NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY CENTER FOR PUBLIC SAFETYNorthwestern University Center for Public Safetyii PUBLICATION HISTORY Beginning with the first edition of this book, under the same ang similar titles, this volume constitutes the eleventh edition. ‘The foreward expands upon this history in some detail. Eleventh Edition, 2014 Copyright 2014 Northwestern University Center for Public Safety Evanston, Illinois All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, except for the purpose of short quotations within book reviews, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN 978-1-63315-175-8Foreward 1* Edition, 1940 ‘Accident investigation is recognized today as fundamental to a sound program of traffic control and accident prevention. Equally obvious is the fact that it must be of high quality to be of value. To assure this, it must be properly integrated into the traffic police programs and must be done by well- equipped, well-trained officers. This manual is designed to facilitate proper training in this field by serving both asa textbook and an instructional guide. Unique in the field of police publications, it offers for the first time in a single volume a thorough, practical and understandable treatment of the facts and techniques with which the competent investigator must be familiar, Two points must be emphasized. First, the manual is offered as supplement to, not a substitute for, a formal training course in the subject. Second, training alone does not assure good accident investigation. It helps to insure proper execution of a well-developed plan of accident investigation, It is with considerable pride that I see this work in book form, When, in 1934, the Evanston, Mlinois Police Department loaned me to the Police Department of Syracuse, New York, for the Purpose of instructing a group of men in accident investigation techniques, I developed a scant outline to guide me in teaching. ‘The following year in Louisville, on a similar assignment, the outline was expanded so that it covered approximately 40 hours of classroom work and included essentially all of the subjects offered herein, with the exception of Public Relations, Case Preparation and Criminal Law. he lh the establishment ofthe Safety Division of t International Association of Chiefs of Police in {236 this material was set up in substantial outline form and was used as the basis for instruction by the field men of that organization, ‘The manual is evidence of the great progress that has been made in the traffic control field since 1936 and the remarkable contributions to the subject of Accident investigation made by my associates. The book therefore, isa staff Project. It presents the best thought in the field of accident investigation. We had some difficulty in deciding whether to include in the appendix of this textbook instruction on the organization and administration of accident investigation. It was finally decided that this information belongs in a separate publication. Now, the acknowledgements. We want to express particular appreciation to the Automotive Safety Foundation which provided the funds for publication. A major portion of the task of editing and coordinating materials was done by our Publications Division under the direction of Curtis Billings. Mr. Billings’ resignation from the staff prevented him from finishing this work. L. J. McEnnis, Jr, now director of publications and his assistant, R. W. McShane, supervised the work in the latter stages. For splendid assistance in the line of editorial contribution and counsel we are grateful to: Robert E. Raleigh, director of field service, Safety Division, International Association of Chiefs of Police, and Kenneth R. Dickinson, G. L. Van Arsdall and James H. Hayes, field representatives of the Safety Division; Dr. David Geeting Monroe, assistant director of training, Northwestern University Traffic Institute; Professor R.A. Moyer, Iowa State College: R. R. Borkenstein, chief technician, Criminalological Laboratory, Indiana State Police; Erwin F. Stolle, attorney-at-law, Evanston, Illinois, and Judge Harry 1H. Porter, chief justice, Municipal Court, Evanston, Itis our sincere wish that the use of this book will ‘contribute materially to the success of city and state police programs for safer streets and highways. Franklin M. Kreml Director Northwestern University Traffic Institute September, 1940Preface 11 Edition, 2014 1t can be fruitful to Took back and pote te peginaing of any significant endeavor, It has been aera mont people have fev sf hardly any Griginal thoughts. As humans, we often simply fake other people’ work, and hopefully, improve bn their thoughts and actions. It could be said that the discipline of traffic crash investigation and reconstruction follow that pattern. The previous Foreward was from the first edition of the Accident Investigation Manual, which was published in 1940. “That book was a mere 240 pages in length ina 6 inch x9 inch format. From that humble beginning in 1940, the Manual has evolved into a two volume set = Traffic Crash Investigation (volume 1) and Traffic ‘Crash Reconstruction (volume 2). The Investigation book (this book) is around 600 pages and the Reconstruction book is around 850 pages. Reflection on the 1940 Foreward can yield many conclusions. Certainly, there was a noble plan to attempt to compile current thinking on the investigation of trafic accidents. Even the thinking lf the phrase trafic accident as compared to trafic ‘rash has evolved over the many years since 1940. ‘Chapter 1 in this book explores some ofthe thinking regarding these differences. The 1940 Foreward Clearly suggests that traffic crash investigation is a ‘male-centered activity. As everyone knows that is not realty in the 21" Century. Nonetheless in this book, the awkward reference to his/her and he/she has been