnaces can be selected by using the following empirical
formulae.
For basic furnaces:
= 490.6 V ---- (14)
The largest furnaces have the upper voltage tap within
a range of 450 to 840 V.
The lower voltage tap, which is resorted during the
reducing period of heat, should not exceed 120 to 163 V
(greater values relating to the largest furnaces). A high
voltage, therefore longer arcs, might cause overheating of
the lining of the roof and walls; that make it difficult to
maintain optimum slag conditions in the furnace.
Electrode Diameter
The electrodes possess an appreciable electric resistivity
and are heated by the passing current, which results in up
to 8% of the energy supplied being lost as heat. Electrical
losses could be reduced by using electrodes of a larger
diameter, i.e. by lowering the current density.
The diameter of electrodes can be found by the formula:
Where:
I = linear current, (A),
d = electrode resistivity at 500°C (for graphitised
electrodes d = 10 ohm. mm2/m),
K = coefficient (for graphitised electrodes K = 2.1 W/cm2).
The diameter of electrodes can also be found by the
allowable current density (A/cm2).
Energy Distribution[4]
The energy required for melting of metal scrap:
Q = mc (q2 - q2) + mL ---- (16)
Where,
m = mass to be melted (kg),
c = specific heat capacity of metal to be melted (kJ/Kg°C),
q2 = melting point of the metal (°C),
q2 = room temperature (°C), and
L = latent heat of fusion of the metal.
 STEEL MAKING
Developments in EAF
Developments in EAF take place with the aim of:
i) Reducing operational cost, ii) Improving efficiency of the
furnace, and iii) Quality of products.
Developments in EAF can be sub-divided into three
heads as follows:
I Design Aspect:
1. Rapid melting technology g The rate of melting of
solid charge determines the total heat time and hence
productivity of the furnace. Increasing size of EAFs has
been the application of High Power (HP) and Ultra High
Power (UHP) transformers to feed these furnaces. The
use of lower power factors and higher currents allowed
high power inputs to be achieved with short arcs; that
are the concept of UHP. Use of UHP in place of regular
power supply results in saving time of melting and
refining of the order of 30% and 10% respectively. Single
electrode DC-EAF is also used for faster melting.
2. Water-cooled panels g Use of water cooling systems
for walls and roof becomes absolutely necessary for
economical operation. The water-cooled panels are
of tube-on-tube design of steel pipes and cover up to
85% of the wall above the slag line. Greater distance
between electrodes and side wall, as well as larger
capacity for receiving light scrap are taking place due to
water cooling panels. Water-cooled panels are reducing
power-on time by 13% and increasing productivity by
10%. hence number of heats per day is increased.
3. Oxy–fuel burners g Oxygen – fuel burners are installed
in the cold spots of the furnace, so that the time taken
to melt scrap in these areas is the same as that taken
by the arc at the hotspots. Hence, lower electrical power
consumption results together with an improved heat
balance. Oxygen/natural gas burners can help faster
melting the charge and reduce electrical consumption
and electrode usage while shortening the melting time
from tap to tap. Improper use of these burners can
cause excessive oxidation of the melt and the electrodes,
as well as that can reduce the life of the refractory
lining.
4. Eccentric bottom tapping g Figure 3 shows the
eccentric bottom tapping with the use of a slidegate.
Eccentric bottom tapping ensures almost slag free liquid
metal tapping in the teeming ladle.
5. Automatic alloy feeder g With the increasing size of
EAF, the net addition has increased in proportion. For
meeting specifications of products, the additions have to
be made more accurately. For these reasons, automatic
weighting of additions as per the auto-control directions
are made.
6. Coated electrode g Consumption of electrode surface
(40%) due to oxidation which can be reduced by coating.
7. Emission and noise control g For larger furnaces, 4th
hole system is common, where a duct tape is made
directly onto the roof to evacuate smoke and fumes. The
IRON & STEEL REVIEW | 210 | DECEMBER 2014
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VOL. 58 NO. 7
complexity of the fume and dust collection equipment
varies from a simple 4th hole connector to an entire
separate room for the melting furnace in which the
fumes and dust are collected and where the liquid metal
is tapped into a ladle that is brought to the furnace and
then removed through a dust protection door. Noise can
be easily controlled by DC-EAF.
8. 5th hole g Nowadays, 5th hole in the roof is common for
larger furnaces for continuous charging of sponge iron.
II Process Modifications:
1. Foams slag practice g That prevent radiation heating
to furnace wall from arc and help to penetrate lighter
sponge iron charge in slag-metal interface.
2. Scrap preheating g Scrap preheating is done by hot flue
gases; due to that energy consumption of charge melting
is decreased.
3. Hot tundish and ladle g By pre-heating tundish and
ladle, chilling effect of liquid metal can be avoided.
Temperature of liquid metal can be maintained.
4. Coupling with ladle furnace g EAF-LF combination
give very good quality of products. Very low amount of
gases are present in the products. Productivity of EAF
is also increased due to EAF act as melting unit only
and refining of molten metal take place at LF. After
melting of charges, molten metal is transferred to LF
for refining and again furnace is ready for taking the
charges; so tap-to-tap time is drastically decreased and
5. Process automation g For meeting specifications of
products, process automation is must. For proper heat
and mass calculations, automation is essential.
III Charge Modifications:
1. Use of sponge iron g To substitute the scrap, sponge
iron can be used. Main advantages of sponge iron are: i)
uniform composition, ii) uniform size, and iii) very low
tramp elements (0.02%) with respect to scrap (0.13 to
0.73% tramp elements). Hence, good quality of products
can be produced by adding sponge iron as charge
materials.
2. Use of hot metal in EAF g By using hot metal in EAF:
i) Energy consumption can be reduced; ii) Scrap
shortage can be overcome, iii) Tap-to-tap can be
decreased, and iv) Productivity can be increased
drastically, i.e., more heats can be made per day.
References
1) R. Preston, American Steel, Avon Books, New York, 1991.
2) ASM Metal Handbook Vol. 15 for Casting, 9th Edition
Metal Handbook, pp. 537-547.
3) F. P. Edneral, Electrometallurgy of Steel and Ferro-
alloys, MIR Publishers, Moscow, 1979, pp.1-87.
4) A.G.E. Robiette, Electric Melting Practice, Griffin,
London, 1972, pp. 1-95.