6th Phys Electricity 2015 PDF

th
6 Year
Physics
Higher Level
Kieran Mills
Electricity Notes
(2015/16)
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Ref: 6/phy/h/lc/Electricity notes

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Electricity
Chapter 1. Charges
1.1 Charging Materials........................................................................................... 2
1.2 The Gold Leaf Electroscope (GLE)................................................................. 4
1.3 Distribution of Charge on Conductors............................................................. 5
Chapter 2. Electric Fields

2.1 Coulomb’s Law................................................................................................ 7
2.2 Electric Fields.................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Potential........................................................................................................... 12
Numerical Problems.............................................................................................. 15
Chapter 3. Capacitance
3.1 Defining Capacitance....................................................................................... 19
3.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor.................................................................................... 19
3.3 Energy in a Charged Capacitor........................................................................ 20
Chapter 4. Electric Current

4.1 Sources of EMF and Electric Current.............................................................. 25
4.2 Ohm’s Law....................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Conduction in Materials................................................................................... 28
4.4 Resistance........................................................................................................ 35
4.5 Potential Divider.............................................................................................. 43
4.6 Effects of an Electric Current.......................................................................... 44
4.7 Domestic Circuits............................................................................................. 47
Chapter 5. Electromagnetism
5.1 Magnetism........................................................................................................ 58
5.2 Current in a magnetic field............................................................................... 60
5.3 Electromagnetic induction............................................................................... 64
5.4 Alternating current........................................................................................... 68
5.5 Mutual and self induction................................................................................ 69
Leaving Cert Questions (2002 - 2015)................................................................ 76
© Dublin School of Grinds Page 1 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Chapter 1 • Charges
1.1 Charging Materials
There is an electric force between all charged particles. This force can be attractive or repulsive.
1 1
Protons and electrons are examples of such charged particles e e
whereas a neutron is not a charged particle. Protons (p) and Electrical repulsion
electrons (e) each have a different type of electric charge. A 1 +1
proton has a positive charge whereas an electron has a e p
negative charge.
Electrical attraction
Charges interact with one another according to the following rule:
Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
An atom consists of a central core called a nucleus made up
of protons and neutrons surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Electrons
The nucleus is a central positive core surrounded by negative
charges.
Normally atoms are electrically neutral overall which means +

they have the same number of electrons as protons. It is
Nucleus
possible for atoms to lose or gain electrons. An atom losing
electrons will have an overall positive charge whereas one
gaining electrons has an overall negative charge. Atoms with
an overall charge are called ions.
Definition: Ions are atoms with an overall charge.
A positive ion has lost electrons whereas a negative ion has gained electrons.
Electric charge is measured in Coulombs (C).
Conductors and Insulators
Materials can be divided into conductors and insulators.
Metals are good conductors. They consist of atoms whose
+ + + +
outermost electrons are not very strongly attached to the
atom and they wander at random throughout the metal.
+ + + +
These are called free electrons.
Fixed positive ion
+ Electron
In conductors negatively charged electrons are wandering at random among fixed positive ions.
In insulators all the electrons are firmly attached to the atoms. They do not wander among the
atoms.
Definition: Conductors allow charge to flow; insulators do not.

Charged Rods
Materials can be made to gain or lose electrons by rubbing them with another material. This
is called charging by friction. If a polythene rod is rubbed with a cloth it acquires a negative
charge. If a perspex rod is rubbed with a cloth it acquires a positive charge.
Both these materials are insulators. This means the charged rods can be held by hand and the
charge does not flow away.

Polythene rods become negative when rubbed by a cloth
whereas perspex rods become positive.
Demonstration: Force between charges

The apparatus is set up as shown with one Nylon thread
piece of polythene suspended by a nylon
Repulsion
thread. Each piece of polythene is charged
by rubbing with a cloth. A is repelled by A Polythene Rod
B showing the force of repulsion between -- --- --- --- ---
-
charges.
-- --- --- --- --- Polythene Rod
The experiment was repeated with: -
Perspex (+) and perspex (+): Repulsion B
Polythene (−) and perspex (+): Attraction
Charging Bodies
There are two ways that a body can be charged:
(1) By contact (as in the polythene and perspex rods)
(2) By induction.
(1) By contact: Electrons can be transferred from one material to another simply by touching.
A charged body placed in contact with a neutral body will transfer charge to the neutral
body. If the body is a good conductor the charge will spread to all parts of the surface
because like charges repel.
(2) By induction: Bring a negatively charged rod close to a hollow metal sphere. Free electrons
close to the rod will be repelled across the sphere.
Demonstration: Charging by Induction
The positive charge on the perspex rod induces a

B A
+ +++ negative charge on face A of the metal sphere by
+
+ Perspex Rod attracting electrons in the metal towards it. This
+ leaves a net positive charge on face B.
B A
+
The metal sphere is earthed so that electrons move +
+++
Perspex Rod
from earth to neutralise the positive charge on B. +
+
B A
+++
Perspex Rod
The earth wire is then broken while the perspex
rod is still held in place.
The rod is now removed. The negative charge spreads out all
over the surface.

A positively charged rod induced a negative charge on the sphere. The induced
charge is always opposite to the inducing charge.
Static Electricity in the home and industry

Dust on TV screens
Electrons hit the screen to produce a picture. As a result, the screen becomes charged
attracting dust to it.
Static on clothes
Synthetic materials become charged when rubbed. As a result, sparks jump causing a
crackling sound. Clothes tend to cling to each other because of the attraction between charges.
Flour mills
Static electricity producing sparks can be dangerous near the fine dust produced in flour mills.
Explosions of dust can occur.
Fuelling aircraft
Aircraft flying through the air can build up lots of static charge which could cause explosions
on landing. The charge is conducted harmlessly to ground through conducting rubber in the
tyres.
1.2 The Gold Leaf Electroscope (GLE) Metal cap

Metal Rod
This is a sensitive instrument which is used to investigate
the nature of charges.
Construction Metal Case
A metal cap attached to a thin flexible piece of gold foil is
enclosed in a metal case with a glass front. The metal case Glass front
stands on an insulated base and is connected to earth. A Metal leaf
metal rod runs down through the centre of the case from
which it is insulated. Earth connection
Operation
When charge is placed on the metal cap the leaves diverge due to the repulsion of like charges.
The earthed metal case makes the instrument more sensitive due to the opposite charge induced
on the inside of the case. The GLE measures the potential difference between the leaves and
the case. The bigger the charge, the bigger the potential difference and therefore the bigger the
deflection of the gold leaf.
Uses of electroscope
An electroscope can do the following:
• Detect charge.
• Indicate the approximate size of a charge.
• Test whether a charge is + or −.
• Test if an object is a conductor or insulator.
• Indicate the size of a potential difference.
Charging the GLE by induction

Bring a positively charged rod close to the cap of an uncharged GLE.
Earth the cap of the GLE by touching it.
Break the earth connection by taking away your finger. Remove the rod.
The GLE is negatively charged. The divergence of the leaves indicates the size of charge.

1.3 Distribution of Charge on Conductors
There are a number of ways in which a body can be charged. These methods include:
1. Charging by induction.
2. Using a Van de Graff Generator.
3. Using a high voltage source. Metal dome
+ +
+ +
The Van De Graff Generator + C +
The Van de Graff generator is a machine for producing large +
+
quantities of charge. It consists of a rubber belt which revolves + + +
about two pulleys. The upper pulley is inside a hollow metal dome + + +
while the lower pulley is attached to a motor which turns it.
+ Belt
The belt passes close to a sharply pointed comb at B which is +
connected to a high tension source. Charge is deposited from the +
Motor driven
comb onto the belt where it is carried up to the second pulley. At C B roller
the charge leaves the belt and spreads out over the metal dome.
All the charge resides on the surface of the generator’s dome. This is because like charges repel,
moving to positions of maximum distance from every other charge. Therefore, there is no
electric field inside the dome. Applications of this effect include the electrostatic shielding used
in co-axial cables to transmit TV signals without interference.
The distribution of charges around a conductor depends on the Insulating

handle
shape of the conductor. Charges tend to accumulate at sharper ends.
A proof plane is a device which picks up charge from a surface.

Now let it touch the cap of an uncharged GLE. The size of the
divergence of the leaves is an indication of the charge density on Metal
the surface of the conductor. disc
Proof Plane
Demonstration: Total charge resides on the outside of a metal object

1. A metal cylinder is charged by
contact with the metal sphere of the
Van de Graff generator.
+ + Proof plane
2. A proof plane touches the inside + +
surface of the cylinder and is then + +
+ +
placed in contact with the cap of an +
+
uncharged GLE. No divergence of +
+
the leaves takes place showing that +
there is no charge inside the cylinder. + +
+ +
3. If the proof plane comes in contact
with the outside surface of the metal
cylinder and then in contact with the
cap of an uncharged GLE, the leaves
do diverge showing that charge GLE
resides on the outside of a metal
object.

Demonstration: Charges tend to accumulate at points
1. Two pear-shaped conductors are charged by
induction and then separated.
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + ++ + ++
++
++
+
A + +
B ++
++
+ ++
++
+
+
A + +
B ++
++
+
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + +
2. A proof plane is placed at the non-pointed end of

A and then placed in contact with the cap of an
uncharged GLE. There is a small divergence of
the leaves showing a low density of charge in this
region.
3. Another proof plane is placed at the pointed end

of B and is then placed in contact with the cap of
an uncharged GLE. There is a large divergence of
the leaves showing a high density of charge at the
pointed end.
At the pointed surface of a charged conductor, the Air molecules

high charge density produces an intense electric Spike + ++ + +

+
+
field near the point. The air around the point + ++ + +
+
+
becomes ionised and these ions are attracted to or
repelled from the point depending on the sign of the
charge on the point. The result is that the charge on Ionised air
the point becomes neutralised and an electric wind Spike
+
+ ++ + +
is felt as ions are repelled. + ++ + +
+
+
+
Electric wind
Demonstration: Point Discharge

This can be demonstrated by putting a metal spike in the dome of the Van de Graff
generator. If a candle is held near the point of the spike, the flame is blown by the
electric wind.
Lightning
Large amounts of static charges build up on clouds. Lightning occurs when this static
discharges between clouds or from cloud to ground. This can cause damage to buildings.
Lightning Conductor
As a result of lightning, many high buildings have a large metal conductor connected to a
large metal plate connected to the ground. A cloud with a large voltage passing overhead
induces charges on the lightning rod. This causes point discharge to occur which reduces
the voltage between cloud and rod thus lessening the chance of a strike. If a strike does
occur the charge flows harmlessly to earth protecting the building.

Chapter 2 • Electric Fields
2.1 Coulomb’s Law
Electrical charges exert forces on one another. Consider two charges, q1 and q2, a distance d apart.
q1 q2
d
Definition: Coulomb’s Law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between
two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Note: A point charge is one in which all the charge is concentrated at a point.
q1q2 qq
Stated mathematically: F ∝ 2
⇒ F = k 1 22
d d
Experimentally the constant k is found to depend on the nature of the medium between the
charges. To take this into account a medium is said to have a permittivity, denoted by e. For
practical purposes the permittivity of air is taken to be the same as a vacuum and is denoted by
1
e0, and is called the permittivity of free space. The constant k is given the value: k =
4πε
Formula for Coulomb’s Law:
F: Force between charges (N) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61
1 q1q2
F= q: Quantity of Charge (C) Coulomb’s law (Electricity)
4πε d 2 d: Distance between charges (m)
e: Permittivity of the medium (F m-1)
The permittivity of free space constant
Fundamental physical constants (Formulae and Tables Book: page 47)
Permittivity of free space ε 0 = 8.854187817 ×10−12 F m −1 ≈ 8.85 ×10−12 F m −1
Note
1. Coulomb’s Law is an inverse square law. What does this mean?
1
If the force is F at 1 m, then it is 1
4 F at 2 m, and it is 1
9 F at 3 m ...... therefore F ∝ .
d2
2. The permittivity of an medium e can be written as the permittivity of free space, e0,
multiplied by the constant, er, the relative permittivity of the medium.
e: Permittivity of the medium (F m−1)

ε = ε0 ×εr e0: Permittivity of free space (F m−1)
er: Relative permittivity of the medium

Example 1: Two point charges of +2 µC and −3 µC are 50 cm apart in air. Find the magnitude
and direction of the force on the 2 µC charge. (ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F m−1)
Solution
Example 2: A negative charge of 2.5 nC and a negative charge of 4.0 nC are placed 50 mm
apart in air. Find the resultant force on a positive charge of 2.0 nC placed 20 mm from the
2.5 nC negative charge and on the line between them. (ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F m−1)
Solution

2.2 Electric Fields
If charges are brought close to each other there is
a force between them. This is an example of an
action-at-a-distance force. In Physics we use the +
idea of a force field to analyse these situations.
Charges are visualised as being surrounded by
electric fields.
When two charges are close to one another, it is the electric fields which interact. The field is
represented by lines which, by convention, show the direction a positive charge would move, if
free to do so. The electric field lines are directed away from a positive charge but directed
towards a negative charge.
Field patterns
1. Field between a positive and negative charge.
The lines of force represent the direction a
positive test charge would move. A positive +
test charge will be repelled by the positive
charge and attracted by the negative charge.
2. Field between two positive charges.

The lines of force represent the direction a
positive test charge would move. A positive
test charge will be repelled by each of the + +
positive charges. There is no electric field
half-way between the two positive charges.
3. Field due to two charged plates.

+
The field is uniform between the plates. This
means the field has the same strength at all +
points between the plates. This is indicated +
by the lines which are parallel and equally +
spaced.
+
Definitions
An electric field is a region in which electric charges at rest experience a force.
An electric field line represents the direction a positive charge would move if free to do so.

Demonstration: Experiment to plot electric field lines
Petri Dish
Two electrodes of any required shape are connected to + Castor oil
a high voltage supply. They are placed in a container of
castor oil on the surface on which is spread some
semolina (tiny particles of an insulating substance).
When the electric supply is turned on, the particles of
semolina line up along the field lines and the field
patterns can be observed. +
5 kV DC Supply
Electric Field Intensity

Consider a single isolated charge Q. We want an
expression for the strength of the electric field E F
around this charge at various distances d. Put a test
d
charge q in the field and calculate the force F on it. q
Q
Definition: The electric field strength, E, at
a point is defined as the force per unit positive
charge at that point.
Stated mathematically:
F F: Force (N)
E= Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61
q q: Charge (C)
E: Electric field strength (intensity) (N C−1) Electric field strength (Electricity)
Electric fields are described by drawing field lines. These lines are also called flux lines. The
electric field strength (intensity), E, is a vector quantity, its direction being that of the force on a
positive charge at the point in question.
Example 3: A charge of 2 µC experiences a force of 40 N when placed at a point in an electric
field. Calculate the electric field strength at that point.
Solution
Use Coulomb’s law to calculate the force F between the

Qq
two charges Q and q: F = k 2
d F
F Qq Q d
But E = ⇒ E = k 2 = k 2 q
q d q d Q
E: Electric field strength (intensity) (N C−1)
Q
E=k 2 Q: Charge (C)
d d: Distance (m)

Example 4: Calculate the electric field strength at a distance of 15 cm from a 7 µC charge
placed in a vacuum. (ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F m−1)
Solution
Example 5: What is the electric field strength half-way between a charge of +4 µC and a
charge of +2 µC, if the distance between the charges is 20 cm? What is the force on a charge
of 5 µC placed at this point? (ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F m−1)
Solution
Electric Fields
Precipitators
This is a device that removes dust and other small particles from dirty air. It charges the
particles and then attracts them to metal plates of the opposite charge. Air purifiers and
smoke removers in bars work on this principle.
Xerography (The photocopier)
A drum is charged electrostatically. An image of the document to be copied is focused on
the drum.
Effect of electric fields on integrated circuits
Technicians working on integrated circuits (IC’s) must make sure they are earthed so that
any static on their body does not flow through the delicate IC’s causing damage. They are
usually connected to a wire connected to their wrist with a wrist band.

2.3 Potential
You can get information about the electric field around a charge by calculating the electric field
strength E at any point. An alternative method is to consider the potential V.
Consider a positive charge Q. Work must be done

to carry a charge +q from point B to point A. If +Q +q
work has to be done to move a charge from one
point to another then the points are said to be at
A B
different potentials. There is a potential difference
between them which is denoted by VAB (potential
difference p.d. between A and B).
On the other hand, a charge +q placed at A will +Q +q

gain energy in moving from point A to point B.
The electric field does a certain amount of work in A B
moving +q from A to B.
Definition: The potential difference V between two points is the work done in moving a
unit charge from one point to the other.
V: Potential difference between two points (Volts, V)
W
V= W: Work done in moving the charge between the points (J)
q q: Charge being moved (C)
Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61

Potential difference (Electricity)
Definition: The potential difference between two points is 1 Volt if 1 Joule of work is
done when a unit charge is brought from one point to the other.
Absolute Potentials
When a charge flows from A to B there is a potential difference between A and B. If the moving
charge is positive then A is at a higher potential than B. Therefore a positive charge moves from
points of higher to lower potential if free to do so. A negative charge will do the opposite.
In general it is not necesary to know the absolute potential at A and B, just the difference
between them. However, it is sometimes convenient to know the absolute potential at a point. To
do this a zero of potential must be established.
Once again consider a positive charge Q. At an infinite distance from Q (essentially a very large
distance) the strength of the electric field E would be zero. Points at this distance are at zero
potential. The absolute potential at A is defined as the work done in bringing a +q charge from
infinity to A against the field.
Definition: The absolute potential at a point is defined as the work done in bringing a
positive charge from infinity to that point.
In practical applications the potential of the earth is taken to be zero. This is because the earth is so
large that it is unaffected by the flow of charges to and from it.