simplified to the masculine case. This is ‘only to simplify the writing ofthe book. USA units and their SI unit equivalents are used in this book. It has become increasingly clear that Northwestern University Center for Public Safety publications enjoy an international audience. ‘Asmentioned earlier, this book isthe first volume of a two-volume set of books on the subjects of traffic crash investigation and reconstruction, ‘The emphasis ofthis book ison data collection with some analysis. The second volume is focused on analysis. Nevertheless, each volume has some overlap in both. data collection and analysis “This volume isthe 11° Edition of the Investigation ‘book. After the 1* Edition (in 1940) the subsequent caitions through 2001 were nearly all writen by] Stannard Baker. Me. Baker died in 1995."The primary author/editor for this volume is Tynn B. Fricke However, there are many other contributors o ths book. Roy B. Lucke was the contributor of Chaptey 1. "Preparation for Trafic Crash Investigation” Brian J. Queiser, Calvin P. McClain, Jt and Michae ‘A. Diallo were the co-authors of Chapter 13, Tie Examination After Trafic Crashes” A completely new chapter, Chapter 14, “Investigation of tx and Run Crashes” was added to this edition. The ‘o-authors are Roger W. Barrette, Adam M. Hie, dd Richard S. Brown. All the co-authors cherfly fendured my (hopefully) constructive criticism, tditorial interventions, and final layout choices Their contributions to this book are gratefully acknowledged. Experience has shown that nagging grammatical ‘and minor technical errors can creep into any publication. Timothy Schoolmaster and Roy .Lacke happily took on the task of reviewing each chap: Gary W. Cooper, Roger W. Barrette, and Micss! DiTallo also reviewed some chapters and provided ‘excellent exhibits that were used to illustrate many concepts. Their assistance is greatly appreciated ‘A final acknowledgement must go t0 the ‘management team at the Northwestern Univers Center for Public Safety for their abiding supper ‘understanding, and encouragement throughout! three-year production of this book. yn B, Fricke isthe principal author and we itor of Truc Crash Investigation. He 2 SESS rofessional engineer and educator specializing — Crashreconstracton Me Feckehas BS. and MS in engineering and an M.A. degree in teaching et wh she Northwestern Univers Tae nse the Center for Public Safety) fom 1975 theouth F 1981, he became director of the Accident Imes Division. After leaving Northwestern in 190. Re Fricke Cooper Engineering, Inc. Mr ricke left ant 10 Cooper Engineering in 2001 and is now a consi the Cente for Public Safety He bus eid reconstruction expert in many state and federal aiContents Chapter 1 - Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation Why We Should Investigate Crashes .. 2 A Organizational Preparation 13 3. Programs for Special Data Collection. 4 4, Forms ... 5 5, Data Bases and Filing 10 6, Equipment 13 7. Training . 4 8. Planning At-Scene Investigation ...... 16 9, Sources .. 20 Chapter 2 - Information From and About People 1. Introductory Explanation 24 2. Finding Informants at the Scene wu. 25 3. Initial Questioning at the Scen: 29 4, Detailed Statements 29 5. The Record of Questioning .. 36 6. Formal Questioning of Informants ... 40 7. Identification of Drivers and Pedestrians .. 41 8. Descriptions of Drivers and Pedestrians .. 2 9. Condition Before Crash 50 10. Injuries .. 50 51 63 11, The Driving Process 12. Sources Chapter 3 - Traffic Crash Information From Vehicles . Identification . Description. . Damage Classification . Vehicle Data at the Scene . . Technical Follow-up Examination of the Vehicle 6. Documentation of Vehicle Damage 66 68 0 1 75) Using the CDC .. . 101 7. Event Data Recorders . 104 8. Sources . 106 Chapter 4 - Crash Information from Roads 1, Purpose see TO 2. Skid Marks Ad 3. Yaw Marks . 132 4, Acceleration SCUfFS suns 138 5. Flat Tire Marks . 141 6. Imprints .. 143 7. Road Scars 145 8. Debris... 148 9. Meaning of Marks 10. First Contact Point 11, Off the Ground 12, Final Positions 13, Identifying Locations 14, Description and Condition 15. Sources ..... 154 154 158 162 162 166 174 Chapter 5 ~ Measuring at the Scenes of Traffic Crashes 1. What to Locate ~ Points to Be Measured 2. Coordinate Method of Locating Points... 3. Triangulation to Locate Thing 4 Reference Lines and Points 5. Recording Measurements 6. Field Sketches . 7. 8 9. 178 182 185 201 204 213 222 . Equipment and Its Use .. . Special Situations in Measuring . Additional and Special Measurements 10. Sources... 228 we 237 Chapter 6 - Measuring the Road for After- Crash Situation Maps . Purpose on . Equipment and Its Use ite Measuring Photographs . Accuracy . Sources .. NOM eepeChapter 7 ~ Drawing After-Crash Situation Maps 1, Introduction 2. Information Available ... 3. Equipment .... 4. Drafting Methods. 5. 6 Map Layout ‘Adding Results of the Crash . Finishing 8, Identification, 9. Mounting .. 10. Accuracy 11. Associated Displays 12. Sources... Chapter 8 - Crash Scene and Vehicle Damage Photography 1, Photos for Crash Information su. 300 2. How the Photographs are Made... 301 3. At-Scene Photos 304 4. Photographing What Shows on the Road 308 5. Vehicle Damage Photo: 309 6. Story Telling Photos 314 7. Easy Errors 318 8. Photographic Techniques 322 9. Identificatio 338 10. Equipment 339 11. Sources. 341 Chapter 9 - Photogrammetry For Traffic Crash Analysis . After-Crash Situation Maps Photogrammetry Simple Drawings... Natural Perspective Grids Square Portable Grid .... . Reverse Projection Camera Method .. Mathematical Methods .. 8. Computer-Aided Photogrammetry 9. Sources. aware .. 367 369 Chapter 10 ~ Understanding Vehicle Behavior in a Collision Objective : enn 374 1 2, Elements of a Collision 375 3. Movements During Impact. 377 4. Damage - 383 5. Analyzing Impact . 386 6. Systematic Procedure .. 390 7. Sources ... : 401 Chapter 11 - Electronic Crash Scene Measurements and After-Crash Situation Maps Using Computers 1. Introductios 2. ‘Two Person Total Station 3. Robotic Total Stations. 4, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Receivers.. 5, Three Dimensional Point Cloud Scanning 6. Computer Aided Drawing (CAD) Software ..... 7. Crash Investigation Specific CAD Software 404 405 408 408 409 all 413 8. Summary .. 414 9. Sources . a4 Chapter 12 - Lamp Examination for “On” or “Off” in Vehicle Crashes 1, Circumstances Warranting Lamp Examination 2. ‘The Normal Lamp 3. Halogen Lamps and Their Principle of Operation. 4. High Intensity Discharge (HID) 7. At-Scene Observations .. 8. Lamp Abnormalities Resulting from Crashes 9. Indefinite Indications.. 10. Peculiar Circumstances11, Examining Lamps and Testing Circuits 12, Handling and Storing Lamps 13, Lamps Commonly Used on Motor Vehicles 14. Summary 15. Sources 2 Chapter 13 - Tire Examination After Motor Vehicle Crashes 475 . 478 478 1. Introduction .. 2. Tire Construction and Materials Labeling and Markings on Tires... Tire Specification and Application .. 497 Wheel/Rim Components ..... ‘At-Scene Tire Investigation. Tire and Wheel Examination Abnormal Tire Conditions Abnormal Wheel Conditions Evaluation and Analysis of Evidence and Information 11. Conclusions ... 12, Records and Reports... 13, Sources 3 4. 5. 6 7. 8 9, 0. Chapter 14 - Investigation of Hit and Run Crashes 536 536 Introduction. ‘Training and Preparation Response Tactics. Initial At-Scene Investigation ... Identification and Collection of Contact Traces . ones 539 6. Collecting the Physical Evidence 7. Maps, Diagrams, and Sketches ....». 550 8. Analysis and Interpretation of Contact Traces... 9. Follow-up Investigation .. 10. Tying the Vehicle to the Crash 11, Tying the Driver to the Crash .. 12. Sources viiPreparation for Traffic Crash Investigation Chapter 1 by Why We Should Investigate Crashes Organizational Preparation ... Programs for Special Data Collection Forms ... Data Bases and J. Stannard Baker and Roy E. Lucke Equipment Training Planning At-Scene Investigation Sources Northwestern University Center for Public Safety Ee‘An activity as diverse and complex as traffic crash investigation involves a great amount of preparation. The nature of this preparation will depend on who is doing it and for what aspect of investigation. In this chapter, preparation will be discussed as it relates to: + Why crash investigation is necessary + Organizational preparation: what steps the administrator must expect to take to make the crash-investigation program successful « Forms and files which must be made ready for data collection and analysis « Investigator preparation, especially training needed + Planning at-scene investigations Crash? Accident? Collision? Prior to the mid-1990%, “traffic accident” was the generally accepted term forevents involving motor vehicles that resulted in injury or damage. The phrase “trafficway related motor vehicle accident” was well-defined and accepted and “accident” was further defined as “an unintended event” At that time some members of the highway safety community believed that too many people were equating “unintended” with “unpreventable”” meaning that “accidents” just occur and that little can be done to prevent them. In 1995 the administrator of the National Highway ‘Trafic Safety Administration, Dr. Ricardo Martinez, who had practiced medicine as trauma care specialist, released a statement intended to change people’ thinking about “accidents”! “Crashes aren't accidents. The vast majority ofall fatal and non-fatal injuries in America, including traffic injuries, are not acts of fate but are predictable and preventable. Injuries are a major health care problem and are the leading cause of death for people age 1 to 42. Fatalities, however, are only a small part of the total injury picture. For each injury- related death, there are 19 hospitalizations for injury and another 300 injuries that require medical attention. Every year, one in four Americans will have a potentially preventable injury serious enough to require medical care. These injuries account for almost 10 percent of all physician office visit ‘and 38 percent of all hospital emergency department visits. Injury patterns vary by age group, gender, and cultural group. There are also seasonal and geographic patterns to injury. Injuries pose a significant drain on the health care system, incurring huge treatment, acute care, and rehabilitation costs.” A primary goal of crash investigation should be to learn when, where and why the crashes are occurring so that they can be prevented. As such, this text will generally use the terminology suggested by Dr. Martinez and refer to these incidents as “crashes” However, for all practical purposes, “crash” “accident,” and “collision” can be considered synonymous and can be used interchangeably in this context. 1. WHY WE SHOULD INVESTIGATE CRASHES Decades of research show that most traffic crashes are preventable and that some form of driver error is a factor in a majority of these crashes. A 2008 study by the United States National Institutes of Health? indicated that approximately 90 percent of crashes could be attributed to “human factors.” In terms of public health and safety, obtaining the data necessary for the prevention of future crashes is the most important reason for investigating all crashes. Law enforcement agencies should base theit traffic law enforcement and traffic safety-related public information and education programs 0” crash data. On the federal (and international) level, crash data are a basis for vehicle safety recalls and are also used to guide requirements for vehicle and roadway safety devices and programs.chr While the number of crash fatalities in the United States has been declining since the 19808, the number