Example 6: The potential difference between two points is 100 kV. Find the work done when
a charge of 3 µC is moved from one point to another.
Solution
Electron (Charge and mass)

Fundamental physical constants (Formulae and Tables Book: page 46)
−19 −19
Electronic charge e = 1.60217653 ×10 C ≈ 1.6 ×10 C
Electron mass me = 9.1093826 ×10−31 kg ≈ 9.1×10−31 kg
1 cm
Example 7: The potential difference between two oppositely
charged parallel plates 1 cm apart is 400 V. Find:
(a) the force acting on a charge of 1 C when placed between the +
plates,
(b) the electric field intensity between the plates, +
1C
(c) the force acting on an electron put between the plates,
(d) the potential energy lost by an electron if it moves from the +
negative to the positive plate,
(e) the kinetic energy of an electron on arriving at the positive plate if
+
its speed when released at the negative plate was zero,
(f) the speed of the electron on arriving at the positive plate.
+
V = 400 V
(Constant: Charge on electron e = 1 ⋅ 6 ×10 −19
C; Mass of electron me = 9 ⋅1×10−31 kg )
Solution

Answers to Examples
Example 1: 0.216 N towards the -3 mC charge
Example 2: 3.25 ×10−5 N towards the -2.5 nC charge
Example 3: 2 ×107 N C−1
Example 4: 2.8 ×106 N C−1
Example 5: 1.8 ×106 N C−1 , 9 N
Example 6: 0.3 J
Example 7: (a) 4 ×104 N
(b) 4 ×104 N C−1
(c) 6.4 ×10−15 N
(d) 6.4 ×10−17 J
(e) 6.4 ×10−17 J
(f) 1.2 ×107 m s −1

Numerical Problems
Constants:
Permittivity of free space ε 0 = 8.85 ×10−12 F m −1
Charge on electron e = 1 ⋅ 6 ×10−19 C
Mass of electron me = 9 ⋅1×10−31 kg
Coulomb’s Law
1. Calculate the force that a charge of +4 C exerts on a charge of +5 C placed 4 m from it.
2. Two point charges of +3 µC and −4 µC are 60 cm apart in air. Find the magnitude and
direction of the force on the 3 µC charge.
3. Calculate the force on a charge of +2 µC when placed a distance of 4 m form a negative

charge of −8 µC in air. Is the force one of attraction or repulsion?
4. In a vacuum, a charge of +2 µC is 50 cm from a charge of −2 µC. What is the magnitude and

direction of the force on the +2 µC charge?
5. Calculate the magnitude of the force between two point charges of 4.0 nC each, if the
medium between them is air and the distance between them is 10 mm.
6. Calculate the force a 2 µC charge exerts on a −2 µC charge when 0.01 m apart in a vacuum.
7. Point charges of 40 µC and 20 µC are separated by a 3 mm thick sheet of plastic. If each

charge exerts a force of 1 × 105 N on the other, calculate the permittivity of the plastic.
8. In a medium of permittivity 7 × 10−10 Fm−1 a charge of +2 µC is 60 cm from a charge of

−4 µC. What is the magnitude and direction of the force on the +2 µC charge?
9. The force of repulsion between two identically charged particles is 0.4 N. If the charges are
5 cm apart in air, what is the size of the charge on each?
10. Three charges are arranged in air as shown. Find the magnitude and direction of the force on
the 3 µC charge.
1 C +3 C 3 C
30 cm 50 cm
11. A negative charge of 2.5 nC and a positive charge of 6.0 nC are placed 60 mm apart in air.
Find the resultant force on a positive charge of 3.0 nC placed 20 mm from the negative
charge and on the line between them.
12. The three charges shown are collinear. A +3 µC charge is placed at A and a −4 µC charge is
placed at B. What charge must be placed at C so that there is no net force on the charge at B?
A B C
12 cm 4 cm

13. A, B, C are three points on a straight line with |AB| = 20 cm and |BC| = 15 cm, where B is
between A and C. Charges of +4 µC and +5 µC are placed at A and B respectively. What
charge must be placed at C so that there is zero resultant force on the charge at B?

14. A charge of 3 µC experiences a force of 30 N when placed at a point in an electric field.
Calculate the electric field strength at that point.
15. A charge of 4 µC experiences a force of 16 N when placed at a point in an electric field.

Calculate the electric field strength at that point.
16. What is the force on a charge of 2 µC when placed in an electric field of strength
2 × 103 N C−1?
17. A charged particle experiences a force of 6 × 10−6 N when placed in a field of strength
3 × 103 N C−1. What is the charge on the particle?
18. Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field strength at a distance of 3 m from a
charge of +9 µC.
19. Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field strength at a distance of
(a) 0.1 mm, (b) 1 mm, (c) 10 cm from a negative charge of 30 µC.
20. What is the electric field strength half way between a charge of +4 µC and a charge of
+2 µC, if the distance between the charges is 40 cm? What is the force on a charge of 6 µC
placed at this point?
21. What is the electric field strength half-way between a charge of +2 µC and a charge of
−8 µC, if the distance between the charges is 60 cm? What is the force on a charge of 3 µC
placed at this point?
22. At what point between a charge of +8 µC and a charge of +2 µC is the electric field strength
zero if the charges are 1 m apart?
23. Two charges are placed on the x-axis, a +3 µC charge at x = 60 cm and a −6 µC charge at
x = 0 cm. Find the electric field at (a) x = 20 cm and (b) x = 100 cm.
Potential
24. The potential difference between two points is 16 V. Find the work done in transferring a
charge of 4 C between points.
25. The work done in bringing a charge of 2 C from one point to another is 5 J. What is the
potential difference between the points?
26. The work done in bringing a charge of 4 C from one point to another is 12 J. What is the
potential difference between the two points?
27. The work done in bringing a charge of 4 µC from one point to another is 4 × 10−5 J. What is
the potential difference between the two points?

28. Calculate the work done in transferring a charge of 2 C between two points when the
potential difference between the points is 10 V?
29. The potential difference between two points is 100 kV. Find the work done when a charge of
2 µC is moved from one point to another.
30. An electron of charge 1.6 × 10−19 C loses 6.4 × 10−16 J of energy as it moves from one point to
another in an electric field. What is the potential difference between the two points?
31. Calculate the work done when a charge of 8 µC moves between two points if the potential
difference between the points is 12 V.
32. 9.6 × 10−16 J of work is done in moving an electron between two points in an electric field.
What is the potential difference between the two points?
33. Find the work done when an electron passes through: (a) 1 volt, (b) 500 volts.
34. Two oppositely charged plates are 2 cm apart. There is a uniform electric field of strength
3 × 103 N C−1 between them.
(a) What is the force on a +1 C charge placed between the plates?
(b) Find the work done in bringing a charge of 1 C from one plate to the other.
(c) What is the potential difference between the plates?
35. The potential difference between two points is 5000 V. An electron is released at one of the
points and moves towards the other under the action of the field. Find its speed when it
arrives at the second point.
36. The potential difference between two oppositely charged parallel plates 10 cm apart is
100 V. Find:
(a) the force acting on a charge of 1 C when placed between the plates,
(b) the electric field intensity between the plates,
(c) the force acting on an electron put between the plates,
(d) the potential energy lost by an electron if it moves from the negative to the positive
plate,
(e) the kinetic energy of an electron on arriving at the positive plate if its speed when
released at the negative plate was zero,
(f) the speed of the electron on arriving at the positive plate.

Answers
Coulomb’s Law Potential
1. 1.125 ×1010 N 24. 64 J
2. 0.3 N towards the other charge 25. 2.5 V
3. 9 ×10−3 N, attraction 26. 3 V
4. 0.144 N towards the −2 µ C charge 27. 10 V
5. 1.44 ×10−3 N away from each other 28. 20 J
6. 360 N 29. 0.2 J
7. 7.07 ×10−11 F m −1 30. 4000 V

−3
8. 2.53 × 10 N towards the −4 µ C charge 31. 9.6 ×10−5 J
9. 3.33 × 10−7 C 32. 6000 V
10. 0.024 N towards the −3 µ C charge 33. (a) 1.6 × 10−19 J,
11. 0.024 N towards the −2 ⋅ 5 nC charge (b) 8 × 10−17 J

34. (a) 3 × 103 N,
12. 3.3 ×10−7 C
(b) 60 J,
13. 2.25 ×10−6 C
(c) 60 V
35. 4.2 × 107 m s−1
14. 1×107 N C−1 36. (a) 1000 N (b) 1000 N C−1
15. 4 ×106 N C−1 (c) 1.6 × 10−16 N (d) 1.6 × 10−17 J
16. 4 ×10−3 N (e) 1.6 × 10−17 J (f) 5.93 × 106 m s−1
−9
17. 2 ×10 C
18. 9 ×103 N C−1 away from the charge
19. (a) 2.7 ×1013 N C−1
(b) 2.7 ×1011 N C−1
(c) 2.7 ×107 N C−1
5 −1
20. 4.5 ×10 N C , 2.7 N
6 −1
21. 1×10 N C , 3 N
22. 2
3 m from the 8 µC charge
23. (a) 1.52 ×106 N C−1
(b) 1.15 ×105 N C−1

Chapter 3 • Capacitance
3.1 Defining Capacitance
The capacitance of a body is its ability to store charge.
Definition: Capacitance is the ratio of charge to potential.
Q: Quantity of charge stored (C) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 62

Q
C= V: Potential (voltage) (V) Capacitance (Electricity)
V C: Capacitance (Farads (F))
Definition: The capacitance of a body is 1 Farad (F) if the addition of a charge of

1 C raises its potential by 1V.
Example 1: A charge of 5 µC is placed on a conductor of capacitance 2 pF. Find the increase

in potential of the conductor.
Solution
3.2 The Parallel-Plate Capacitor d

Capacitors can have all sorts of shapes and sizes. An example of a

capacitor is two parallel plates separated by an insulator called a dielec-
tric. The dielectric can be air having the permittivity of free space or
another material like paper or mica. It can be shown that the capacitance
of a parallel plate capacitor is given by:
εA C: Capacitance (F)
C= e : Permittivity of the dielectric (F m−1)
d A: Common area of overlap of the plates (m2)
Dielectric
d: Distance between the plates (m)

Parallel-plate capacitor (Electricity)
Example 2: A parallel plate capacitor has a distance of 1 mm between the plates, each of
which has an area of 25 cm2. It has a mica dielectric. Find the charge on either of the plates
when the potential difference between the plates is 500 V. (Relative permittivity of mica = 7.)
Constant: Permittivity of free space ε0 = 8.9 × 10−12 F m−1
Solution

Note: The relative permittivity of a material is the permittivity of the material compared to the
permittivity of free space. In the previous example, mica has a relative permittivity of 7 which
means its permittivity is 7 times that of the permittivity of free space.
Demonstration: Factors affecting capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor

A positive charge Q is put on one of the plates. Its potential d
is measured using a GLE. The divergence of the leaf is a
measure of this potential.
The capacitance C is affected by three factors:
1. The common area, A, of the plates:
C∝A
If the plates are moved so that their
common area of overlap is reduced the
Dielectric
leaf divergence increases, i.e. the
potential increases and so the
capacitance is reduced.
1
2. The distance, d, that the plates are apart: C ∝
d
If the plates are moved further apart the potential rises and so the capacitance falls.
3. The permittivity of the material, e , between the plates: C ∝ ε

A dielectric causes the leaf divergence to fall indicating an increase in capacitance
3.3 Energy in a Charged Capacitor

A capacitor stores electrical energy. The energy W stored in the capacitor is the amount of work
done by the battery in charging the capacitor.
W = 12 CV 2 W: energy stored in a capacitor (J) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 62

C: Capacitance (F) Energy stored in capacitor (Electricity)
V: Potential Difference or voltage (V)
Example 3: A capacitor stores a charge of 5 µC and has a potential difference of 20 V across
it. What energy does it store?
Solution
Example 4: A capacitor has a capacitance of 3.2 µF. What charge is on it if the energy stored
is 40 mJ?
Solution

Demonstration: A Capacitor stores charge +
A capacitor is a device for storing charge.
This can be demonstrated as follows: A
When switch A is closed the capacitor C
charges up. +
Open switch A and then close switch B.

B
The bulb flashes as the capacitor
discharges through it.
Demonstration: AC and DC through Capacitors D.C.

In a direct current (DC) circuit no current flows
once the capacitor is fully charged.
C Off
In the Alternating Current (AC) circuit the A.C.

capacitor first of all charges in one direction
and then the other. As a result current
constantly flows. Therefore the bulb lights.
C On
A capacitor allows A.C. to flow but
blocks steady D.C.
Common uses of capacitors

Tuning radios
A variable capacitor is used to change to a particular station on a radio.
Flash guns
In cameras, a capacitor is charged slowly from a battery and discharged quickly through a
bulb producing a flash.
Smoothing
Capacitors smooth out variations in direct current.
Filtering
Capacitors allow certain frequencies of alternating current to pass and block others. This is
called filtering.

Example 5: A thundercloud has a horizontal lower surface of area 30 km2 which is 800 m
above the earth. Treating this system as a parallel-plate capacitor find:
(a) the capacitance of the cloud,
(b) the energy stored if the potential difference between the cloud and the ground is 2 × 105 V.
(ε0 = 8.85 × 10-12 F m-1)
Solution

800 m
Ground

Answers to Examples
Example 1: 2.5 ×106 V
Example 2: 8 ×10−8 C
Example 3: 5 ×10−5 J
Example 4: 5.06 ×10−4 C
Example 5: (a) 3.32 ×10−7 F
(b) 6.64 ×103 J

Numerical Problems
Constants:
Charge on electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C
Mass on electron = 9 × 10−31 kg
Permittivity of free space ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F m−1
1. A conductor has a potential of 6 V when a charge of 6 µC is placed on it. What is its

capacitance?
2. The capacitance on a body is 4 pF. Calculate the charge on it when its potential is 300 V.
3. The capacitance of a sphere is 20 pF. If its potential is 5000 V, find the charge on it.
4. A capacitor has a capacitance of 50 mF. What is the potential difference between its plates if
it stores a charge of 1.2 µC?
5. A charge of 4 µC is placed on a conductor of capacitance 3 pF. Find the increase in potential

of the conductor.
6. A capacitor has a capacitance of 50 µF. What is the charge on one of its plates if the potential
difference between them is 100V?
7. The area of overlap of the plates of an air spaced capacitor is 20 cm2. The distance between
the plates is 1 mm.
(a) Find the capacitance of the capacitor.
(b) If the space between the plates is now filled with mica of relative permittivity 7 calculate
the capacitance of the capacitor.
8. Find the distance between the plates of an air-spaced capacitor of 2 pF if the area of one side
of one of the plates is 100 cm2.
9. Find the capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor if the common area of the plates is
0.5 m2 and the distance between them is 1 mm. Find also the charge stored in the capacitor
if the potential difference between the plates is 10 V.
10. A parallel plate air-spaced capacitor is to have a capacitance of 1 F. If the distance between
the plates is 1 mm, find the area of one of the plates.
11. Find the capacitance of a parallel plate air-spaced capacitor if the area of one of the plates
is 100 cm2 and the distance between the plates is 2 mm. Find the capacitance if the space
between the plates is filled with perspex which has a relative permittivity of 2.6.
12. A parallel plate capacitor has a distance of 1.2 mm between the plates, each of which has
an area of 30 cm2. It has a mica dielectric. Find the charge on either of the plates when the
potential difference between the plates is 400 V. (Relative permittivity of mica = 7.)

13. A capacitor consists of two sheets of Aluminium, each 5 m long by 3 cm wide, separated by
an insulating material of permittivity 3 × 10−11 Fm−1 and thickness 25 µm. Calculate the
capacitance of the capacitor and the charge on the plates when the potential difference
between them is 20 V.
14. A parallel plate capacitor has plates of area 0.01 m2 and carries a charge of 12 mC. Its
capacitance is 470 µF and the relative permittivity of the dielectric is 1200. Calculate
(a) the potential difference between the plates,
(b) and their distance apart.
15. Calculate the energy stored in a capacitor of 500 µF when the potential difference between
the plates is 15 V.
16. A capacitor stores a charge of 7 µC and has a potential difference of 30 V across it. What
energy does it store?
17. A capacitor has a capacitance of 2.4 µF. What charge is on it if the energy stored is 23 mJ?
Answers
1. 1×10−6 F 10. 1.13 × 108 m2
−9
2. 1 ⋅ 2 ×10 C 11. 4.43 × 10−11 F, 1.15 × 10−10 F
3. 1×10−7 C 12. 6.2 × 10−8 C
−7
4. 2 ⋅ 4 ×10−5 V 13. 1 ⋅ 8 ×10 F, 3 ⋅ 6 ×10−6 C
5. 1.33× 106 V 14. (a) 25.5 V, (b) 2 ⋅ 3 ×10−7 m
6. 5 × 10−3 C 15. 5.625 × 10−2 J
7. (a) 1 ⋅ 77 ×10−11 F, (b) 1.24 × 10−10 F 16. 3.15 × 10−3 J
8. 4.43 cm 17. 3.32 × 10−4 C
9. 4.43 nF, 44.3 nC

Chapter 4 • Electric Current
4.1 Sources of EMF and Electric Current
A metal is a good electrical conductor. In
a metal there are free electrons wandering
around in no particular direction. They wander
+ + + +
in between fixed metal ions.
+ + + +
A battery acts as an electron pump. It forces
the electrons to move in a particular direction.
Fixed positive ion
+ Electron
This constitutes an electric current. The battery
Negative Terminal
gives energy to the electrons.
+ +
Positive Terminal
Note: The flow of charge is shown as moving + +
from the positive to the negative terminal of
the battery. This is conventional current. The + + + +
real current flows in the opposite direction.)
The amount of energy that a battery gives to a certain quantity of electrons is measured in Volts
(V). For example, a 3 V battery will give 3 Joules (J) of energy to a certain quantity of electrons
(This number of electrons is 6 × 1018.) The amount of charge on this quantity of electrons is
assigned a value of 1 Coulomb (C).
1 C is the charge on 6 × 1018 electrons.
1
The charge on 1 electron is 18
C = 1.6 ×10−19 C.
6 ×10
Therefore, one electron has a charge of 1.6×10−19 C. You can now say that a 3 V battery gives 3 J
of energy to each Coulomb of charge. This is called the EMF of a battery.
Definition: The electromotive force (EMF) is the amount of electrical energy in
Joules that the battery gives to each Coulomb of charge passing through it.
As the charge moves around the circuit it loses energy in

the various devices. The charge does work. Assume that A B
the bulb causes 1 C of charge to lose 2.5 J of energy. 2.5J
The charge has to also pass through the battery - it loses 1C
the other 0.5 J of energy here. EMF=3V
The Coulomb of charge arriving at the bulb has 3 J
of energy (point A). Leaving the bulb (point B) it has + 0.5J -
only 0.5 J of energy. Therefore 2.5 J of energy has been Battery
converted to other forms. We say that there is a potential
difference (p.d.) or voltage between ‘A’ and ‘B’.
Definition: The potential difference V between two points is the work done in
moving a unit charge from one point to the other.
V: Potential difference between two points (Volts, V)
W
V= W: Work done in moving the charge between the points (J)
q q: Charge being moved (C)

Potential difference or voltage is measured in Volts (V) by a V = 2.5 V
voltmeter connected in parallel to the device. V
W 2⋅5J Voltmeter
In this example V = = = 2 ⋅ 5 V.
Q 1C Bulb
A B
Defining the Volt
If 1 J of of work was done or 1 J of energy was converted to Does 2.5 J of work W
other forms when 1 C of charge passed through a device then
the voltage would be 1 Volt. +
W 1J
V
= = = 1V Battery
Q 1C 3V
Definition: The potential difference between two points is 1 Volt if 1 Joule of work is
done when a unit charge is brought from one point to the other.
Energy was also required to get through the battery. This is because of the internal resistance of
the battery.
Electric Current
Current I is a measure of how long it takes a quantity of charge Q to pass a certain point.
Quantity of Charge (Q)
Current (I ) =
Time (t )
Q Q: Quantity of charge (C)

I= I: Current (A)
A Ammeter
t +
t: Time (s)
I
V
Current is measured in Amps (A) by an ammeter connected in series into the circuit.
The unit of charge, the Coulomb, can be defined from the formula above:
Q = It = 1 A × 1 s = 1 C
Definition: The Coulomb is the quantity of charge transferred when a current of 1A

flows for 1s.
Example 1: If the heating element of an electric radiator takes a current of 5 A, what charge
passes each point every minute? How many electrons pass a given point in this time?
(Charge on electron e = 1 ⋅ 6 ×10−19 C )
Solution

Sources of EMF
Mains
Electricity to your home is called mains electricity.
Cells
An electric cell is a source of EMF. It consists of two metals called electrodes immersed in
a liquid called an electrolyte. A typical example is a copper and zinc plate dipped in dilute
sulphuric acid. This is a primary cell as it cannot be recharged. Almost all primary cells
have electrolytes that are pastes rather than liquids. Such cells are called dry batteries.
Lead-acid accumulator
Some cells can be recharged. These are called secondary cells or accumulators. A car
battery is a lead-acid accumulator which consists of 6 lead acid cells in a battery.
Thermocouple
Two wires made of different metals maintained at different temperatures provide a source
of EMF. Such a device can be calibrated to act as a thermometer.
4.2 Ohm’s Law

Conductors that are used because they have a resistance to electric current are called resistors.
Resistors slow the current down. The more resistance there is in a circuit the less current will flow.
Definition: A resistor is a conductor which has a resistance which limits the flow of current.
To investigate the resistance R of a conductor, the Rheostat
V
current I flowing through it must be measured. The
voltage V which gives energy to the charge must also
be measured. I
R
A
Using the rheostat, vary the current going through the
resistor. In each case read the corresponding voltage.
Draw a table of voltage and current readings. A graph of
V against I yields a straight line passing through the V
origin showing that the voltage is directly proportional
to the current, i.e. V ∝ I.
Voltage V Current I Dividing voltage by current for any pair of

V (V)
readings gives a constant value.
V
∴ = Constant
I
The constant value obtained is called the
V
I (A) resistance R of the conductor. ∴ = R
I
V V: Voltage or potential difference (V) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61

R= I: Current (A)
I Resistance (Electricity)
R: Resistance (Ω)
Definition: The resistance of a material is the ratio of the potential difference across its ends
to the current flowing through it.

Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω) by an ohmmeter. The resistance of a conductor is constant
as long as its temperature remains constant. An increase in temperature causes the resistance to
change.
Definition: Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is proportional
to the potential difference between its ends if the temperature remains constant.
Example 2: A certain quantity of charge does 4000 J of work when passing through a
resistor which has a potential difference of 20 V across its ends. It takes two minutes for the
charge to be transferred from one point to the other. Calculate the quantity of charge, the
current and the resistance of the resistor.
Solution
Physics Experiment Book

Experiment E3: To demonstrate the variation of the resistance of a metallic
conductor with temperature. (Page 130)
4.3 Conduction in Materials

Consider conduction through the following materials:
[A] Metals: Metallic conductor and filament bulb.
[B] Ionic Solutions: Using active and inactive electrodes.
[C] Gases
[D] Vacuum
[E] Semiconductors
In each case, the I-V characteristic (the graph of current against voltage) will be
examined and the types of charge carriers used will be explained.
[A] Metals
Metallic Conductor Material: Metallic Conductor
[Temperature remains constant]
In a metal, free electrons move amongst fixed
positive ions. Provided the temperature remains I-V Graph (Characteristic)
constant, the resistance of the conductor does I (A)
not change. Therefore, the voltage and the
current are directly proportional. The I−V graph
is a straight line passing through the origin. It
obeys Ohm’s Law.
V (V)
Obeys Ohm’s Law.
Charge carriers: Electrons (negative)

Experiment E5[A]: To investigate the variation of current I with potential
difference V for a metallic conductor. (Page 138)
Filament Bulb
As the voltage across a filament bulb increases, its Material: Filament Bulb
current also increases. As the current goes up, the [Temperature changes]
filament gets significantly hotter. I-V Graph (Characteristic)
I (A)
In metals, the effect of increasing the temperature
is to make the fixed positive ion cores vibrate with
greater amplitudes. This means that the charge
carriers find it more difficult to flow meaning the
rise in the current will be less for a given rise in V (V)
V
voltage. From the formula R = , the resistance Does not obey Ohm’s Law.
I
Charge carriers: Electrons (negative)
of the filament bulb increases.

Experiment E5[B]: To investigate the variation of current I with potential
difference V for a filament bulb. (Page 142)
[B] Ionic Solutions

Two metal plates are connected to a battery and an ammeter and put into a solution of distilled
water. No current flows. However, when sodium chloride is dissolved in the water, a current
flows. The water with the dissolved salt is an ionic solution.
Terminology
Metal plates: Electrodes A
Positive electrode: Anode
Negative electrode: Cathode
Conducting liquid: Electrolyte
Anode Cathode
Container, electrolyte and electrodes: Voltameter
+ I
Explanation: Sodium chloride dissolves in water
+
into positive and negative ions. The positive ions +
+
are attracted by the cathode and the negative ions +
+

Cathode
+
by the anode. This constitutes a flow of current
Anode
+
which is registered on the ammeter. In distilled +
water there is an absence of ions and so no current
+
flows. Therefore conduction in liquids is due to the +
movement of ions, both positive and negative. + +

Copper Electrolysis
Two copper plates are connected to a battery and put Material: Ionic Solution
into a solution of copper sulfate. When copper sulfate [Using active electrodes]
is dissolved in water it breaks up into its ions: positive
copper ions and negative sulfate ions. The cathode I-V Graph (Characteristic)
attracts the positive copper ions and they become I (A)
deposited on it. The sulfate ions are attracted by the de
s
ro
anode. They react with the copper plate to form copper l ec
t
ee
sulfate which goes back into solution. ct
iv
A
As the voltage across the electrodes increases so does V (V)

the current. The resistance remains constant and so the Obeys Ohm’s Law.
I-V graph is a straight line. The electrodes are active Charge carriers: Positive and
(they take part in the chemical reactions), the negative ions
electrolyte obeys Ohm’s Law and the graph passes
through the origin.
Material: Ionic Solution
Replace the copper electrodes with platinum plates [Using inactive electrodes]
which do not react with the copper sulfate solution.
If the electrodes are inactive, the voltameter behaves I-V Graph (Characteristic)
as a cell and produces an EMF across its plates. The I (A)
applied voltage must be greater than this EMF before de
s
ro
current will flow. This I-V graph does not obey Ohm’s lec
t
ee
law as it does not pass through the origin. ac
tiv
In
Note: Increasing the concentration of the solution V (V)

will increase the slope of the straight line graph as the Does not obey Ohm’s Law.
number of charge carriers has increased. Therefore, Charge carriers: Positive and
the resistance of the electrolyte decreases. Diluting the negative ions
solution will have the opposite effect.
Example 3: Inactive electrodes like Platinum are used in copper sulfate solution setting up a
voltage of 0.75 V across the electrodes. A 6 V source is then connected across the electrodes
giving rise to a 2.8 A current flowing between the plates. Calculate the resitance of the electrolyte.
Solution

Experiment E5[C]: To investigate the variation of current I with potential
difference V for copper sulfate solution with copper electrodes. (Page 145)

[C] Gases
Gas at low pressure
A gas at low pressure is put into a sealed

container with two electrodes in it. It is called
a discharge tube. There will always be some
ions in the gas formed by background radiation.
After a while these ions recombine back with
their electrons.
If a voltage is put across the tube, the positive ions

Material: Gases
move towards the cathode and the electrons move to-
wards the anode. A current flows. As the voltage I-V Graph (Characteristic)
increases the number of ions and electrons also in- I (A)
creases thus increasing the current. This corresponds to
C
region OA in the graph.

A B
Eventually the graph levels out in the region AB.

Increases in voltage produce no increases in current O
V (V)
because all the ions are now crossing the tube. Does not obey Ohm’s Law.
Charge carriers: Positive
As the voltage is further increased, the ions and ions, electrons and a few
electrons get sufficiently fast to produce further ions negative ions
by collision. The current now increases with
increased voltage (region BC on the graph).
[D] Vacuum
A vacuum exists if nothing is put into the discharge Material: Vacuum
tube. No electricity will flow because no charge I-V Graph (Characteristic)
carriers are present. If, however, the cathode is heated
I (A)
sufficiently, electrons in the metal will get enough
energy to escape. This is called thermionic emission.
These electrons will cross the tube under an applied
voltage.
The current will increase as the voltage is increased until V (V)
all the available electrons are used up. After this there Does not obey Ohm’s Law.
is no increase in current for an increase in the voltage. Charge carriers: Electrons
Hence, the graph flattens out.
Neon lamps, street lamps

Sodium vapour street lamps (yellow/orange) and neon lamps are examples of gas
discharge tubes where conduction takes place in a gas.

[E] Semiconductors
Definition: A semiconductor may be defined as a material whose conductivity lies

between that of a good conductor and a good insulator.
Silicon is an example of a semiconductor material. This is

a Group IV element. Each of its outer electrons shares an
electron with 4 other Si atoms to form a Si crystal. At 0 K all
Si Si Si
electrons are involved in bonding and none are available for Hole
conduction.
However, as the crystal heats up (called thermal agitation) Si Si Si
some electrons get enough energy to break free from their Free Electron Bound Electron
bonds and become conduction or free electrons. There is now
a vacancy left behind into which bound electrons can move.
This movement is called hole movement.
Si
Under an applied electric field both electrons (negative
charge carriers) and holes (positive charge carriers)
contribute to the overall current.
I = Ie + Ih
Free electron Hole
Material: Semiconductor
The generation of charge carriers in this way from
I-V Graph (Characteristic)
the material itself is known as intrinsic conduction.
I (A)
As the voltage across a semiconductor increases, the
current increases. As a result of the increased current
it gets hotter. Therefore, more holes and electrons are
produced making for an even larger current. As a result,
the I−V graph gets steeper. V (V)
The charge carriers are electrons (negative) and holes Does not obey Ohm’s Law.
(positive). The graph does not obey Ohm’s law. Charge carriers: Electrons
and holes
Semiconductors
[A] Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Uses:
1. ON/OFF indicator lamps: e.g. calculators, stereos, etc.
When a calculator is switched on the voltage of the battery is applied to the LED
which emits red light. The LED is protected by a resistor.
2. Digital displays as in clocks or calculators.
The seven segments are LEDs. Any of the ten numerical digits can be visually
displayed by activating the correct LEDs.
3. Optical fibre transmitters.
[B] Integrated Circuits (ICs)

An integrated circuit (IC) is a circuit containing electronic components like transistors,
diodes, resistors and capacitors on one small chip of Silicon.

Extrinsic Semiconductors
These type of semiconductors can be manufactured by doping a material like Silicon with
another material called an impurity. There are two types:
[A] N-Type Semiconductor: Dope a Si crystal with a Group V Si
element like Phosphorous (P). This produces free electrons.
An extrinsic semiconductor in which the majority charge

carriers are electrons is called an N-type semiconductor.
Si P Si
Si
[B] P-Type Semiconductor: Dope a Si crystal with a Group III
element like Aluminium (Al). This produces free holes. Si
An extrinsic semiconductor in which the majority charge
carriers are holes is called a P-type semiconductor. Si Al Si
Si
Semiconductor Diode
A diode consists of a P-type and N-type material joined together (called a P-N Junction).
Definition: A semiconductor junction diode allows current to flow through it in
one direction only.
Unbiased P-N Junction (no battery connected)
• Charges diffuse across the junction
• Recombination occurs (electrons meet holes killing each other off) giving rise to a depletion
layer (an area of no charge carriers).
• A junction voltage of ~0.6 V is formed at the depletion layer preventing the further movement
of charges across the junction.
Recombination
P-Type N-Type
P-Type N-Type
Holes Electrons
Depletion layer
Biased P-N Junction (battery connected)

1. Forward Biased (Connect + to P and − to N)
A forward biased junction can only conduct P-Type N-Type
once the applied voltage exceeds the junction
voltage.
When the diode is in forward bias, its resistance
is very small ( R ≈ 0 Ω.) Holes Electrons

2. Reverse Biased (Connect + to N and − to P)
As the applied voltage is increased the depletion layer
widens and so practically no charge carriers can cross P-Type N-Type
the barrier. Thus the current is practically zero and
so the device has a very high resistance when reverse
biased.
Holes Electrons
Characteristic Curve of S-C Diode

This is the circuit to plot the characteristic curve of a diode. A potentiometer varies the voltage
across the diode.
IF (mA)
A
V V (V)
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
IR (A)
Demonstration: Current flow across a diode

If a battery is connected to a diode the right way (forward bias) the bulb lights. If it is
connected the wrong way (reverse bias), no current flows and the bulb is off.
+ +
On Off
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Rectification of AC
Alternating current is current that flows both ways reversing direction many times per
second. If a diode is put into a circuit then current is only allowed to flow one way
(direct current DC). A diode rectifies AC (changes AC to DC).

Experiment E5[D]: To investigate the variation of current I with potential
difference V for a semiconductor diode. (Page 149)

Example 4: A light emitting diode (LED) has a junction voltage of 2 V. The LED is connected
in forward bias to a 12 V battery. A resistor of 25 kW is connected in series with the LED to
protect it from excessive currents. Find the current flowing through the LED.
Solution
12 V +
I LED
25 k
4.4 Resistance
Consider a piece of wire of uniform cross-sectional area. l
A uniform circular cross-section means its diameter is the d
same at all points.
It is shown by experiment that if the length l of the wire is doubled, the resistance doubles.
∴R ∝ l
1
If the cross-sectional area A is doubled, the resistance is halved. ∴ R ∝
A
l l
Combining these two factors gives: R ∝ ⇒ R = (Constant)
A A
This constant of proportionality is called the resistivity r of the material.
l R: Resistance (W) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61

R=ρ l: Length (m)
A Resistivity (Electricity)
A: Area (m2)
r: Resistivity (W m)
Note: The resistance of a material also depends on its temperature.
Definition: The resistivity of a material is numerically the resistance of a sample
of unit length and unit cross-section area, at a certain temperature.
Example 5: Calculate the diameter of a Copper wire 2.5 m long if its resistance is 0.1 W.
Constant: Resistivity of Copper r = 1.70 × 10 W m
−8
Solution

Experiment E2: To measure the resistivity of the material of a wire. (Page 123)

Combinations of resistors
Resistors in series
Resistors connected in series are placed one after I V
another in a circuit. There is only one path for
the current to flow and therefore the current is
the same at all points in the circuit. The voltage R1 R2 R3
across each resistor is the amount of electrical
energy converted in each resistor. Therefore, the
voltage across each reistor in series adds up to the V1 V2 V3
main (battery) voltage.
Voltages across components in series always add up to the supply voltage.
The current in a series circuit is the same at all points in a circuit.
The biggest resistor gets the biggest share of the voltage.
Proof: Resistors in series formula

V = V1 + V2 + V3 I V
From Ohm’s Law V = IR, where R denotes the

total resistance and I the current which is the
same at all points in the circuit. R1 R2 R3
The voltages across each of the resistors are as
follows:
=V1 IR =1 , V2 IR2 , V3 = IR3 V1 V2 V3
∴ IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
R = R1 + R2 + R3
R = R1 + R2 Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61

Resistors in series (Electricity)
Example 6: Calculate
(a) the current I
(b) the potential difference between A and B, VAB, and the potential difference between B and
C, VBC.
Solution
9V
A B C
6 12

Resistors in parallel
I V
Resistors connected in parallel are connected side
by side. The current flowing in the circuit has a
choice of paths through which to flow. Therefore, R1
the main current divides up into different currents.
Each resistor is connected directly to the battery I1
R2
and so the same voltage is applied across each
resistor. I3
I2
R3
The current in a parallel circuit divides up at each arm.

Every arm in a parallel network has the same voltage drop across it,
even if the components are not identical.
The smallest resistor gets the biggest current.
Proof: Resistors in parallel formula

I V
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
V
From Ohm’s Law I = .
R R1
As the voltage across each resistor is V then: I1

R2
V V V
=I1 = , I2 , I3 =
R1 R2 R3 I2
I3 R3
V V V V
∴ = + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61

= + Resistors in parallel (Electricity)
R R1 R2
Example 7: Calculate:
(a) the current I and,
(b) the current flowing in each resistor.
Solution
9V
I I
10
15

Example 8: In the circuit shown, calculate: 10 V
(a) the current flowing in the 3.125 W resistor,
(b) the potential difference across the 5 W resistor,
(c) the current flowing through the 5 W resistor, 3.125
6.25 V
(d) the current flowing through R,
(e) the current flowing through the 2 W resistor, 5
(f) the potential difference across the 2 W resistor,
(g) the potential difference across R,
(h) the value of R. R 2
Solution
Example 9: In the circuit shown, calculate: 12 V

(a) the total resistance and the current I, I
(b) the voltage between A and B,
3
(c) the current flowing through the 5 W resistor.
2 A B
5
Solution

Example 10: The circuit shows a 75 mF capacitor S 12 V
connected in series with a 35 kW resistor, a 12 V
battery and a switch S. When S is closed, the
capacitor C starts to charge and the current flowing
at a particular instant in the circuit is 50 mA. R 35 k
Calculate C
(a) the potential difference across the resistor R and
hence the potential difference across the
capacitor when the current is 50 mA; 75 F
(b) the charge on the capacitor at this instant;
(c) the energy stored in the capacitor when it is
fully charged.
Solution
Measuring Resistance using a Wheatstone Bridge B

The circuit shown is a Wheatstone bridge.
Suppose the resistors are arranged in such a way R1 R2
that no current flows through the galvanometer.
I1
The bridge is now said to be balanced. I1
C
A
If no current flows through the galvanometer, G
there is no potential difference between B and D, I2 I2
ie. B and D are at the same potential. This means
that: VAB = VAD and VBC = VDC I
R3 R4
I
From Ohm’s Law: D

I1 R1 = I2 R3 and I1 R2 = I2 R4
Dividing gives: V
R1 R3 Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61

=
R2 R4 Wheatstone bridge (Electricity)
Using the formula, you can use the Wheatstone Bridge to find the resistance of an unknown resistor.
This method is accurate because it does not depend on the accuracy of the galvanometer but only
on its sensitivity (its ability to detect a small current). Therefore this method of measuring
resistance is called the null method.