of annual deaths seems to have plateaued in the 32,000 ~ 35,000 range 2009. ‘The fatal crash rate (in terms of fatalities er million miles travelled or VMT) has also plateaued. Traffic fatalities remain one of the leading causes of death in the USA, especially for those in the 5 ~ 45 age group; the same holds true for most industrialized nations In the United States, the National Highway ‘Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) of the US Department of Transportation is the primary collector of crash information and they also publish most national crash data summaries. Two of their primary crash data resources, the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) and National Automotive Sampling System ~ General Estimates System (NASS-GES) are based almost entirely on information from crash reports prepared by law enforcement officers, Without quality crash investigations by law enforcement, the accuracy and validly of these resources can be compromised. Another important reason for the investigation of crashes is to determine if traffic laws were not obeyed by those involved in the crash. This can result in enforcement actions ranging from petty violations to homicide. Police crash reports are also necessary for the resolution of insurance claims and for potential civil litigation ce 2. ORGANIZATIONAL PREPARATION Law enforcement agencies, especially, need to prepare for traffic crash investigation for several reasons. In most states, law enforcement agencies are required by statute to submit reports on all crashes that meet certain criteria. These criteria vary widely across the states but usually include a damage threshold, injuries, or post-crash vehicle mobility as primary criteria. ‘An argument can be made that law enforcement should at least complete a basic report on all Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation 3 known roadway crashes. Reasons for reporting these crashes include: + Many other agencies and individuals depend on law enforcement to conduct at least the at-scene investigation and basic report form + Crash investigation is important to traffic law enforcement, because it can indicate where, when, and what kind of traffic law enforcement will probably be most effective. « Inept investigation can seriously impair the value of the effort expended and so squander valuable police resources. Every law enforcement agency should have policies that describe what crashes will be investigated and how and by whom they will be investigated. The number and type of policies will vary considerably based on agency size, type and structure, Broadly, these policies should indicate what crashes to report and what kind of information should be obtained for crashes of various degrees of severity. Implementing sound policies involves a number of activities: + Prepare a guide for investigators describing what to do to conform to their policies + Prepare manuals describing detailed procedures for investigating traffic crashes «+ Delegate responsibility for implementing and evaluating the program « Provide necessary equipment, including forms « Train and supervise investigators ‘This material is designed to be helpful in organizational preparation. ‘Some matters requiring special administrative decisions will be mentioned here because they do not fit well with other parts of this chapter. Sometimes several patrol units are dispatched ive at the scene of a serious crash. These or arr4 may represent more than one law enforcement agency, for example, a state highway patrol and a county sheriff's department or sections in an agency like patrol and traffic. Confusion may resultandeffortsmay beduplicated. For example, more than one investigator may question the same witness. In other cases, operations may be neglected because each investigator assumes the other has attended to a certain job. ‘The Commission on Accreditation of Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) Standards for Law Enforcement Agencies? calls for “written directives” governing responsibilities for the “first officer to respond” and “procedure for determining the officer or investigator who is in charge at the collision scene” (other accrediting agencies, usually at the state level, have similar standards). Developing such directives may require cooperation among all agencies which might be involved. The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) maintains a collection of model policies, specifically including crash investigation, through their ACPnet service.‘ Photography is another matter that requires special administrative consideration. Policies are needed designating who is responsible for taking and storing images, and also who may have copies and under what conditions. 3. PROGRAMS FOR SPECIAL DATA COLLECTION Inaddition to collecting standard information about traffic crashes, some investigators may be involved in programs for special data collection. ‘These programs are designed to produce additional data on special aspects of crashes, such as injuries to persons, possible driver distraction, crush in collisions, safety restraint usage, or single vehicle crashes. Investigators conducting special studies will sometimes design their own forms or more commonly use forms designed by others for this purpose. ‘The forms are employed for specific kinds of crashes in a specified area or route for a limited time. The data so obtained are studied in detail. a a ‘These special programs are varied in nature depending on who wants the information and why it is needed, but most fall into one of three categories: 1. Bi-level reporting is used when additional information is obtained on some special aspect of all collisions (or every fifth or tenth collision) investigated by law enforcement. The name “bi-level” means that the crash is investigated to the ordinary first (reporting) level in the usual way and then at a second, more intensive level for special purposes. The data required are recorded on a special form that supplements the basic crash report. Such investigations might involve examining a sample of crashes to obtain data on use of occupant restraint systems, distractions, driver occupation, evasive tactics, or any other items for which more detail might be required. 