Example 11: Calculate the current flowing through the resistor R1 and hence calculate the
potential at the point B when the potential at C is zero.
What is the potential at D?
What direction would a current flow through a galvanometer connected between the points
B and D?
What value of the resistance R4 would make the galvanometer read zero?
Solution
10 20
R1 R2
A C
R3 R4
5 11
6V
Metre Bridge
A convenient way to use the Wheatstone bridge is as the metre bridge. This is a very accurate
instrument for measuring the resistance of a device by comparing it with a known resistor.
The wire AB is a piece of resistance wire of uniform

cross-sectional area one metre long. The probe slides
along this wire until the galvanometer needle points
to zero, i.e. no current is flowing through it now. l1 l2
When this is the case the resistance wire is divided A B
into two parts in such a way that the ratio between the
two parts is the same as the ratio of the two resistors, R1 G R2
R1 and R2. Stated mathematically:
R1 l1
=
R2 l2

Example 12: A metre bridge is balanced as shown
when the probe is at the 35 cm mark. The length of
wire AB is 1 metre long. Find the resistance R.
Solution 100 B
A0 35
15
G R
Practical uses of the Wheatstone Bridge

1. Temperature Control: A Wheatstone Bridge is balanced. If one of the resistors
changes then current flows through the galvanometer. A change of temperature can
change the resistance. If it gets hotter the resistance will go up causing current to flow
in a particular direction through the galvanometer. If it gets colder its resistance goes
down causing current to flow the other way through the galvanometer. This current can
be used to control a heater/cooler to restore temperature to its original value.
2. Fail-Safe Device: A gas flame boiler has a pilot flame that should be continuously
lighting. If the pilot flame goes out, the fuel supply should get shut off. This can be
achieved by having a thermistor near the pilot flame. The thermistor is one of the
resistors in a Wheatstone bridge. If the pilot flame goes out, the thermistor’s resistance
changes causing the Wheatstone Bridge to be unbalanced. The unbalanced current can
be used to switch off the fuel.
Thermistors
Thermistors are intrinsic semiconducting devices whose
resistance decreases as the temperature increases. As the
Resistance R
Symbol
temperature increases, the number of electrons and holes
(charge carriers) increases. Therefore, the current I which
flows under an applied potential difference V also
V Temperature T
increases. From the formula R = , the resistance R
I
decreases in response to an increase in temperature.
Thermistors are cheaply manufactured from semiconducting powders like iron oxide.

Experiment E4: To demonstrate the variation of the resistance of a thermistor
with temperature. (Page 134)

Example 13: In the circuit diagram, the
resistance of the thermistor at room A 14 V
temperature is 400 W. At room temperature,
calculate
(a) the total resistance of the circuit
400 100
(b) the potential difference between A and B
(c) the potential at B
(d) the current flowing through the 100 W 200
resistor B
(e) the temperature of the room increases
changing the resistance of the thermistor
to 25 W. What is the potential at B now?
Solution
Photoconductive Cells
Photoconductive cells (also called Light Dependent
Resistors LDRs) are intrinsic semiconductor devices
Resistance R
Symbol
whose resistance decreases as the intensity of light
(electromagnetic radiation) falling on them increases.
As the intensity of light increases, more photons fall on
the semiconductor per second and, as in the Light Intensity
thermistor’s case, the number of electrons and holes
increases.
One type of material used in LDRs is cadmium sulfide and their resistance can range from
10 MΩ in darkness to a few hundred Ohms in brightness.

Demonstration: Using LDRs and thermistors in Circuits
When the thermistor is cold its
resistance is very high and the bulb
does not light. As the thermistor is
heated the bulb gradually comes on.
If the LDR is covered so that it is in
darkness its resistance is very high and LDR
Thermistor
the bulb does not light. If it is exposed
to light the bulb comes on.
4.5 Potential divider

A variable potential divider consists of a resistor connected
to a battery (12 V in this example). A probe slides along the 12 V
resistor and allows us to tap off any voltage between 0 V Probe
and 12 V. A voltmeter reads the voltage. When the probe is
half-way along the resistor, the voltmeter reads 6 V. V
Demonstration: Using a potentiometer

A potential divider is connected to a
12 V battery. As the probe taps off a 12 V
Probe
voltage from 0 V to 12 V the bulb turns 12 V bulb
on and gradually becomes fully bright. V
Potentiometer
A variable potential divider is called a potentiometer. It is used to divide a given
voltage so that you can tap off any voltage between 0 V and the maximum voltage.
Example 14: A potential divider is made up of a fixed 12 V

resistor of 10 W and a variable resistor whose
resistance can be varied from 0 W to 20 W. In the
circuit shown what is the maximum and minimum
potential differences between A and B?
Solution 20 10
A B

4.6 Effects of Electric Current
An electric current has three effects on a circuit:
[A] Heating Effect, [B] Magnetic Effect, [C] Chemical Effect
[A] Heating Effect:

The production of heat in a device depends on three factors: time (t), resistance (R) and
current (I).
An electric current is passed through a coil of resistance wire immersed in water so that the
electrical energy converted in the wire is all transferred as heat energy to the water. The
temperature rise of the water ∆q will be directly proportional to the heat energy supplied to it.
The heat energy supplied to the water is the electrical energy converted in the resistor or the
work done W in the resistor.
Demonstration: Heating Effect of an electric Current

1. Showing how the heating effect depends on time
Allow a constant current to flow. Measure the D.C.
temperature rise ∆q after various times t.
A graph of ∆q vs. t yields a straight line. A
This proves that ∆q ∝ t. Thermometer
∴W ∝ t
Calorimeter
2. Showing how the heating effect depends on the Heating Coil
resistance of the coil
Allow a constant current to flow through coils of
different resistances for a constant time. A graph of
∆q vs. R yields a straight line.
∴W∝R
3. Showing how the heating effect depends on the current flowing

Allow different currents to pass through a coil of a certain resistance for a set time. In this
case we have to plot a graph of ∆θ vs. I 2 in order to obtain a straight line graph.
∴W ∝ I 2
The amount of work done W in the resistor depends on three factors: The current I flowing, the
resistance R of the coil and the time t for which the current flows.
This can be expressed mathematically as follows:
W: Work done (J)
W = I 2 Rt
I: Current (A)
R: Resistance (Ω)
t: Time (s)
Note: The above formula can be proved mathematically using W = QV and substituting Q = It
and V = IR into this formula.

Example 15: A small heater with a resistance of 100 Ω is connected to a 220 V supply.
Calculate the current and the heat energy it gives off per minute.
Solution
Definition: Joules Law states that the I I θ

2
θ
amount of electrical energy converted to 1.0
internal energy in a resistor is directly

1.5
2.0
proportional to the square of the current 2.5
flowing through the resistor. 3.0
3.5
I
2
4.0

Experiment E1: To verify Joule’s heating law. (Page 117)
Electrical Power
Energy is produced more quickly in an electric fire than it is in a light bulb. The term power is
used to describe the rate of energy conversion. An electric fire has a higher power rating than an
electric bulb because it converts electrical energy into heat and light energy more quickly.
Definition: The power of a device is the rate at which it converts energy from one
form into another.
W QV ItV
P
= = = = IV
t t t
P = IV P: Power (W) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 62

I: Current (A) Power (instantaneous) (Electricity)
V: Voltage (V)
Definition: 1 Watt equals an energy conversion rate of 1 Joule per second.
There are two alternative expressions for power:

Substituting V = IR into the above formula gives P = I 2 R.
V V2
On the other hand, substituting I = into the formula gives P = .
R R
The last two formulae can only be applied to the conversion of electrical energy in a resistor.

Example 16: What is the maximum current you could safely pass through a 50 Ω, 2 W resistor?
Solution
[B] Magnetic Effect: The flow of electric current produces a magnetic field.
Demonstration: Magnetic Effect of an electric Current

When S is closed, the compass needle deflects
showing the presence of a nearby magnetic Compass
field. When S is opened the compass returns to
its normal orientation of pointing to magnetic
north, i.e. the nearby magnetic field has S
disappeared.
Explanation: An electric current is simply a
flow of electric charges. Once the charges are
in motion a magnetic field exists. The above
effect is called the Oersted effect.
[C] Chemical Effect: An electric current can cause a chemical reaction.
Demonstration: Chemical Effect of an electric Current

Sodium chloride dissolves in water into positive and A
negative ions. The positive ions are attracted by the
cathode and the negative ions by the anode. This
constitutes a flow of current which is registered on the
ammeter. In distilled water there is an absence of ions and Anode Cathode
so no current flows.
Effects of an Electric Current

Everyday examples of the heating effect
Electric heaters, cookers, hairdryers, kettles...
Advantage of EHT in transmission of electrical energy

Transformers can be used to step up the voltage to extra high tension (EHT) while
also reducing the current. According to P = VI they continue to transmit the same
power. The advantage of reducing the current is that the energy losses due to heating
( P = I 2 R ) are greatly reduced.
Everyday examples of the chemical effect

Electroplating, extracting metals from ores, purifying metals.

4.7 Domestic Circuits
Electricity is supplied to all homes at 220 V A.C. (alternating current) which is at a frequency of
50 Hz. It is supplied via two cables called the live and neutral wires.
Live Wire (Colour code: Brown): The potential of this wire goes alternately negative and
positive, making the current flow backwards and forward through the circuit. The potential varies
from +311 V to −311 V relative to earth. This variation takes place 50 times per second. The
effective voltage or root mean square value is 240 V.
Neutral Wire (Colour code: Blue): The Electricity Board earths the neutral wire by connecting
it to a metal plate.
Earth Wire (Colour Code: Yellow and green stripes): This is a safety wire which connects the
metal body of a kettle to earth and prevents it becoming live if a fault develops. If the live wire
were to touch the body of the kettle, a current would flow to earth and blow the fuse. If there was
no earth wire, the body of the kettle would remain live and be a source of danger.
3-Pin Plugs
Plugs provide a convenient and safe method of connecting different appliances into a mains
circuit. Fused plugs are normally fitted with either 3 A or 13 A fuses, though others are available.
The fuse value must be greater than the current that normally flows through the appliance, but as
close as possible to this value so that the fuse will blow before an overheating cable can cause a
fire.
Example 17: An appliance is rated 240 V, 480 W. What fuse should be connected to its plug,
given they come in values of 3 A and 13 A?
Solution
Paying for Electricity

The electrical cables entering a home pass into a meter which records the total electrical energy
used by the consumers. For example, a 60 W lamp uses 60 J of energy per second. If the lamp
is on for 10 s, its total energy consumption is 600 J. Therefore to work out the electrical energy
used by an appliance its power rating is multiplied by the time it is on. The E.S.B. charges
electricity used according to the number of kilowatts-hours used.
Definition: One kilowatt-hour is the amount of electrical energy used when a 1 kW

appliance is on for one hour.
The kW-hr is called a unit of electricity and electricity is charged according to the number of units
used.

Example 18: Calculate the cost of using a 4.2 kW immersion heater for four and a half hours,
a 60 W bulb for 6 hours and a 2.8 kW kettle for 15 minutes if one unit costs 8 cent.
Solution
Main Fuse Meter Distribution (Fuse) Box

L
6A 30A 16A
N
Live wire
Neutral wire
Earth wire E
To cooker L N
RING MAIN CIRCUIT
N L N L
E E
Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs): Usually used instead of fuses in the distribution box.
MCBs contain a bimetallic strip and an electromagnet. The bimetallic strip causes the switch to
trip for small currents and the electromagnet does it for large currents. They operate faster than a
fuse and can be reset by flicking a switch.
Residual Current Devices (RCDs): They protect against electrocution when a fuse or MCB
acts too slow. An RCD detects a difference in the current between the live and neutral which may
arise if someone touched the live so that current flowed through them to earth. The effect of this
difference is to cause the RCD to trip which disconnects the live from the circuit.
Bonding: All metal pipes, taps etc.. must be connected or bonded to earth to prevent people
getting electrocuted.

Radial Circuit: Appliances that take a large current like electric cookers have a separate live and
neutral wire coming from the distribution (fuse) box. This is called a radial circuit and it has its
own fuse.
Ring Circuit: The live terminals of each socket are connected together in a ring so that current
can flow both ways to the socket reducing the current in the wires.
Light Circuits: Lights are connected in parallel so that if one light blows the other lights stay on.
Answers to Examples
Example 1: 1.875 ×1021
Example 2: 200 C, 1.67 A, 12 V
Example 3: 1.875 W
Example 4: 4 ×10−4 A
Example 5: 7.4 ×10−4 m
Example 6: (a) 0.5 A, (b) 3 V, 6 V
Example 7: (a) 1.5 A, (b) 0.9 A, 0.6 A
Example 8: (a) 2 A, (b) 3.75 V, (c) 0.75 A, (d) 1.25 A,
(e) 1.25 A, (f) 2.5 V, (g) 1.25 V, (h) 1 W
Example 9: (a) 3.875 W, 3.1 A, (b) 5.8 V, (c) 1.2 A
Example 10: (a) 1.75 V, 10.25 V, (b) 7.7 ×10−4 C, (c) 5.4 ×10−3 J
Example 11: 0.2 A, 4 V, 4.125 V, D to B, 10 W
Example 12: 27.86 W
Example 13: (a) 280 W, (b) 4 V, (c) 10 V, (d) 40 mA, (e) 12.73 V
Example 14: Minimum: 0 V; Maximum: 8 V
Example 15: 2.2 A, 29 040 J
Example 16: 0.2 A
Example 17: 3 A fuse (I = 2 A)
Example 18: 1.60 euro

Numerical Problems 4. If the heating element of an electric
radiator takes a current of 4 A, what
Constants charge passes each point every minute?
Charge on electron e = 1.6 × 10 C How many electrons pass a given point in
−19
Copper r = 1.70 10 W m this time?

−8
Aluminium r = 2.80 × 10 W m
−8
Silver r = 1.60 × 10 W m 5. The current through a conductor is 4 A

−8
Iron r = 14.0 × 10 W m when the potential difference (p.d.) across

−8
Platinum r = 11.0 × 10 W m it is 20 V. Calculate the resistance of the

−8
conductor.
Basic Calculations
6. What p.d. will produce a current of 5 A in
1. (a) Calculate the work done in bringing a
a 12 Ω resistor?
charge of 4.5 mC through a potential
difference of 20 V.
7. What current flows through a resistance of
100 Ω when it is connected to a 230 V
(b) The potential difference between two
supply?
points is 6 V. How much work is done
when a charge of 1000 C is
8. A current of 4 A flows through the
transferred from one point to the
filament of a car headlight bulb when it
other.
is connected to a 12 V battery. Find the
resistance of the filament.
(c) 0.8 J of energy is expended in moving
a 0.5 mC charge from one point to
9. Find the potential difference across a 6 Ω
another. Calculate the potential
resistor when it is carrying a current of
difference between these two points.
5 A.
(d) Calculate the charge transferred by a
10. At a certain temperature, the current
current of 3 A flowing for six minutes.
through a conductor is 3 A when the p.d.
across it is 24 V. Find the resistance of
(e) How long would it take a current of
the conductor. When the temperature of
6 A to transfer a charge of 4000 C?
the conductor is raised, the same p.d.
causes a current of 2 A to flow through it.
2. A certain quantity of charge does 3000 J
Find the increase in its resistance.
of work when passing through a resistor
which has a potential difference of 10 V Resistivity
across its ends. It takes 2 minutes for the
charge to be transferred from one point to 11. Calculate the resistance of a circular wire
the other. Calculate the quantity of charge, made of Silver of length 25 m and cross-
the current and the resistance of the sectional area of 3.14 × 10−6 m2.
resistor.
12. Calculate the length of a platinum wire
3. The rating on a torch bulb is 0.3 A, 4 V. of cross-sectional area of 6.28 × 10−6 m2
How many electrons are removed from whose total resistance is 5 Ω.
the negative terminal of a 4 V battery per
minute when the bulb is connected across 13. Find the average cross-sectional area of
it? a conductor whose resistance is 10 Ω,
whose length is 5 m and is made of a
material whose resistivity is 2 × 10−8 Ω m.

14. A circular wire has a diameter of 1 mm. If Resistors in Series and Parallel
a 100 m length of it has a resistance of 23. Calculate
10 Ω calculate the resistivity of the (a) the current, I
material in the wire. (b) the potential difference between A and
B, VAB, and the potential difference
15. What is the resistance of a Copper wire of between B and C, VBC.
length 50 cm and mean diameter 0.1 mm?
12 V
16. Calculate the diameter of a Copper wire

2.5 m long if its resistance is 0.1 Ω.
A B C
17. What is the length of the Copper wire in a 4 12
galvanometer coil if its diameter is
0.1 mm and the resistance of the coil is 24. If a current of 0.5 A flows what is the
100 Ω? value of R? What is VAB? What value of R
would cause a current of 0.25 A to flow?
18. Calculate the cross-sectional area of a 12 V
10 m length of Copper wire which carries
a current of 4.8 A when a potential
difference of 12 V is maintained across its
ends. If the wire has a circular A B
cross-section, calculate its diameter. 7 R 12
19. A wire of circular cross-sectional area has 25. Calculate (a) the current, I and (b) the
a diameter of 3 mm. If the resistance of current flowing in each resistor.
5 m of it is 0.05 Ω calculate its resistivity.
9V
20. A wire 100 m long and 2 mm in diameter I I

has a resistivity of 4.8 × 10−8 Ω m. What is 6
the resistance of the wire?
21. An Aluminium bar 2.5 m long has a

rectangular cross-section 1 cm by 5 cm. 10
(a) What is its resistance?
(b) What would be the length of an Iron 26. Calculate:
wire 15 mm in diameter having the (a) the total current I,
same resistance? (b) the potential difference between A and
B,
22. The resistance of a wire is 0.8 Ω. Its (c) the current flowing in the 4 Ω resistor.
length is 21 cm and diameter 4 mm.
Calculate the resistivity of the material. I 9V
I
3 4
A B
6
9 8

27. Calculate the current I leaving the 36. Calculate the maximum safe current for
battery, the potential difference between (a) a 2 MΩ resistor of power 5 W and
A and B, VAB, and the current passing (b) a 1 kΩ resistor of power 2 W.
through the 6 Ω resistor.
37. A 10 Ω resistor dissipates 22.5 W as heat.
9V Calculate (a) the current, and (b) the
potential difference across the resistor.
38. What is the maximum current you could

6 4 safely pass through a 500 Ω, 5 W resistor?
A B
3
39. A 50 Ω resistor can safely pass a current
2 1 of 0.1 A. Calculate the power rating of the
resistor.
Wheatstone/Metre Bridge
28. In a balanced Wheatstone bridge 40. Calculate the resistance of a coil which
R1 = 4 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω and R3 = 15 Ω. Find the produces 1500 J of energy when a current
value of R4. of 2 A flows through it for 90 s.
29. In a balanced Wheatstone bridge 41. Two lamps, one taking 40 W and the other
R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω and R4 = 60 Ω. Find taking 100 W when connected separately
the value of R3. to a 200 V supply, are now connected in
series to the 200 V supply. Find the
30. In a balanced Wheatstone bridge resistance of each lamp and the total
R1 = 10R2 and R3 = 4 Ω. Find the value of power in Watts taken by the two lamps.
R4.
42. A cell of EMF 5 V passes a steady
31. A metre bridge is balanced when current of 0.1 A for 40 minutes. What is
1
l = 42 cm and l = 58 cm. If R = 50 Ω
2 1
the energy stored in the cell?
calculate the value of R .
2
43. Show that the power dissipated when a

Power/Domestic electricity potential difference of V volts is
32. Calculate the current flowing through a 3V 2
connected across AB is P = .
1 kW heater when it is connected to the 2R
mains supply (220 V). Find also the R R
resistance of the element of the heater.
A B
R R
33. A current of 0.26 A flows through a bulb
when connected to a 220 V supply. What R R
is the wattage and resistance of the bulb?
44. Each of the 2 Ω resistors can dissipate a
34. What is the maximum current you could maximum of 18 W without becoming
safely pass through a 50 Ω, 2 W resistor? excessively heated. What is the maximum
power the circuit can dissipate?
35. A small heater with a resistance of 100 Ω
is connected to a 220 V supply. Calculate 2
the current and the heat energy it gives off 2
per minute. 2

45. Two lamps, marked ‘60 W, 120 V’ and 54. In a model of a power line, a 12 V A.C.
‘40 W, 120 V’ are connected in series supply of negligible resistance is
across a 120 V line. What power is connected by wires of total resistance 4 Ω
consumed in each lamp? to a lamp of resistance 6 Ω. Calculate:
(a) the current flowing in the wires,
46. Two resistors are rated 20 W, 6 V and (b) the power loss in the wires,
30 W, 6 V. Calculate the power consumed (c) the voltage drop along the wires,
by each resistor when they are connected (d) the power converted in the lamp.
in series to a 6 V source.
47. A current of 3.6 A flows through a

resistor R for 30 s. when a potential
difference of 4.5 V is maintained across
it. Calculate the quantity of charge passed
in this time, the number of electrons that
this charge corresponds to and the work
done by these electrons. Also calculate the
resistance of R and the power dissipated
in it. (Charge on electron e = 1.6×10−19 C).
48. A lamp has a power rating of 100 W. It

operates on 230 V mains. What current
does it draw? What size fuse should be
put in its plug, a 3 A or a 13 A?
49. An electric cooker has four 500 W plates,

a 2 kW grill and a 3 kW oven. It operates
on 230 V mains. Is a 40 A fuse suitable
for this cooker?
50. What fuse should be used in a plug

connected to a 2.5 kW kettle connected to
the mains (220 V), a 3 A or a 13 A?
51. A 2000 W appliance operates for 3 hours.

How many kilowatt-hours of energy does
it use?
52. A 75 W lamp is operating for 40 minutes.

How many kilowatt-hours of energy does
it use?
53. Calculate the cost of using a 4.2 kW

immersion heater for four and a half
hours, a 60 W bulb for 6 hours, a 1250 W
toaster for 20 minutes and a 2.8 kW kettle
for 10 minutes if one unit costs 8 cent.

Answers
1. (a) 9 × 10 J; (b) 6000 J; (c) 1.6 × 10 V; 30. 0.4 Ω
-5 6
(d) 1080 C; (e) 666.7 s 31. 69.05 Ω

2. 300 C, 2.5 A, 4 Ω 32. 4.55 A, 48.4 Ω
3. 1.125 × 10 33. 57.2 W, 846.2 Ω
20
4. 240 C, 1.5 × 10 34. 0.2 A

21
5. 5 Ω 35. 2.2 A, 29 040 J

6. 60 V 36. (a) 1.58 mA, (b) 45 mA
7. 2.3 A 37. (a) 1.5 A, (b) 15 V
8. 3 Ω 38. 0.1 A
9. 30 V 39. 0.5 W
10. 8 Ω, 4 Ω 40. 4.17 Ω
11. 0.127 Ω 41. 1000 Ω, 400 Ω, 28.57 W
12. 285.5 m 42. 1200 J
13. 10 m2
-8
44. 27 W
14. 7.85 × 10 Ω m 45. 9.6 W, 14.4 W
-8
15. 1.08 Ω 46. 7.2 W, 4.8 W

16. 0.74 mm 47. 108 C, 6.75×1020, 486 J, 1.25 Ω, 16.2 W
17. 46 m 48. 0.43 A, 3 A
18. 6.8 × 10 m2, 0.294 mm 49. 30.4 A, Yes
−8
19. 7.07 × 10 Ω m 50. 13 A fuse ( I = 11.36 A ).

−8
20. 1.53 Ω 51. 6 kW-hr

21. (a) 1.4 × 10 Ω, (b) 17.7 cm 52. 0.05 kW-hr
−4
22. 4.8 × 10 Ω m
−5
53. 1.61 euro
23. (a) 0.75 A (b) 3 V, 9 V 54. (a) 1.2 A, (b) 5.76 W, (c) 4.8 V,
24. 5 Ω, 2.5 V, 29 Ω (d) 8.64 W
25. (a) 2.4 A, (b) 1.5 A, 0.9 A

26. (a) 2.1 A, (b) 5.6 V, (c) 1.4 A
27. 1.7 A, 2.55 V, 0.425 A
28. 22.5 Ω
29. 30 Ω

Electrical Circuits Revision
This set of questions is excellent if you feel you need a deeper understanding of electrical
circuits.
Question 1: Find the current I. Question 6: Find the potential difference

(voltage) between A and B.
V = 10 V
V=6V
2 A B
Question 2: Find the current I.
4V
V = 100 V
Question 7: Find the potential difference
V = 10 V
4

A B
V=3V
4V

3 (voltage) between A and B.
V=6V
V=2V V=2V
A B
10

Question 5: Find the current I. (voltage) between A and B.
V = 10 V
V = 10 V
2 3
A B
6V

Question 10: Find the potential difference Question 14: Find
(voltage) between A and B. (a) the current I,
(b) the potential difference between A and B,
V = 12 V (c) the potential difference between B and C,
(d) the potential at A,
(e) the potential at B,
(f) the potential at C.
A B
V = 12 V
2V 4V

(voltage) between A and B. A
2
B
4
C
V = 10 V
Question 15: If the current os 0.25 A, find
(a) the value of R,
(b) the potential difference between A and B.
V=6V
A B
4V
A B
6 R 4
Question 16: Find
V = 10 V (a) the current I,
(b) the current in the 6 W resistor,
(b) the current in the 12 W resistor.
V=6V
A B
I I
6
2V 2V

(voltage) between A and B. 12
V = 10 V
A B
3V 4V

Question 17: Find Question 19: Find
(a) the current in the 8 W resistor, (a) the current in the 8 W resistor,
(b) the current in the 12 W resistor, (b) the current in the 4 W resistor,
(c) the current in R, (c) the current in the 2 W resistor,
(d) the potential difference across R, (d) the current in R,
(e) the value of R. (e) the voltage across the 2 W resistor,
(f) the voltage across the R resistor,
V=6V (g) the value of R.
V = 12 V
4V
8
R 8
12 4
2V 2 R
Question 18: Find

(a) the current in the 3 W resistor,
(b) the voltage across the 6 W resistor, Answers
(c) the current in the 6 W resistor, 1. 5 A
(d) the current in the 4 W resistor, 2. 25 A
(e) the current in R, 3. 1 A
(f) the voltage across the 4 W resistor,
(g) the voltage across the R resistor, 4. 0·4 A
(h) the value of R. 5. 2 A
6. 2 V
V=6V
7. 6 V
8. 6 V
9. 4 V
6
10. 6 V
3
11. 6 V
12. 6 V
4 R 13. 3 V
3V 14. (a) 2 A, (b) 4 V, (c) 8 V, (d) 12 V,
(e) 8 V, (f) 0 V
15. (a) 14 W, (b) 3·5 V
16. (a) 1·5 A, (b) 1 A, (c) 0·5 A
17. (a) 14 A, (b) 16 A, (c) 125 A, (d) 4 V,
(e) 9·6 W
18. (a) 1 A, (b) 3 V, (c) 0·5 A, (d) 0·5 A,
(e) 0·5 A, (f) 2 V, (g) 1 V
19. (a) 0·5 A, (b) 2 A, (c) 1·5 A,
(d) 1·5 A, (e) 3 V, (f) 1 V, (g) 23 W

Chapter 5 • Electromagnetism
5.1 Magnetism
Magnetism is produced by the motion of electric charge.
This statement can be illustrated as follows:
When S is closed, the compass needle deflects showing Compass
the presence of a nearby magnetic field. When S is
opened, the compass returns to its normal orientation of
pointing to magnetic north. The nearby magnetic field S
has disappeared.
Explanation: An electric current is simply a flow of electric charges. Once the charges are in
motion a magnetic field exists. The above effect is called the Oersted effect.
Horse-shoe magnet
The magnetic fields near the ends of a bar magnet N S
and horse-shoe magnet are strong. These are the
poles of the magnet. Bar Magnet
N S
Magnets exhibit both attractive and repulsive forces. A magnet is said to have a North and a
South pole. If the N-pole of one magnet is brought near the N-pole of another magnet, repulsion
occurs. The same is true of two S-poles. If opposite poles are brought close together, attraction
occurs.
S N N S
Like poles repel; unlike poles attract. Repulsion
S N S N
Attraction
Electromagnets and their uses

Used in scrap-yards to lift metal scrap, electric motors and electromagnetic relays.
Magnetic Fields
A piece of iron close to the magnet will experience a force due to its magnetic field. The field is
described by a number of lines called magnetic field lines or flux lines.
Definition: The space around a magnet is a store of magnetic energy that is

called the magnetic field.
Definition: The direction of a magnetic field at any point is taken to be the

direction of the force on a N-pole placed at that point.

A simple experiment which describes such a line is
as follows:
A magnetised needle is pushed through a cork and
floats on water with its N-pole uppermost. When
the needle is held near the N-pole of the magnet
and then released, it is repelled and travels towards
the S-pole along a curved path which represents the
direction of the magnetic field.
A magnetic field line moves from the North pole to
the South pole.
Demonstration: Magnet Field due to a Bar Magnet

Fields can be examined using iron filings or a plotting compass. The
magnetic field lines form closed loops leaving the N-pole and
entering the S-pole where they are directed through the magnet and
out from the N-pole again.
This is the field pattern between two bar magnets of opposite

poles.
Demonstration: Magnet Field due to a Current

1. Field due to a current in a straight wire
A straight wire carrying current is passed through a
piece of cardboard and the field is examined using iron-
filings or a compass. The pattern of the filings on the
card shows that the field lines are circles centred about
the wire.
2. Field due to a short circular coil or loop
The field is similar to that produced by a short bar magnet
and the coil acts as if it has a N-pole on one face and a
S-pole on the other. It behaves as a magnetic dipole.
3. Field due to a solenoid

A solenoid is a long coil made up of a number of turns of wire. The field is similar to a long
bar magnet. The magnetic field can be made much stronger by inserting a piece of iron in the
centre of the solenoid. This is the basis of the electromagnet.

Earth’s magnetic field
The earth is surrounded by a giant magnetic field with a magnetic north and south. The
true magnetic north, about which the earth spins, is not quite in the same place as the
magnetic north. The angle between them is called the angle of declination. Using a
magnetic compass and having knowledge of the magnetic declination allow mariners to
navigate around the world.
5.2 Current in a Magnetic Field

A current flowing in a conductor sets up a magnetic field around it (Oersted Effect). If a current
carrying conductor (c.c.c.) is placed inside the permanent magnetic field of a horse-shoe magnet,
there will be a force between the two magnetic fields causing the c.c.c. to experience a force.
Demonstration: Force acting on a c.c.c. in a magnetic field

A wire carrying current (c.c.c.) is passed N
at right angles to the magnetic field of a
horse shoe magnet. The c.c.c. experiences
a force pulling it down or pushing it up
depending on the direction of the current. S
If the current is increased using the
rheostat, the force on the wire increases. S
Fleming’s left-hand rule works out the direction of the thrust or force on the c.c.c.
Fleming’s left-hand rule: Thumb (Thrust)

Place the forefinger, centre finger and the
thumb of the left hand mutually at right
angles. If the forefinger then points in the
direction of the field (North to South) and the
centre finger in the direction of the current
Forefinger (Field)
(+ to −), the thumb will point in the direction
of the thrust.
Centre finger (Current)
By experiment it is found that the force produced depends on the following factors:
1. The size of the current I : F ∝ I.
2. The length of the conductor in the field: F ∝ l.
3. The strength of the magnetic field of the magnet. The magnetic field strength is also called
the magnetic flux density and it is denoted by B.
Combining these results, F = BIl is obtained.

F = BIl F: Force on the wire (N)
B: Magnetic field intensity of the magnet (Tesla, T)
I: Current (A)
l: Length of wire in the magnetic field (m)
Force on a current-carrying conductor (Electricity)
Note: The above equation is true for a c.c.c. perpendicular to the field. The force is less for other
angles and is zero when the c.c.c. is parallel to the field.
Example 1: A straight wire of length 2 m carrying a current of 4 A experiences a force of

10 N when placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. What is the magnetic flux
density at the wire?
Solution
Example 2: A rectangular loop of wire is free to rotate about

Axis
an axis parallel to its longer sides. The plane of the loop is
parallel to a uniform magnetic field of magnetic flux density
B. The dimensions of the loop are 20 cm by 15 cm and the
direction of B is perpendicular to the longer sides. The
magnitude of B is 0.44 T and a current of 2.6 A flows around 20 cm
B
the loop. Calculate:
(a) the magnitude of the force acting on one of the longer
sides of the loop,
(b) the moment of force about the axis. 15 cm
Solution

Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field
There is already a formula for the force on a c.c.c. in a magnetic field. However, a conductor
carrying a current is simply a number of charged particles moving in a wire.
Proof: Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field

Consider a length l of conductor containing n charged particles each of charge q and
average drift velocity v. Each particle will take the same time t to travel the distance l.
Total Charge Q = nq
Q l 
F = BIl = B   l = Bnq   = nBqv
t  t 
For a single charge, n = 1 ⇒ F = Bqv
Hence, the force on a single charge is:

F = Bqv F: Force on the charge (N) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 62
B: Magnetic field intensity Force on a charged particle (Electricity)
of the magnet (T)
q: Quantity of the charge (C)
v: Velocity of the charge (m s−1)
Example 3: An electron of charge 1.6 × 10−19 C enters a uniform magnetic field of flux density
3 T and moves at right angles to the field. If the force on the electron is 1.5 × 10−18 N calculate
the speed of the electron.
Solution

Example 4: A charge of 2 × 10−19 C travelling at 4.2 × 105 m s-1 enters a uniform magnetic
field of flux density 2.5 T and moves at right angles to the field. Calculate the force acting on
the charge and the length of radius of the path followed by the charge, given that the mass of
the charged particle is 3·5 × 10-27 kg.
Solution
q v B
F
r
Defining the Ampere

When currents flow through two conductors placed near each other they either attract or repel.
This is because each current carrying conductor is surrounded by a magnetic field.
If the currents flow in opposite directions, the wires repel each other. If the currents flow in the
same direction, they attract each other.
Such a phenomenon is used to define the unit of current, the Ampere (or Amp, for short).
Demonstration: Defining the Ampere

Rheostat
Set up the apparatus shown with a battery
connected to two parallel strips of aluminium.
A rheostat controls the current through the
circuit. A wooden block keeps each half of the
alumimum foil separated.
Aluminium strip
When the circuit is turned on, the aluminium I I

F F
foils repel each other.
This is the principle on which the definition of

Wooden block
the Ampere is based.

Definition: The Ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
and placed 1 m apart in a vacuum, causes each to exert a force of 2 × 10−7 N per
metre length on the other.
Electromagnetism
A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force. This is the principle
behind the operation of the motor, electromagnetic relay and the loudspeaker.
5.3 Electromagnetic Induction

An electric current flowing in a conductor produces a magnetic field. An electric current is a flow
of charge (a changing electric field). When the charge ceases to flow the magnetic field
disappears.
A changing electric field produces a magnetic field.
What about the opposite effect? Could a changing magnetic field produce an electric field? The
following experiment showed this to be true:
A bar magnet is thrust inside a solenoid connected
to a galvanometer. The galvanometer needle
deflects showing that a current flowed in it. The
v
current only flows when the magnet moves or
when there is a changing magnetic field. To cause
a current to flow in the solenoid an EMF or voltage
must have been generated inside the solenoid. G
The conclusion from this experiment must be that:
A changing magnetic field produces an electric field.

Therefore, an EMF is generated and a current flows.
This is electromagnetic induction or the generation of electrical energy. Mechanical energy in

the movement of the magnet has been converted into electrical energy.
Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic Induction is the principle on which the electrical generator is
based. Generators are used in power stations, alternators in cars and dynamos on
bicycles.

Magnetic Flux
Surrounding a magnet there is a magnetic field. This is the space around a magnet where
magnetic forces can be experienced. The field can be represented by a number of lines called flux
lines. These lines are directed from the North to the South pole.
The number of flux lines that are drawn is determined by the
strength of the magnet. Therefore, a strong magnet would have
many flux lines close together (a high flux density).
The number of flux lines per unit cross-sectional area is equal to
the strength B of the magnetic field. B is called the magnetic flux
density. The total magnetic flux is denoted by F (phi).
Φ
∴B =
A
F = BA F: Magnetic Flux (Weber, Wb)

B: Magnetic Field Strength
Magnetic flux (Electricity)
or Magnetic Flux Density (T)
A: Area (m2)
Example 5: A magnetic field of strength 1.5 T is directed through a cross-sectional area of

0.8 m2. Find the magnetic flux through the area when the field lines are perpendicular to the
area.
Solution
Definition: The magnetic flux F is the number of magnetic field lines passing
through a certain area A whose surface is perpendicular to the field lines.
Definition: The magnetic field strength B is the number of flux lines per unit
cross-sectional area.