2. Special circumstance _ investigation involves more detailed collection for crashes that involve a particular crash circumstance, event or condition. Forms supplementing the basic report specify exactly what additional data are needed. Investigators usually receive appropriate training and sometimes special equipment. Such studies involve all or as many as possible of the crashes meeting specified requirements. Studies of this kind have detailed forms to collect additional data on how people receive fatal injuries in traffic crashes, single- vehicle collisions on Interstate routes: crashes after which a tire is disabled, and others. 3. “Team” investigations are undertaken by two or more people from different professions such as law enforcement, physicians, traffic engineers, automotive engineers, psychologists, and lawyers. ‘These are sometimes called “multi-Ch 1 ~ Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation 5 disciplinary teams.” Some of these teams examine only serious crashes, others only certain kinds of crashes, Some teams specialize in one aspect of a crash situation. Others do not. All use supplementary forms, selecting the appropriate ones for use in a particular collision. These forms are the basis for data collection, In addition to the NASS- GES system mentioned previously, the National Automotive Sampling System also. supports its. Crashworthiness Data System (CDS) that uses a team approach to collect a detailed data on a representative, random sample of thousands of minor, serious, and fatal crashes. The data collected by NASS- CDS supports a number of safety programs including assessment of the overall state of traffic safety, detailed data on the crash performance of vehicles as well as crash injury assessments. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) also takes a team approach when they are called upon to investigate very severe crashes or those involving special circumstances such as a fatality involving a school bus. 4, FORMS ‘Traffic crash report forms are part of an investigator's equipment. In almost all cases, the basic crash report form is provided by the state, usually in both paper and electronic formats. A basic report form is used for recording routine data, Such data, even in simplified form, are adequate for minor crashes. In the case of fatal and other severe crashes, data on the basic form must be supplemented by additional information such as photographs and measurements. The form for reporting more serious crashes is also usually state-provided and builds upon the basic data, often on the same form or by using supplementary forms. Purposes Standard items of information concerning common situations, such as traffic crashes, today are first recorded on the state-supplied form, whether hard copy or electronic. Later, the information is almost always transferred to local, regional, state, and occasionally, federal databases. Generic summary reports are usually produced for publication at various levels of government. Forms, whether hard copy or electronic, are instruments for data collection in crash investigation. As such, they have important advantages over other possible data collection methods: + The form itself specifies the exact data to be recorded. + A minimum of writing/keystrokes are required to record the information. + Recorded information is organized in a standardized display so that specific items can be located quickly in the report. + Information to be classified can be recorded at once by categories, thus simplifying transfer and analysis of data. * Storage and retrieval of collected information are simplified. Electronic (digital) crash reporting provides additional advantages of + Automated completion of some data fields + Error trapping + Moving among forms or form sections «+ Legibility Specific or individually important items, like time of day or age of a driver, are readily recorded on forms. These are generally factual and unqualified statements or observations. ly designed to accommodateNarrative and argumentative information, on the other hand, is difficult to accommodate on forms because it consists of closely connected and interrelated parts that cannot be readily separated and entered in blank space on a form, Crash reporting, which collects minimum factual information for statistical tabulation and other mass uses, is easily accommodated by forms. Forms can also be developed to record observations, measurements, and other supplementary data needed at the technical follow-up level of crash investigation. Such forms may require many pages. They may be designed to record data on specific elements such as damage to the vehicle, injuries to people, or road conditions. Crash reconstruction, cause analysis, and other conclusions, inferences, and opinions, on the other hand, do not lend themselves as well to standardized, organized presentation. ‘Therefore, the branch of the crash investigation process that deals with an individual crash in great detail is not readily adaptable to recording data on forms. Limitations of forms for traffic crash data collection must not be overlooked. By specifying what information is needed, forms can sometimes stifle further inquiry. When the form is filled in, the investigation is finished. There is no more to be done. This may be acceptable for routine mass data collection, but will not suffice for inquiry into how and why a specific crash occurred. Consider, for instance, attempts