Cause and Effect
Faraday carried out an experiment to find out the
factors on which the size of the EMF depended.
He moved the magnet into the solenoid. The effect v
is that the galvanometer needle deflects. What is
changing in the circuit to cause this effect? The
number of flux lines linking the circuit is changing G
with time as the magnet approaches.
Effect: An EMF e is produced in the circuit.
Cause: There is a change in flux linking the circuit.
Definition: Electromagnetic induction is the production of an EMF in a

circuit when the magnetic flux linking the circuit changes.
Faraday found that the faster the magnet moves, the greater the deflection on the galvanometer.
In other words, the size of the EMF generated depends on the rate at which the flux lines cut or
link the circuit.
dΦ
He showed experimentally that: ε ∝
dt
He also found that the size of EMF depended on the number of turns of wire N in the solenoid -
the more turns, the greater the EMF.
Faraday’s formula now becomes:
dΦ e: EMF or Voltage induced in the coil (V)

ε =N N: Number of turn in the coil
dt
dF: Change in the magnetic flux linking the circuit (Wb)
dt: Time over which this change takes place (s)
Definition: Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction states that the size of

the EMF, |e|, induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linking the circuit.
Lenz’s Law S N
When a current flows in the coil it sets up its own magnetic field. N S
This magnetic field opposes the magnetic field of the incoming
magnet. It is the energy expended by the moving magnet in
overcoming this repulsive force that is converted to electrical
S
energy. When the magnet is withdrawn current flows in the N
opposite direction. This sets up a magnetic field in the opposite N S
direction which attracts the moving magnet.
Definition: Lenz’s Law states that the EMF induced in a circuit acts in such a
direction as to oppose the change producing it.
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law are the Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

Demonstration: Faraday’s Law
Set up the circuit shown with a solenoid
attached to a galvanometer. The v
galvanometer measures the induced
current and hence, the EMF in the circuit.
A magnet is moved into the solenoid.
G
The faster the magnet is moved into the solenoid the larger the deflection on the
galvanometer showing that the induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linking the circuit.
If the number of turns of wire are increased, the galvanometer deflection increases for a
magnet moving at the same speed.
Demonstration: Lenz’s Law S N

Set up the circuit shown with a solenoid attached to a N S
galvanometer. As the magnet is moved into the solenoid
there is a force repelling its movement. As the magnet is
withdrawn there is a force attracting the magnet. N S
N S
An EMF is induced in the circuit which acts in such a
direction as to oppose the change producing it.
In many problems on electromagnetic induction, it is convenient to combine two formulae:
F = BA e: EMF or Voltage induced (V)

B: Magnetic Flux Density (T)
dΦ BAN
ε =N ε= A: Area (m2)
dt t N: Number of turns
t: Time (s)
Example 6: A planar loop of wire consists of a single turn and has a cross-sectional area of
50 cm2. The plane of the loop is perpendicular to a magnetic field that increases uniformly in
magnitude from 1.5 T to 3.5 T in 2.5 s. What is the resulting induced current if the loop has a
total resistance of 10 Ω.
Solution

5.4 Alternating Current (AC)
Direct current (D.C) is the current produced by Direct current (DC)
batteries. The current is constant flowing in the
Current (A)
same direction.
I
Alternating current (A.C.) or alternating EMF
is one which varies periodically with time in 0
Time (s)
direction and magnitude. It results from the way
electricity is produced by generators.
The time for a complete cycle is the periodic time Alternating current (AC)
T. This is one complete revolution of the coil.
Current (A)
The number of complete cycles per second is the
frequency f. The relationship between f and T is Time for 1 cycle, T
given by: Io
Time (s)
1 f: Frequency (Hz) 0
f = T: Periodic time (s)
T Io
The value of A.C. varies from one instant to another. An average current called the root mean
square value (RMS) of the current is taken. This works out to be:
Io: Peak value of the current (A) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 62
I
I RMS = 0 IRMS: Root mean square value Alternating current (Electricity)
2 of the current (A)
Definition: The root mean square (RMS) current is the value of steady direct
current which would dissipate the same heat at the same rate as alternating current in
a given resistance.
Example 7: The AC flowing in a wire of resistance 10 Ω produces heat at the rate of 80 W.

Find: (a) the RMS value of the current, (b) the RMS voltage, (c) the peak value of the voltage
across the wire.
Solution
National Grid and Alternating Current (AC)

AC is produced by generators and power stations. Using transformers, it is fed into the
national grid at high voltages (EHT) to reduce energy losses.

Demonstration: Using an Oscilloscope to show AC
A signal generator produces AC. If it is connected to a Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO), a picture of the AC wave is seen. By adjusting the
frequency control, more waves per second will be produced. By adjusting the
amplitude control, the height of the waves changes.
CRO
Signal Generator
Amplitude
Control
Frequency
Control
5.5 Mutual and Self Induction Iron core

Mutual Induction
An alternating current is fed into coil A Coil A Coil B
(primary coil). The changing current
produces a changing magnetic field which AC
passes through an iron core. This changing G
magnetic field induces a current in coil B
(secondary coil). The iron core has the
effect of localising the flux lines so that
most of them cut through coil B. It prevents Primary Coil Secondary Coil
flux leakage.
Definition: Any arrangement of two coils such that a current is induced in one when the
current is changed in the other is said to possess mutual inductance.
Demonstration: Mutual Induction

Coil A Coil B
Set up the circuit. As the switch is opened
and closed in the primary circuit, the
galvanometer needle deflects back and G
forth about the zero position.
S
Primary Coil Secondary Coil

A.C. with Inductors
Consider an A.C. source connected to a coil of wire AC
S
called an inductor. The current increases first of all in
one direction and then in the opposite direction. As a
result the magnetic flux around the inductor is Inductor
constantly changing. This changing magnetic flux,
according to Faraday’s Law, induces an EMF in the coil
Iron core
itself called a back EMF. This back EMF opposes the
EMF from the source. Therefore, the current never gets
very high and the bulb is dim.
If an iron core is inserted inside the coil, this has the effect of concentrating the magnetic field
around the coil. As a result a larger back EMF is induced in the coil and the bulb gets dimmer.
Definition: Self induction is the production of a back EMF in a coil whenever the
current in that coil changes.
Demonstration: Self Induction

The high EMF of self-induction can be S
demonstrated by connecting a Neon
discharge lamp across the terminals of an
electromagnet.
A Neon lamp requires at least 180 V to
cause it to glow, yet it flashes every time
the current in the coil is switched off.
Example 8: A coil consists of 200 turns of wire of total resistance 400 Ω and is connected to
an AC supply. Over a certain time period of 1 ms, the flux threading each turn of the coil
increased by 4 × 10-4 Wb. Calculate
(a) the average induced EMF over the 1 m s period,
(b) the average current in the coil if the average applied voltage over the 1 m s period is 100 V.
Solution

Uses of inductors
• Dimmer switches in stage lighting
• Tuning circuits in radios
• Smoothing slight variations in DC from power units
The Transformer
A transformer changes (transforms) an alternating potential difference (voltage) from one value
to another of greater or smaller value using the mutual induction principle.
Construction
Two coils, called the primary and secondary coils, are wound on a complete soft iron core. The
purpose of the iron core is to ensure that the magnetic flux produced by current flowing in the
primary completely links the windings of the secondary (there is no flux leakage).
Principle of Operation: The transformer is based on the mutual induction principle where a
change of current in one coil induced a change of current in another coil.
Primary Coil Secondary Coil
VP VS
Iron Core
Transformer Formulae
VP: Primary voltage (V) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 62

VP N P
= VS: Secondary voltage (V) Transformer (Electricity)
VS N S
NP: No. of turns in the primary
NS: No. of turns in the secondary
In a transformer that is 100% efficient: Power into primary = Power out of secondary.
(Voltage × Current) = (Voltage × Current)
P S
VP × I P = VS × I S VP: Primary voltage (V)

VS: Secondary voltage (V)
IP: Primary current (A)
IS: Secondary current (A)
Step-up
Step-up transformer: If the secondary coil has more turns than
the primary, the alternating voltage produced across the
NP < NS
secondary coil will be greater than across the primary.
Step-down transformer: If the secondary coil has fewer turns Step-down

than the primary, the alternating voltage produced across the
secondary coil will be less than across the primary. NP > NS

Uses of Transformers
• Generating stations generate electricity between 20 kV and 30 kV. This is stepped up
to 220 kV or 400 kV for distribution on the national grid. It is then stepped down to
230 V at substations for home comsumption. All of this is achieved by transformers.
• Computers, TVs and radios all contain transformers for supplying the correct voltages
to their electronic parts.
Example 9: The primary/secondary turns ratio in a transformer is 8:1. The power input to
the primary is 80 W. If a current of 2.5 A flows in the secondary coil, calculate
(a) the potential difference across the secondary coil, (b) the potential difference across the
primary coil and (c) the current flowing in the primary coil. Assume 100% efficiency.
Solution
Answers to Examples
Example 1: 1·25 T
Example 2: (a) 0·2288 N, (b) 1·72 × 10-2 N m
Example 3: 3·125 m s-1
Example 4: 2·1 × 10-13 N, 2·94 × 10-3 m
Example 5: 1·2 Wb
Example 6: 0·4 mA
Example 7: (a) 2·83 A, (b) 28·3 V, (c) 40 V
Example 8: (a) 80 V, (b) 0·05 A
Example 9: (a) 32 V, (b) 256 V, (c) 0·3125 A

Numerical Problems
2 T and moves at right angles to the field.
1. A straight horizontal wire of length 50 cm If the force on the electron is 2 × 10−18 N
and carrying a current of 5 A is placed at calculate the speed of the electron.
right angles to a horizontal magnetic field
of flux density 0.8 T. Calculate the force 10. A proton moves in a plane perpendicular
on the wire. to a magnetic field B. If the proton has a
speed that is 0.1% of the speed of light,
2. A straight piece of wire of length 3 m what value of B will result in a magnetic
carrying a current of 2 A experiences a force that is 106 times the weight of the
force of 12 N when placed perpendicular proton?
to the magnetic field. Calculate the (Charge of proton = 1.6 × 10−19 C;
magnetic flux density. Speed of light c = 3 × 108 m s−1;
Mass of proton = 1.67 × 10−27 kg;
3. A wire 50 cm long and carrying a current Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m s−2 )
of 25 A is at right angles to a magnetic
field of flux density 5 × 10−4 T. What is the 11. A proton in an accelerator enters a
magnitude of the force on the wire? magnetic field of flux density 0.5 T with a
velocity of 4.6 × 107 m s−1 at right angles
4. Calculate the force acting on a conductor to the field. Calculate the radius of the path
of length 40 cm which is carrying a current which the proton follows in the field.
of 3 A and which is placed perpendicular (Charge of proton = 1.6 × 10−19 C;
to a uniform magnetic field of flux density Mass of proton = 1.67 × 10−27 kg )
5.2 T.
5. A straight piece of wire of length 0.5 m 12. A Helium ion enters a magnetic field of
and carrying a current of 4 A experiences a flux density 0.22 T with a velocity of
force of 5 N when placed perpendicular to 1.6 × 107 ms−1 at right angles to the field.
a uniform magnetic field of magnetic flux As it leaves the field it’s velocity makes
density B. Find the value of B. an angle of 45o with the velocity it had on
entering the field. Calculate the distance
6. A straight wire of length 1 m carrying a travelled by the ion in the field.
current of 3 A experiences a force of 9 N (Charge on Helium ion = 3.2 × 10−19 C;
when placed perpendicular to a uniform Mass of Helium ion = 6.7 × 10−27 kg )
magnetic field. What is the magnetic flux
density at the wire? 13. A magnetic field of strength 0.4 T is
directed through a cross-sectional area of
7. Calculate the force on a charge of 0.4 m2. Find the magnetic flux through the
1.6 × 10−19 C travelling at 2 × 107 m s−1 at area when the field lines are perpendicular
right angles to a magnetic field of uniform to the area.
flux density 2.5 T. What path will the
charge now follow? 14. The flux through a single turn loop is
changing at the rate of 2 Wb per second.
8. A particle of charge 2 × 10−3 C moving at Find the induced EMF in the loop.
100 m s−1 moves at right angles to a
uniform magnetic field of flux density 3 T. 15. The magnetic flux through a coil of 100
What is the force on the charge? turns of wire changes from 0.4 Wb to zero
in 0.1 s. Calculate the average EMF
9. An electron of charge 1.6 × 10−19 C enters induced in the coil.
a uniform magnetic field of flux density

16. A coil of 500 turns of wire is wound 22. Domestic electricity is supplied at a RMS
around an electromagnet. The magnetic voltage of 230 V. Find the maximum value
flux of the electromagnet falls from of the voltage in any one cycle.
0.02 Wb to zero in 1/50 second, when the
current to the electromagnet is switched 23. The peak value of an AC current is 10 A.
off. Calculate the EMF induced in the coil. Find its RMS value.
17. At one instant the magnetic flux in the core 24. The AC flowing in a wire of resistance
of an electromagnet is 1.5 × 10−3 Wb. One 10 Ω produces heat at the rate of 60 W.
thousandth of a second later, the magnetic Find:
flux is 1.35 × 10−3 Wb. Calculate the (a) the RMS value of the current,
average EMF induced in a coil of (b) the RMS voltage,
5,000 turns wound tightly around the (c) the peak value of the voltage across
electromagnet. the wire.
18. A planar loop of wire consists of a single 25. The primary/secondary turns ratio in a
turn and has a cross-sectional area of transformer is 10:1. The power input to the
100 cm2. The plane of the loop is primary is 100 W. If a current of 2 A flows
perpendicular to a magnetic field that in the secondary coil, calculate (a) the
increases uniformly in magnitude from 0.5 potential difference across the secondary
T to 2.5 T in 1.5 s. What is the coil, (b) the potential difference across the
resulting induced current if the loop has a primary coil and (c) the current flowing in
total resistance of 4 Ω? the primary coil. Assume 100% efficiency.
19. A loop of wire is in a 26. An input of 200 kW to a transformer

magnetic field of flux produces an output of 50 A at 3 kV.
0.1 Wb. What EMF Calculate the efficiency of the transformer.
is produced when the
knot is drawn up tight 27. A step-up transformer operates from a
in 0.2 s? source of 110 V and delivers 2 A at
770 V in the secondary. If there are 50
20. The plane of a rectangular coil of turns in the primary how many turns are in
dimensions 10 cm by 8 cm is the secondary?
perpendicular to the direction of a
magnetic field. If the coil has 50 turns and 28. The input of a transformer is 120 V at
a total resistance of 12 Ω, at what rate 3.2 A and the output is 15 V at 24 A. What
must the magnitude of the field change in is the efficiency of the transformer?
order to induce a current of 5 mA in the
windings of the coil? 29. The primary of a transformer is connected
to a 120 V supply. The turns ratio of
21. A flexible loop has a radius A secondary/primary is 4.5:1. A heater is
of 12 cm and is in a connected in the secondary and uses
magnetic field of strength 1.5 kW of power. What current flows in
0.15 T. The loop is grasped the secondary? What current flows in the
at points A and B and primary assuming 98% efficiency?
B
stretched until it closes.
If it takes 0.2 s to close the loop, find the
average induced EMF in it during this
time.

Answers
1. 2 N
2. 2 T
3. 6.25 × 10−3 N
4. 6.24 N
5. 2.5 T
6. 3 T
7. 8 × 10−12 N
8. 0.6 N
9. 6.25 m s−1
10. 3.4 × 10−7 T
11. 96 cm
12. 1.2 m
13. 0.16 Wb
14. 2 V
15. 400V
16. 500 V
17. 750V
18. 3·3 × 10-3 A
19. 0.5 V
20. 0.15 T s−1
21. 0.034 V
22. 325.3 V
23. 7.07 A
24. (a) 2.45 A, (b) 24.5 V, (c) 34.6 V
25. (a) 50 V, (b) 500 V, (c) 0.2 A
26. 75%
27. 350
28. 93.75%
29. 2.78 A, 12.75 A

Leaving Cert Questions
Chapter 2: Electric Fields
Theoretical Section B
Coulomb’s law, electric fields [2005 Question 10]........................................................78
Electric fields, Van de Graff generator [2007 Question 8].............................................80
Coulomb’s law, gold-leaf electroscope [2011 Question 9]............................................82
Van de Graff generator, GLE, electric fields [2015 Question 8]....................................84
STS: (Lightning) [2002 Question 11]............................................................................86
Coulomb’s law, electric fields [2003 Question 12(c)]...................................................88
Electric fields, point discharge [2010 Question 12(d)]..................................................89
Coulomb’s law, electric fields [2013 Question 12(c)]...................................................90
Chapter 3: Capacitance
Parallel plate capacitor [2006 Question 12(b)]..............................................................91
Parallel plate capacitor, gold leaf electroscope [2008 Question 12(d)].........................92
Touchscreens (capacitors, electric fields) [2014 Question 9]........................................93
Chapter 4: Electric Current

Experimental Section A
Exp. E1: Joule’s law [2003 Question 4].........................................................................95
Exp. E2: Resistivity of a metallic conductor [2004 Question 4]...................................101
Exp. E2: Resistivity of a metallic conductor [2009 Question 4]...................................102
Exp. E3: Resistance vs. temperature for a metallic conductor [2008 Question 4]........103
Exp. E3: Resistance vs. temperature for a metallic conductor [2015 Question 4]........105
Exp. E4: Resistance vs. temperature for a thermistor [2010 Question 4]......................107
Exp. E5[B]: Voltage vs. current for a filament bulb [2005 Question 4]........................109
Exp. E5[B]: Voltage vs. current for a filament bulb/wire [2013 Question 4]................111
Exp. E5[C]: Voltage vs. current for an ionic solution [2002 Question 4]......................113

Exp. E5[C]: Voltage vs. current for an ionic solution [2011 Question 4]......................115
Exp. E5[D]: Voltage vs. current for a semiconductor diode [2007 Question 4]............117
Exp. E5[D]: Voltage vs. current for a semiconductor diode [2012 Question 4]............119
Power and resistivity [2002 Question 8]........................................................................121
Ampere, conduction in materials [2003 Question 8].....................................................123
Electrical circuit with a capacitor [2004 Question 8]....................................................125
STS: Domestic Electricity [2004 Question 11].............................................................127
Electrical circuit with a thermistor [2005 Question 9]...................................................129
Metre bridge, resistance and resistivity [2007 Question 9]...........................................131
Resistivity, power rating [2008 Question 7]..................................................................133
Electrical circuit with a capacitor [2009 Question 9]....................................................135
Electrical circuit with a hairdryer [2010 Question 8]....................................................137
Electrical circuit, Wheatstone bridge [2012 Question 9]...............................................139
Wheatstone bridge, resistivity (incl. Doppler Effect) [2014 Question 10]....................141
Semiconductor diodes [2004 Question 12 (d)]..............................................................143
Semiconductor diodes [2009 Question 12 (b)]..............................................................144
Resistivity, power rating [2011 Question 12 (c)]...........................................................145
Chapter 5: Electromagnetism
Ampere, AC/DC, power rating [2006 Question 9]........................................................146
Electromagnetic induction [2008 Question 8]...............................................................148
Inductors, diodes and capacitors, resistance and resistivity [2013 Question 8].............150
Electromagnetic induction, inductors [2002 Question 12 (c)].......................................152
Electromagnetic induction, Lenz’s law [2003 Question 12 (d)]....................................153
Electromagnetic induction, Lenz’s law [2004 Question 12 (c)]....................................154
Electromagnetic induction [2005 Question 12 (b)].......................................................155
Electromagnetic induction [2007 Question 12 (c)]........................................................156
Electromagnetic induction, Lenz’s law [2014 Question 12 (d)]....................................157

LC 2005: Coulomb's law, electric fields
10. Define electric field strength.