to develop forms for obtaining information from a driver involved in a crash. When such forms list the questions that should be asked and provide a place to record an answer, they are a great help to an untrained and unimaginative investigator. ‘The required information is obtained, but no one can anticipate, in designing such a form, all the circumstances of every possible crash. In questioning a driver, the skillful and imaginative inquirer may have a few routine questions about road location, vehicles, and i people involved. However, his really important insights come when one piece of information leads to another. ‘That process has not yet successfully been reduced to the act of filling outa form. Highly structured forms, those in which most of the information is recorded by marking listed items, tend to discourage the recording of unusual circumstances and precise descriptions A. largely structured form simplifies the investigator's work and expedites analysis of the data; but it tends to obscure fine distinctions and unusual circumstances that are not listed on the form. For detailed study of individual collisions, structured information usually proves to be inadequate. Basic Form Standard forms. Prior to 1998, no national standard crash reporting form had been developed. None of the standards relating to crash investigation and crash records provided a model, much lessa standard. In 1998 suggested standard was formulated with the assistance of the National Association of Governors’ Highway Safety Representatives, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and other highway safety advocates including the Northwestern University Center for Public Safety. ‘These meetings resulted in the creation of the Model Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria (MMUCC). Rather than proposing a standard national crash report form, the recommendation ‘was to set data collection standards. To quote the purpose of MMUCC: “The Model Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria Guideline (MMUCC) is @ minimum, standardized data set for describing motor vehicle crashes and the vehicles, persons and environment involved. ‘The Guideline is designed to generate the information necessary to improve highway safety within each state and nationally. This data set, originally published in the MMUCC Guideline,Ch 1 ~ Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation a Ist Edition (1998), has been revised three times, most recently in the 4" Edition (2012), in response to emerging highway safety issues. The 110 data elements presented in this document include 77 data elements to be collected at the scene, 10 data elements to be derived from the collected data, and 23 data elements to be obtained after linkage to driver history, injury and roadway inventory data. Definitions for the data elements match existing standards, unless modification ‘was necessary to match current trends””* All states are encouraged to have their state crash report form include all of MMUCC data elements and use the MMUCC definitions for those elements. This standardization makes aggregation and assessment of data at the national level both simpler and more accurate Data standards are more important than form standards. They specify performance objectives for information gathering rather than the instrument for data collection. Standards*”* specify directly or indirectly what data are needed for coordinated traffic crash record systems. It is up to the agency using the data to develop the form on which it is recorded. State laws and federal standards, explicitly or implicitly, now provide that the state furnishes forms for all agencies making initial reports of motor-vehicle traffic way crashes as part of a statewide traffic records system. Most states also supply a form for drivers to also self- report crash involvement. ‘The basic police traffic crash report form, typically, is highly structured (organized) for recording and identifying descriptive data. But unstructured spaces are provided for an explanatory diagram and to “describe what happened” A design for a basic police report form for fatal and other serious crashes is illustrated in Exhibit 1. This design exemplifies a number of considerations in traffic crash form design. This form: + Identifies and describes the road, the vehicles and the people involved + Provides data for __ tabulations corresponding to the MMUCC® and the Manual on Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents? + Describes damage and injury to the extent that they may be determined at the scene of the collision + Calls for enough information on movement of traffic units to permit preparation of collision diagrams of high crash locations + Summarizes after crash operations such as transportation of injured, removal of disabled vehicles, and enforcement action «Is color coded to indicate what data needs to be collected for all crashes (shaded in blue) and what needs to be collected only for more serious crashes (no shading, including the entire reverse side of the form) Asit should be, this form is limited to a record of strictly factual information. No opinions as to how or why the collision happened or who was at fault are required. Such speculations are matters for other documents. Consequently, there need be no limitations as to who might have access to the report. For facility in handling and filing, this design calls for only a single, letter-size sheet ‘or the electronic equivalent. For convenient data entry at the scene, it is laid out so that all easily forgotten information, such as names and numbers, is on one side or screen. This achieves a minimum of turning over or scrolling in use. In practice, the detailed items are coded to assist in later analyses. ‘The simplest possible report form and procedure for minor crashes has additional advantages. Confronted by what appears to beo1-—o8 elo hee ‘USE BLACK INK, PRESS HARD, PRINT LEGIBLY AND COMPLETE Front of Form Sent ee “ Back of Form 7 Exhibit 1. Basic wafc cash report fos provide standard information that can be relied upon for taste om ‘administrative purposes. This isthe State of linols form."