State Coulomb’s law of force between electric charges. (12)
Why is Coulomb’s law an example of an inverse square law? (6)
Give two differences between the gravitational force and the electrostatic force between two
electrons. (6)
Describe an experiment to show an electric field pattern. (12)

B
electron
10 mm
Calculate the electric field strength at the point B, which is 10 mm from an electron.
What is the direction of the electric field strength at B?
A charge of 5 µC is placed at B. Calculate the electrostatic force exerted on this charge. (20)
(permittivity of free space = 8.9 × 10–12 F m–1; charge on the electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C)

LC 2007: Electric fields, Van de Graff generator
8. Define electric field strength and give its unit of measurement. (9)
Describe how an electric field pattern may be demonstrated in the laboratory. (12)
The dome of a Van de Graff generator is charged. The dome has a diameter of 30 cm
and its charge is 4 C. A 5 μC point charge is placed 7 cm from the surface of the dome.
Calculate:
(i) the electric field strength at a point 7 cm from the dome
(ii) the electrostatic force exerted on the 5 μC point charge. (15)

All the charge resides on the surface of a Van de Graff generator’s dome. Explain why.
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that total charge resides on the outside of a conductor.
Give an application of this effect. (20)
(permittivity of free space = 8.9 × 10–12 F m–1)

LC 2011: Coulomb's law, gold-leaf electroscope
9. (a) State Coulomb’s law. (6)

Two identical spherical conductors on insulated stands are
placed a certain distance apart. One conductor is given a 3Q
Q
charge Q while the other conductor is given a charge 3Q and
they experience a force of repulsion F. The two conductors
are then touched off each other and returned to their original
positions. What is the new force, in terms of F, between the
spherical conductors? (18)
(b) Draw a labelled diagram of an electroscope.

Why should the frame of an electroscope be earthed?
Describe how to charge an electroscope by induction. (15)

(c) How does a full-body metal-foil suit protect an
operator when working on high voltage power lines?
Describe an experiment to investigate the principle by

which the operator is protected. (17)

LC 2015: Van de Graff generator, GLE, electric fields
8. Define electric field strength. (6)
Both Van de Graaff generators and gold leaf electroscopes are used to investigate static electricity
in the laboratory.
Draw a labelled diagram of a gold leaf electroscope.

Describe how it can be given a negative charge by induction. (20)

A Van de Graaff generator can be used to demonstrate point discharge.
Explain, with the aid of a labelled diagram, how point discharge occurs.
Describe an experiment to demonstrate point discharge. (18)
The polished spherical dome of a Van de Graaff generator has a diameter of

40 cm and a charge of +3.8 µC.
What is the electric field strength at a point 4 cm from the surface

of the dome? (12)

LC 2002: STS: Lightning Question
11. Read the following passage and answer the accompanying questions.
Benjamin Franklin designed the lightning conductor. This is a thick copper strip running up the outside of a
tall building. The upper end of the strip terminates in one or more sharp spikes above the highest point of
the building. The lower end is connected to a metal plate buried in moist earth. The lightning conductor
protects a building from being damaged by lightning in a number of ways.
During a thunderstorm, the value of the electric field strength in the air can be very high near a pointed
lightning conductor. If the value is high enough, ions, which are drawn towards the conductor, will receive
such large accelerations that, by collision with air molecules, they will produce vast additional numbers of
ions. Therefore the air is made much more conducting and this facilitates a flow of current between the air
and the ground. Thus, charged clouds become neutralised and lightning strikes are prevented.
Alternatively, in the event of the cloud suddenly discharging, the lightning strike will be conducted through
the copper strip, thus protecting the building from possible catastrophic consequences.
Raised umbrellas and golf clubs are not to be recommended during thunderstorms for obvious reasons.
On high voltage electrical equipment, pointed or roughly-cut surfaces should be avoided.
(Adapted from “Physics – a teacher’s handbook”, Dept. of Education and Science.)
(a) Why is a lightning conductor made of copper? (7)
(b) What is meant by electric field strength? (7)
(c) Why do the ions near the lightning conductor accelerate? (7)
(d) How does the presence of ions in the air cause the air to be more conducting? (7)
(e) How do the charged clouds become neutralised? (7)

(h) What are the two ways in which a lightning conductor prevents a building from being damaged
by lightning? (7)
(g) Why are raised umbrellas and golf clubs not recommended during thunderstorms? (7)
(h) Explain why pointed surfaces should be avoided when using high voltage electrical equipment. (7)

12. (c) State Coulomb’s law of force between electric charges. (6)
Define electric field strength and give its unit. (9)
How would you demonstrate an electric field pattern? (9)
The diagram shows a negative charge – Q at a point X. Copy the diagram and show on
it the direction of the electric field strength at Y. (4)
X Y
Q

LC 2010: Electric fields, point discharge
12. (d) Define electric field strength and give its unit of measurement. (9)
The diagram shows a negative charge of 2 μC, positioned 25 cm away

from a positive charge of 5 μC.
10 cm 15 cm
–2 μC P 5 μC
Copy the diagram into your answerbook and show on it the direction of the
electric field at point P.
Calculate the electric field strength at P. (15)
Under what circumstances will point discharge occur? (4)

12. (c) Define the unit of charge, the coulomb. State Coulomb’s law. (9)
Calculate the force of repulsion between two small spheres when they are held 8 cm apart
in a vacuum. Each sphere has a positive charge of +3 µC. (9)
+3 µC +3 µC
8 cm
Copy the diagram above and show on it the electric field generated by the charges.
Mark on your diagram a place where the electric field strength is zero. (10)

LC 2006: Parallel plate capacitor
12. (b) List the factors that affect the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. (6)
The plates of an air filled parallel plate capacitor have a common area of 40 cm2 and are
1 cm apart. The capacitor is connected to a 12 V d.c. supply.
Calculate
(i) the capacitance of the capacitor;
(ii) the magnitude of the charge on each plate. (15)
What is the net charge on the capacitor?
Give a use for a capacitor. (7)

LC 2008: Parallel plate capacitor, gold-leaf electroscope
12. (d) Define capacitance. (6)
Describe how an electroscope can be charged by induction. (10)
How would you demonstrate that the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor (12)
depends on the distance between its plates?

LC 2014 Touchscreens (capacitors, electric fields)
9. Most modern electronic devices contain a touchscreen. One type of

touchscreen is a capacitive touchscreen, in which the user’s finger acts as a
plate of a capacitor. Placing your finger on the screen will alter the
capacitance and the electric field at that point.
Explain the underlined terms. (12)
Describe an experiment to demonstrate an electric field pattern. (12)
Two parallel metal plates are placed a distance d apart in air. The plates form a parallel plate
capacitor with a capacitance of 12 µF. A 6 V battery is connected across the plates.
Calculate (i) the charge on each plate and (ii) the energy stored in the capacitor. (12)

While the battery is connected the distance d is increased by a factor of three. Calculate the new
capacitance. (4)
A capacitor and a battery are both sources of electrical energy. State two differences between
a capacitor and a battery. (6)
Touchscreens also contain two polarising filters. What is meant by polarisation of light? (6)
Give one application of capacitors, other than in touchscreens. (4)

LC 2003: Experiment E1 (Joule's law)
4. In an experiment to verify Joule’s law, a heating coil was placed in a fixed mass of water.
The temperature rise ∆θ produced for different values of the current I passed through the coil
was recorded. In each case the current was allowed to flow for a fixed length of time.
The table shows the recorded data.
I/A 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
∆θ / °C 3.5 7.0 10.8 15.0 21.2 27.5 33.0
Describe, with the aid of a labelled diagram, how the apparatus was arranged in this
experiment. (12)
Using the given data, draw a suitable graph on graph paper and explain how your graph
verifies Joule’s law. (18)
Explain why the current was allowed to flow for a fixed length of time in each case. (5)
Apart from using insulation, give one other way of reducing heat losses in the experiment. (5)

Graph
I/A 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Dq / oC 3.5 7.0 10.8 15.0 21.2 27.5 33.0
I 2 /A2

4. In an experiment to verify Joule’s law a student passed a current through a heating coil in a
calorimeter containing a fixed mass of water and measured the rise in temperature Δθ for a
series of different values of the current I. The student allowed the current to flow for three
minutes in each case.
Δθ
K
18
16
14
12
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 I2
A2
Describe, with the aid of a labelled diagram, how the student arranged the apparatus. (12)
Why was a fixed mass of water used throughout the experiment? (6)
The student drew a graph, as shown. Explain how this graph verifies Joule’s law. (7)

Given that the mass of water in the calorimeter was 90 g in each case, and assuming that all
of the electrical energy supplied was absorbed by the water, use the graph to determine the
resistance of the heating coil. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg–1 K–1. (15)

4. In an experiment to verify Joule’s law, a fixed mass of water was heated in an insulated cup. , the
highest temperature reached, was recorded for different values of current, I. In each case the current
flowed for 4 minutes and the initial temperature of the water was 20.0 °C. The recorded data is
shown in the table.
I (A) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
q (oC) 22.0 24.5 28.5 34.0 38.5 45.5
Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used in the experiment. (12)
Draw a suitable graph to verify Joule’s law. Explain how the graph verifies Joule’s law. (18)
Use your graph to estimate the highest temperature of the water when a current of 1.6 A flows
through the coil for 4 minutes. (6)
Explain why a fixed mass of water was used. (4)

Graph
I (A) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
q (oC) 22.0 24.5 28.5 34.0 38.5 45.5
I 2 (A2)
LC 2004: Experiment E2 (Resistivity of a metallic conductor)
4. The following is part of a student’s report of an experiment to measure the resistivity of nichrome
wire.
“The resistance and length of the nichrome wire were found. The diameter of the wire was then
measured at several points along its length.”
The following data was recorded.
resistance of wire = 32.1 Ω

length of wire = 90.1 cm
diameter of wire = 0.19 mm, 0.21 mm, 0.20 mm, 0.21 mm, 0.20 mm
Name an instrument to measure the diameter of the wire and describe how it is used. (12)
Why was the diameter of the wire measured at several points along its length? (6)
Using the data, calculate a value for the resistivity of nichrome. (15)
Give two precautions that should be taken when measuring the length of the wire. (7)
LC 2009: Experiment E2 (Resistivity of a metallic conductor)
4. In an experiment to measure the resistivity of nichrome, the resistance, the diameter and
appropriate length of a sample of nichrome wire were measured.
The following data were recorded:

resistance of wire = 7.9 
length of wire = 54.6 cm
average diameter of wire = 0.31 mm
Describe the procedure used in measuring the length of the sample of wire. (6)
Describe the steps involved in finding the average diameter of the wire. (15)
Use the data to calculate the resistivity of nichrome. (15)
The experiment was repeated on a warmer day. What effect did this have on
the measurements? (4)
LC 2008: Experiment E3 (Resistance vs. temperature for a metallic conductor)
4. A student investigated the variation of the resistance R of a metallic conductor with

its temperature θ.
The student recorded the following data.
q / oC 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
R/W 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.4 5.6 5.9 6.1
Describe, with the aid of a labelled diagram, how the data was obtained. (9)
Draw a suitable graph to show the relationship between the resistance

of the metal conductor and its temperature. (12)
Use your graph to:

(i) estimate the resistance of the metal conductor at a temperature of –20 oC;
(ii) estimate the change in resistance for a temperature increase of 80 oC;
(iii) explain why the relationship between the resistance of a metallic conductor
and its temperature is not linear. (19)
Graph
q / oC 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
R/W 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.4 5.6 5.9 6.1
LC 2015: Experiment E3/E5[B] (Resistance vs. temperature for a metallic conductor)
4. In an experiment to measure the variation of the resistance R of a metallic conductor with its
temperature , a student recorded the following data.
q (oC) 15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
R (W) 6∙0 6∙2 6∙5 6∙8 7∙2 7∙5 8∙2 8∙8
Using the recorded data, plot a graph to show the variation of the resistance of the metallic
conductor with its temperature.
Use your graph to estimate
(i) the rate of change of resistance with respect to temperature for the metallic conductor
(ii) the resistance of the metallic conductor when it is immersed in melting ice. (20)
Answer this question on the next page.
The student then completed an experiment to establish the relationship between current and voltage
for the thin metallic filament of a bulb. Data were recorded and the following graph plotted.
80
60
Current (mA)
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Voltage (V)
Describe, with the aid of a circuit diagram, how the student carried out this second experiment.
Use the findings of the first experiment to explain the shape of the graph in the second
experiment. (20)
Graph
q (oC) 15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
R (W) 6∙0 6∙2 6∙5 6∙8 7∙2 7∙5 8∙2 8∙8
LC 2010: Experiment E4 (Resistance vs. temperature for a thermistor)
4. In an experiment to investigate the variation of the resistance R of a thermistor

with its temperature θ, a student measured its resistance at different temperatures.
The table shows the measurements recorded.
θ/°C 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
R/Ω 2000 1300 800 400 200 90 40
Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used. (9)
How was the resistance measured? (6)
Describe how the temperature was varied. (6)
Using the recorded data, plot a graph to show the variation of the resistance of a thermistor
with its temperature.
In this investigation, why is the thermistor usually immersed in oil rather than in water? (4)
Graph
θ/°C 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
R/Ω 2000 1300 800 400 200 90 40
Use your graph to estimate the average variation of resistance per kelvin in the
range 45 °C – 55 °C. (15)
LC 2005: Experiment E5[B] (Voltage vs. current for a filament bulb)
4. A student investigated the variation of the current I flowing through a filament bulb for a range of
different values of potential difference V.
Draw a suitable circuit diagram used by the student.
Describe how the student varied the potential difference. (16)
The student drew a graph, as shown, using data recorded in the experiment.
I
mA
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 V
With reference to the graph, V
(i) explain why the current is not proportional to the potential difference;
(ii) calculate the change in resistance of the filament bulb as the potential difference increases
from 1 V to 5 V. (18)
Give a reason why the resistance of the filament bulb changes. (6)
LC 2013: Experiment E5[B] (Voltage vs. current for a filament bulb/metallic conductor)
4. A student was asked to investigate the variation of current with potential difference for a thin
metallic conductor. The student set up a circuit using appropriate equipment. The student recorded
the values of the current I passing through the conductor for the corresponding values of potential
difference V. The recorded data are shown in the table.
V/V 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
I/A 0.17 0.34 0.50 0.64 0.77 0.88
Draw and label the circuit diagram used by the student.

Name the device in the circuit that is used to vary the potential difference across the conductor.
Explain how the student used this device to vary the potential difference. (18)
Use the data in the table to draw a graph on graph paper to show the variation of current with
potential difference. Use your graph to find the value of the resistance of the conductor when
the current is 0.7 A. (15)
Graph
V/V 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
I/A 0.17 0.34 0.50 0.64 0.77 0.88
Explain the shape of your graph. (7)
LC 2002: Experiment E5[C] (Voltage vs. current for an ionic solution)
4. In an experiment to investigate the variation of current I with potential difference V for a copper sulfate
solution, the following results were obtained.
V /V 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
I /mA 24 48 79 102 120 143 185 195 215 263
Draw a diagram of the apparatus used in this experiment, identifying the anode and the cathode. (12)
Draw a suitable graph on graph paper to show how the current varies with the potential difference. (12)
Draw a sketch of the graph that would be obtained if inactive electrodes were used in this experiment. (7)
Graph
V /V 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
I /mA 24 48 79 102 120 143 185 195 215 263
Using your graph, calculate the resistance of the copper sulfate solution. (Assume the resistance of the
electrodes is negligible.) (9)
LC 2011: Experiment E5[C] (Voltage vs. current for an ionic solution)
4. A student investigated the variation of the current I through an electrolyte as the

potential difference V across the electrolyte was changed. The electrolyte used was a
solution of copper sulfate. The electrodes used were made of copper.
The student recorded the following data:
V/V 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
I / mA 0 30 64 93 122 160 195
Draw a suitable circuit diagram for this investigation and label the components.
How was the potential difference changed during the investigation? (12)
Draw a suitable graph to show the relationship between the current and the potential
difference in this investigation.
Use your graph to calculate the resistance of the electrolyte. (18)
What was observed at the electrodes as current flowed through the electrolyte? (10)
Graph
V/V 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
I / mA 0 30 64 93 122 160 195
LC 2007: Experiment E5[D] (Voltage vs. current for a semiconductor diode)
4. The following is part of a student’s report of an experiment to investigate of the variation of

current I with potential difference V for a semiconductor diode.
I put the diode in forward bias as shown in the circuit diagram. I increased
the potential difference across the diode until a current flowed. I measured
the current flowing for different values of the potential difference.
I recorded the following data.
V/V 0.60 0.64 0.68 0.72 0.76 0.80
I / mA 2 4 10 18 35 120
Draw a circuit diagram used by the student.

How did the student vary and measure the potential difference? (15)
Draw a graph to show how the current varies with the potential difference.
Estimate from your graph the junction voltage of the diode. (12)
The student then put the diode in reverse bias and repeated the experiment.
What changes did the student make to the initial circuit?
Draw a sketch of the graph obtained for the diode in reverse bias. (13)
Graph
V/V 0.60 0.64 0.68 0.72 0.76 0.80
I / mA 2 4 10 18 35 120
LC 2012: Experiment E5[D] (Voltage vs. current for a semiconductor diode)
4. The following is part of a student’s report on an experiment to investigate the variation of

the current I with potential difference V for a semiconductor diode.
“I set up the apparatus as shown in the circuit diagram. I measured the current
flowing through the diode for different values of the potential difference.
I recorded the following data.”
V/V 0 0.50 0.59 0.65 0.68 0.70 0.72
I / mA 0 3.0 5.4 11.7 17.4 27.3 36.5
Draw a circuit diagram used by the student.

How did the student vary and measure the potential difference? (15)
Using the data, draw a graph to show how the current varies with the potential difference for
the semiconductor diode.
Does the resistance of the diode remain constant during the investigation? Justify your answer. (18)
The student continued the experiment with the connections to the semiconductor diode reversed.
What adjustments should be made to the circuit to obtain valid readings? (7)
Graph
V/V 0 0.50 0.59 0.65 0.68 0.70 0.72
I / mA 0 3.0 5.4 11.7 17.4 27.3 36.5
LC 2002: Power and resistivity
8. Define (i) power, (ii) resistivity. (12)
Describe an experiment that demonstrates the heating effect of an electric current. (12)
The ESB supplies electrical energy at a rate of 2 MW to an industrial park from a local power station, whose
output voltage is 10 kV. The total length of the cables connecting the industrial park to the power station is
15 km. The cables have a diameter of 10 mm and are made from a material of resistivity 5.0 × 10–8 Ω m.
Calculate
(i) the total resistance of the cables; (15)
(ii) the current flowing in the cables; (6)
(iii) the rate at which energy is “lost” in the cables. (6)
Suggest a method of reducing the energy “lost” in the cables. (5)
LC 2003: Ampere, conduction in materials
8. Define the unit of current, i.e. the ampere. (9)
Describe an experiment to demonstrate the principle on which the definition of the ampere is
based. (15)
Various materials conduct electricity. Draw a graph to show the relationship between current
and voltage for each of the following conductors:
(i) a metal at constant temperature
(ii) an ionic solution with inactive electrodes
(iii) a gas. (18)
How would the graph for the metal differ if its temperature were increasing? (7)
How would the graph for the ionic solution differ if its concentration were reduced? (7)
LC 2004: Electrical circuit with a capacitor
8. Define (i) potential difference, (ii) capacitance. (12)
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that a capacitor can store energy. (12)
The circuit diagram shows a 50 µF capacitor connected in series with a 47 kΩ resistor, a 6 V
battery and a switch. When the switch is closed the capacitor starts to charge and the current
flowing at a particular instant in the circuit is 80 µA.
6V
47 kΩ
50 µF
Calculate
(i) the potential difference across the resistor and hence the potential difference across the
capacitor when the current is 80 µA;
(ii) the charge on the capacitor at this instant;
(iii) the energy stored in the capacitor when it is fully charged. (27)
Describe what happens in the circuit when the 6 V d.c. supply is replaced with a 6 V a.c. supply. (5)
LC 2004: STS: Domestic electricity
11. Read the following passage and answer the following questions.
Your home is supplied with electricity at 230 volts, 50 Hertz. At the electrical supply intake
position is your main consumer unit or fuse board. At that position you will find your main
switch. Your sockets, immersion group and bathroom heater (or shower) are protected by
Residual Current Devices (RCD) installed in your fuse board. These provide a high degree
of safety on these circuits and it is important that they are tested at least every 3 months.
The final circuits are protected by Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB).
It is advisable to contact your local ESB about cheaper night tariffs, these could make
significant savings to your electricity bill. Storage heaters may be used to avail of these
cheaper rates.
Each plug top contains a small cartridge fuse. Cartridge fuses are supplied with a rating of
1A, 2A, 3A, 5A and 13A. A fuse should never be replaced by anything other than a suitable
fuse.
(Adapted from “Home Safety”, Register of Electrical Contractors of Ireland. RECI)
(a) Name and give the colour of the wire that should be connected to the fuse in a standard
three-pin plug. (7)
(b) Explain why replacing a fuse with a piece of aluminium foil is dangerous. (7)
(c) A table lamp has a power rating of 100 W. What is the most suitable fuse for the lamp? (7)
(d) Some electrical appliances are supplied with two-pin plugs. Why is an earth wire not
required in these devices? (7)
(e) Sketch a voltage-time graph of the 230 V supply. (7)
(f) Explain how a Residual Current Device (RCD) operates. (7)
(g) Give one advantage of a Residual Current Device (RCD) over a Miniature Circuit Breaker
(MCB). (7)
(h) Storage heaters have a large heat capacity. Explain why. (7)
LC 2005: Electrical circuit with a thermistor
9. Define (i) potential difference, (ii) resistance. (12)
Two resistors, of resistance R1 and R2 respectively, are connected in parallel. Derive an

expression for the effective resistance of the two resistors in terms of R1 and R2 . (12)
750 Ω
Α 300 Ω
In the circuit diagram, the resistance of the thermistor at room temperature is 500 Ω.
At room temperature, calculate
(i) the total resistance of the circuit;
(ii) the current flowing through the 750 Ω resistor. (18)
As the temperature of the room increases, explain why

(iii) the resistance of the thermistor decreases;
(iv) the potential at A increases. (14)
LC 2007: Metre bridge, resistance and resistivity
9. Define (i) resistance, (ii) resistivity. (12)
A metre bridge was used to measure the resistance of a sample of nichrome wire.
The diagram indicates the readings taken when the metre bridge was balanced.
The nichrome wire has a length of 220 mm and a radius of 0.11 mm.
nichrome wire
20 Ω
718 mm 282 mm
Calculate:
(i) the resistance of the nichrome wire
(ii) the resistivity of nichrome. (18)
Sketch a graph to show the relationship between the temperature and the resistance of the
nichrome wire as its temperature is increased. (6)
What happens to the resistance of the wire:

(i) as its temperature falls below 0oC?
(ii) as its length is increased?
(iii) if its diameter is increased? (11)
Name another device, apart from a metre bridge, that can be used to measure resistance.
Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using this device instead of a metre bridge. (9)
LC 2008: Resistivity, power rating
7. Define resistivity and give its unit of measurement. (9)
An electric toaster heats bread by convection and radiation.

What is the difference between convection and radiation as a means of heat transfer? (8)
A toaster has a power rating of 1050 W when it is connected to

the mains supply.
Its heating coil is made of nichrome and it has a resistance of 12 Ω .
The coil is 40 m long and it has a circular cross-section of
diameter 2.2 mm.
Calculate:
(i) the resistivity of nichrome;
(ii) the heat generated by the toaster in 2 minutes if it has an efficiency of 96%. (18)
The toaster has exposed metal parts. How is the risk of electrocution minimised? (9)
When the toaster is on, the coil emits red light.

Explain, in terms of movement of electrons, why light is emitted when a metal is heated. (12)
LC 2009: Electrical circuit with a capacitor
9. Define (i) potential difference, (ii) capacitance. (12)
A capacitor stores energy.

Describe an experiment to demonstrate that a capacitor stores energy. (14)
The ability of a capacitor to store energy is the basis of a defibrillator. During a heart
attack the chambers of the heart fail to pump blood because their muscle fibres contract
and relax randomly. To save the victim, the heart muscle must be shocked to re-
establish its normal rhythm. A defibrillator is used to shock the heart muscle.
A 64 F capacitor in a defibrillator is charged to a potential difference of 2500 V.
The capacitor is discharged through electrodes attached to the chest of a heart attack victim.
Calculate
(i) the charge stored on each plate of the capacitor;
(ii) the energy stored in the capacitor;
(iii) the average current that flows through the victim when the capacitor discharges
in a time of 10 ms;
(iv) the average power generated as the capacitor discharges. (30)
LC 2010: Electrical circuit with a hairdryer
8. A hair dryer with a plastic casing uses a coiled wire as a heat source.
When an electric current flows through the coiled wire, the air around
it heats up and a motorised fan blows the hot air out.
What is an electric current?

Heating is one effect of an electric current.
Give two other effects of an electric current. (12)
The diagram shows a basic electrical circuit for a hair dryer.

A
(i) Describe what happens:
(a) when switch A is closed and the rheostat is adjusted
(b) when switch A and switch B are closed. (9) B
fuse
230 V M coil
fan
(ii) The maximum power generated in the heating coil is 2 kW.

(a) What is the initial resistance of the coil?
(b) Calculate the current that flows through the coil
when the dryer is turned on. (9)
(iii) A length of nichrome wire of diameter 0.17 mm is used
for the coil. Calculate the length of the coil of wire. (18)
(iv) Explain why the current through the coil would decrease
if the fan developed a fault and stopped working. (8)
(resistivity of nichrome = 1.1 × 10– 6 Ω m )
LC 2012: Electrical circuit, Wheatstone bridge
9. Define resistance.
(i) Two resistors of resistance R1 and R2 are connected in series. Derive an expression
for the effective resistance of the two resistors in terms of R1 and R2. (18)
(ii) Two 4 Ω resistors are connected in parallel.

Draw a circuit diagram to show how another 4 Ω resistor could be arranged with
these two resistors to give an effective resistance of 6 Ω.
(9)
(iii) A fuse is a resistor used as a safety device in a circuit. How does a fuse operate? (11)
A Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to measure the resistance of an unknown resistor R.
The bridge ABCD is balanced when X = 2.2 kΩ, Y = 1.0 kΩ and Z = 440 Ω.
B
+V R
X
A C
Y
Z
0V
D
(iv) What test would you use to determine that the bridge is balanced? (6)
(v) What is the resistance of the unknown resistor R? (6)
(vi) When the unknown resistor R is covered by a piece of black paper, the bridge goes
out of balance. What type of resistor is it? Give a use for this type of resistor. (6)
LC 2014: Wheatstone bridge, resistivity (incl. Doppler Effect)
10. Blood pressure can be measured in many ways. One technique uses the
Doppler effect; another uses strain gauges contained in Wheatstone
bridges.
What is the Doppler effect?
Explain, with the aid of labelled diagrams, how the Doppler effect occurs. (18)
An ambulance siren emits a sound of frequency 750 Hz. When the ambulance is travelling
towards an observer, the frequency detected by the observer is 820 Hz.
What is the speed of the ambulance? (12)
State two other practical applications of the Doppler effect. (4)
The resistance of the conductor in a strain gauge increases when a force is applied to it. Strain
gauges can act as the resistors in a Wheatstone bridge, and any change in their resistance can then
be detected.
How would an observer know that a Wheatstone bridge is balanced? (4)
5.1 Ω ?Ω
11.9 Ω 40.5 Ω
What is the resistance of the unknown resistor? (6)
Write an expression for the resistance of a wire in terms of its resistivity, length and diameter.
The radius of a wire is doubled. What is the effect of this on the resistance of the wire?
(speed of sound in air = 340 m s–1) (12)
LC 2004: Semiconductor diodes
12. (d) A p-n junction is formed by taking a single crystal of silicon and doping separate but
adjacent layers of it. A depletion layer is formed at the junction.
(i) What is doping?

(ii) Explain how a depletion layer is formed at the junction. (15)
The graph shows the variation of current I with potential difference V for a p-n junction in
forward bias. Explain, using the graph, how the current varies with the potential difference.
Why does the p-n junction become a good conductor as the potential difference exceeds 0.6 V?
(13)
0.6 V V
LC 2009: Semiconductor diodes
12. (b) A semiconductor diode is formed when small quantities of phosphorus and boron are
added to adjacent layers of a crystal of silicon to increase its conduction.
Explain how the presence of phosphorus and boron makes the silicon a better conductor.
(6)
What happens at the boundary of the two adjacent layers? (9)
Describe what happens at the boundary when the semiconductor diode is

(i) forward biased, (ii) reverse biased. (9)
Give a use of a semiconductor diode. (4)
LC 2011: Resistivity, power rating
12. (c) List the factors that affect the heat produced in a current-carrying conductor. (7)
An electric cable consists of a single strand of insulated copper wire. The wire is
of uniform cross-sectional area and is designed to carry a current of 20 A. To
preserve the insulation, the maximum rate at which heat may be produced in the
wire is 2.7 W per metre length.
Calculate
(i) the maximum resistance per metre of the wire
(ii) the minimum diameter of the wire. (21)
(resistivity of copper = 1.7 × 10–8  m)
LC 2006: Ampere, AC/DC, power rating
9. What is an electric current? Define the ampere, the SI unit of current. (12)
Describe an experiment to demonstrate the principle on which the definition of the ampere is
based. (15)
Sketch a graph to show the relationship between current and time for
(i) alternating current;
(ii) direct current. (9)
The peak voltage of the mains electricity is 325 V. Calculate the rms voltage of the mains? (6)
What is the resistance of the filament of a light bulb, rated 40 W, when it is connected to the
mains? (9)
Explain why the resistance of the bulb is different when it is not connected to the mains. (5)
LC 2008: Electromagnetic induction
8. What is electromagnetic induction?

State the laws of electromagnetic induction. (18)
A bar magnet is attached to a string and allowed to swing as shown

in the diagram. A copper sheet is then placed underneath the magnet.
Explain why the amplitude of the swings decreases rapidly. (12)
What is the main energy conversion that takes place as the magnet
slows down? (6)
A metal loop of wire in the shape of a square of side 5 cm enters
a magnetic field of flux density 8 T.
The loop is perpendicular to the field and is travelling at a speed of 5 m s–1.
(i) How long does it take the loop to completely enter the field?
(ii) What is the magnetic flux cutting the loop when it is
completely in the magnetic field?
(iii) What is the average emf induced in the loop as it enters the magnetic field? (20)
LC 2013: Inductors, diodes and capacitors, resistance and resistivity
8. (a) The diagram shows a circuit used in a charger for a mobile phone.
F G
Name the parts labelled F, G and H. (9)
X
AC H
input
Y
Describe the function of G in this
circuit. (6)
Sketch graphs to show how voltage

varies with time for
(i) the input voltage
(ii) the output voltage, VXY. (12)
The photograph shows the device H used in

the circuit. Use the data printed on the device
to calculate the maximum energy that it can
store. (9)
(b) Electricity generating companies transmit electricity over large distances at high voltage.
Explain why high voltage is used. (6)
A 3 km length of aluminium wire is used to carry a current of 250 A. The wire has
a circular cross-section of diameter 18 mm.
(i) Calculate the resistance of the aluminium wire.
(ii) Calculate how much electrical energy is converted to heat energy in the
wire in ten minutes. (14)
(resistivity of aluminium = 2.8 × 10 −8 Ω m)
LC 2002: Electromagnetic induction, inductors
12. (c) What is meant by electromagnetic induction? (6)
State Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction. (6)
In an experiment, a coil was connected in series with an ammeter and an a.c. power supply as shown
in the diagram. Explain why the current was reduced when an iron core was inserted in the coil. (12)
Give an application of the principle shown by this experiment. (4)
LC 2003: Electromagnetic induction, Lenz's law
12. (d) State the laws of electromagnetic induction. (12)
A small magnet is attached to a spring as shown in the diagram. The magnet is set
oscillating up and down. Describe the current flowing in the circuit. (6)
spring
A
coil
If the switch at A is open, the magnet will take longer to come to rest. Explain why. (10)
12. (c) What is electromagnetic induction?

Describe an experiment to demonstrate electromagnetic induction. (15)
A light aluminium ring is suspended from a long thread as shown in the diagram. When a
strong magnet is moved away from it, the ring follows the magnet. Explain why.
What would happen if the magnet were moved towards the ring? (13)
N S
12. (b) Define magnetic flux. (6)
State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. (6)
A square coil of side 5 cm lies perpendicular to a magnetic field of flux density 4.0 T. The
coil consists of 200 turns of wire.
(i) What is the magnetic flux cutting the coil? (9)
(ii) The coil is rotated through an angle of 90o in 0.2 seconds. Calculate the magnitude
of the average e.m.f. induced in the coil while it is being rotated. (7)
12. (c) State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. (6)
Describe an experiment to demonstrate Faraday’s law. (12)
A resistor is connected in series with an ammeter and an ac power supply. A current

flows in the circuit. The resistor is then replaced with a coil. The resistance of the
circuit does not change.
What is the effect on the current flowing in the circuit? Justify your answer. (10)
12. (d) State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. (6)
Describe an experiment to demonstrate Faraday’s law. (9)
A hollow copper pipe and a hollow glass pipe, with identical

dimensions, were arranged as shown in the diagram. A student
measured the time it took a strong magnet to fall through each
cylinder. It took much longer for the magnet to fall through the
copper pipe. Explain why. (13)
Kieran Mills
6th Year Physics Higher Level
Kieran Mills has 21 years’ experience teaching

Physics at the very highest level. He has co-written
several books including Leaving Certificate Sample
Papers. He is also the co-author of the Physics
Experiment Book, the bible of the examinable
experiment element worth 30% of the exam, which
is also given free of charge to all Physics students at
The Dublin School of Grinds.
Kieran has also appeared on RTE Radio as an
expert contributor on Physics.
OUR EXPERT TEACHERS

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Ref: 6/phy/h/lc/Electricity notes

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čƫĺāćĀƫƫ Maths H Sunday 29th May

Chapter 2. Electric Fields

Chapter 4. Electric Current

Leaving Cert Questions (2002 - 2015)................................................................ 76

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 1 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Normally atoms are electrically neutral overall which means +

Definition: Conductors allow charge to flow; insulators do not.

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 2 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Demonstration: Force between charges

Demonstration: Charging by Induction

The positive charge on the perspex rod induces a

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 3 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Static Electricity in the home and industry

1.2 The Gold Leaf Electroscope (GLE) Metal cap

Charging the GLE by induction

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 4 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

The distribution of charges around a conductor depends on the Insulating

A proof plane is a device which picks up charge from a surface.

Demonstration: Total charge resides on the outside of a metal object

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 5 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

2. A proof plane is placed at the non-pointed end of

3. Another proof plane is placed at the pointed end

At the pointed surface of a charged conductor, the Air molecules

Demonstration: Point Discharge

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 6 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

e: Permittivity of the medium (F m−1)

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 7 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 8 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

2. Field between two positive charges.

3. Field due to two charged plates.

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 9 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Electric Field Intensity

Use Coulomb’s law to calculate the force F between the

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 10 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 11 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Consider a positive charge Q. Work must be done

On the other hand, a charge +q placed at A will +Q +q

Formulae and Tables Book: Page 61

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 12 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Electron (Charge and mass)

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 13 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 14 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

3. Calculate the force on a charge of +2 µC when placed a distance of 4 m form a negative

4. In a vacuum, a charge of +2 µC is 50 cm from a charge of −2 µC. What is the magnitude and

7. Point charges of 40 µC and 20 µC are separated by a 3 mm thick sheet of plastic. If each

8. In a medium of permittivity 7 × 10−10 Fm−1 a charge of +2 µC is 60 cm from a charge of

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 15 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Electric Field Intensity

15. A charge of 4 µC experiences a force of 16 N when placed at a point in an electric field.

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 16 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 17 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

7. 7.07 ×10−11 F m −1 30. 4000 V

9. 3.33 × 10−7 C 32. 6000 V

10. 0.024 N towards the −3 µ C charge 33. (a) 1.6 × 10−19 J,

11. 0.024 N towards the −2 ⋅ 5 nC charge (b) 8 × 10−17 J

© Dublin School of Grinds Page 18 Kieran Mills & Tony Kelly

Definition: Capacitance is the ratio of charge to potential.

Q: Quantity of charge stored (C) Formulae and Tables Book: Page 62

Definition: The capacitance of a body is 1 Farad (F) if the addition of a charge of

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!.!ƫ%/ƫ$+3ƫ0$!/!ƫ+1./!/ƫ3%((ƫ English H Saturday 4th June 9am - 3pm

čƫĺāćĀƫƫ Maths H Sunday 29th May