* Other states have similar forms. The circled numbers refer sections in a manual that explain how the boxes are to be completed.Ch 1 ~ Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation 9 an elaborate report for a minor crash, drivers and police both tend to avoid reporting such crashes, especially if they involve only one vehicle. Thus, the complexity of the form influences the completeness of reporting, Furthermore, ifa large percent of crashes can be handled satisfactorily, more quickly, and with Jess paperwork, there can be a worthwhile saving of valuable police time and records processing. simplified Forms For most traffic crashes, investigation does not go beyond first-level reporting. Much of. this information can be, and in many cases is, reported well enough by drivers, especially if the on an easily understood form. In most such collisions, police reports are based largely on driver supplied information. For most minor crashes, only part of the basic report form is needed because 1) the crash does not involve significant injuries, towed vehicles, or witnesses in addition to the people involved, and 2) little or no use is made of part of the information specified on the basic form. To simplify police handling of such crashes, driver reports can be used if police do not attend the crash. If police do attend such a minor crash, data collection can be abbreviated for them without losing valuable information, Abbreviated police data collection for these minor crashes can be accomplished in two ways: 1) by indicating on the basic form, data that are not required for minor crashes, and 2) by using a simplified form, The simplified form must, of course, provide for: + Most data regularly tabulated + Data accumulated for traffic engineering purposes + Information entered on driver records Supplementary Forms Perhaps one in ten collisions is sufficiently Serious to warrant extended collision investigation. For such collisions, information collected is more extensive than can be accommodated on the basic form and so supplementary documents are required. Some of these, like photographs, field notes of measurements or electronic measurement files, and statements of participants and other witnesses, cannot be provided by a structured (organized) form, But some observations, descriptions, and comments beyond the scope of the basic form can be easily collected on supplementary forms. Descriptive data repeatedly collected represent the kinds of information for which supplementary forms can be provided. But whether it is practical to design and reproduce a form depends on how extensive and complex the data are and how frequently a particular item of information has to be collected. Published supplementary forms are available for the most common purposes: + Statement - Traffic * General Vehicle Examination’ + Motor-Vehicle Lamp Examination Record? + Tire and Wheel Examination Record + Vehicle Collision Damage Record: Datafrequently collected. Many investigators prepare forms for their own use if they often have to collect certain kinds of data. ‘The form reminds them of facts they must obtain and makes recording the data easy. The same form may be made available for use by a number of investigators. Here are examples: +A form or table for recording measurements made at the scene of the crash «+ Signal-timing record + Detailed record of injuries, including a diagram of the body on which injured areas are marked. A simple form of this kind may be used by an attending physician; a more detailed form can be used for autopsies.eer 10 Special data collection projects, such as the NASS-GES and some research projects, aim to collect extensive information on many particular aspects of traffic collisions. Much of the data so obtained are accumulated on many pages of highly specialized forms. This is important if the data are to be statistically analyzed Special instructions to investigators may be arranged as a form or list of data to be gathered, such as a number of specific measurements to be made of a road location. Such instructions may be different for each collision, depending on circumstances. The person who requires the information, a prosecuting attorney ora highway engineer, for instance, usually knows exactly what he wants, but the investigator who actually obtains the data has to be told. An example of such a form used by a multi-jurisdictional crash investigation team is shown in Exhibit 2. ‘Systems for Reporting Conclusions Forms are easily designed for recording specific factual information. Some of these, like the Motor Vehicle Lamp Examination Record," Provide for recording the indications of the observations and certain conclusions that might be derived there from. Causes of crashes, on the other hand, involve so many contributing factors that forms to describe and classify them have met with little success. The systems for discovering and describing combinations of contributing factors have not yet been sufficiently tested to make forms practical and reliable. Highway Safety Matrix (also called the Haddon Matrix), although not really a form, serves some of the purposes of a form in organizing the information collected. ‘The matrix is a rectangular array or table in which vertical columns cross horizontal rows to form cells. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has used this form to classify its own activities, to describe and collate collision circumstances and causative factors. ‘The horizontal rows of this matrix, illustrated in Exhibit 3, represent the three “components of the Nighy transportation system: people, vehicles, ae) the road environment. People include driver passengers, and pedestrians. Vehicles inch pedalcycles. The road environment ig highway layout (geometry), surface conditi traffic control, traffic, weather, light, and conditions, The vertical columns of the mana are three time phases in the series of collin events: pre-crash, crash and post-crash. ‘Then three columns and three rows give nine cel, Observations and conclusions developed in » traffic collision investigation could be recorded in these cells. For instance, driver strat (speed and position on the road) and evasive tactics with all their ramifications are recorded in the “People pre-crash” cell Number 1, 5. DATABASES AND FILING lade. the ions, other Databases or manual files must be provided for collected collision report forms and other data. This requires coordinated planning among those who need to use the data. Unfortunately storage of collision records is often poorly planned, A reference or report number is generally assigned to each crash. This number is put ‘on every item relating to that crash so that all material relating to the event may be kept together. Otherwise some ‘things, such as photos, become misplaced or can only be located by looking in several places for them, whether hard copy or digital, ‘The collision number may be coded to tepresent all or part of the date. For example, all numbers for the year 2014 crashes might begin with 14, followed by numbers in sequence of assignment for that year. | Depending on the system used, electronic files can usually be accessed by any number of search items including names of involved Parties, location, date and time, investigating officers or the assigned file number. When implementing electronic crash databases it is important to assure that crash locations arCh 1 ~ Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation Major Crash Assistance Team — Accident Investigation Report Of Lake County Now What? Page 1 of 1 Additional Investigation Recommendations MCAT has conducted a preliminary investigation ofthe crash. Due tothe crash being unique, some situations may require that we further the investigation to solve for an unknown variable such as speed, which vehicle was lef of center, who was. dtving, etc ‘Wit this in ming, it's recommended that the following be completed fora more detailed, thorough investigation: Ci crush Measurements: C1 Black Bor’ download: CO Lamp Examination: O Tie Examination: D Vehicle Examination Ci Brake inspection: C Seatbet inspection: O Airbag / Pretensioner Inspection: Search Warrant: C1 Blood / Urine Results: Comments: fa) (DAA Spies C1 Hospital Records: C. Prior Medical Records C1 24-hour Background investigation: 1 Attend Autopsy: TZ. Coroner Reports: 1 Kinematics ~ Who was driving: C1 Additional Photos: C1 Subpoena Records (cell phone, etc): i Child Safety Seat Inspection: RS A owom Exhibit 2. A multijurisdictional form is shown here.2 Highway ‘Traffic Crash Phases Transportation Post re Crash | Crash Components _| Pe Crash | crash People 7 . 3 Involved Vehicles ’ 2 6 Involved Road E ' 5 Environment Exhibit 3. Research investigation is classified in nine categories according to components. of highway {ransportation involved and the phase of the crash, indexed so that high crash locations can be readily identified. Following is a list of report indices that should be used whether the data file is physical or electronic. Filing by number makes locating @ report difficult; almost no one remembers the number of a particular crash, Therefore, a cross-index file of some kind is necessary. Filing by date of crash has some of the same difficulties as filing by crash or report number, The exact date has often been forgotten, Filing by name of someone involved requires a decision as to which of several names will be used and how to cross index the other names. Such cross indexing may double the size of the file without making it any more useful. Filing by location is generally recommended for three reasons: 1. More people can remember where a crash happened than almost any other fact about it. 2. Location files are the easi accumulate data on high cra for traffic engineering a enforcement purposes, 3. Generally, location files require less cross indexing. lest way to sh locations ind selective Location filing requires a set of rules by which a report may be put into storage and located when needed. Usually a report is filed by the name of the road on which it occurreds but there must be a rule to deter file a report of a collision that o junction of two or more roads an collisions on a road between jun, mine how curred at th, 1d how to locate \ctions, Supplementary Files Most crashes are represente, sheet of paper or a small elec Some serious crashes accumulate a of documents and/or electronic fj three sheets can be attached to th report or primary electronic file, that tends to be troublesome. This ca; by putting the collision number on relating to the collision and filing all but the official report in a numerical file. There it can be located by the number of the official report in the location file or other Cross-reference. Cross. linking of electronic files can also usually be done depending on the attributes of the records system being used. Associated hard copy data are often quite Varied in size: printed photos, field notes, special forms, and so on. To keep them from becoming lost, keep them together in a case envelope. The front of the envelope may be printed with «orm in which to list the contents of the envelope and make other notes that will permit rapid review of the case. If no preprinted form is available, the contents can be identified by writing on the Outside with a marker, How related digital files are linked is dependent upon the rules of the involved records systems. Regardless of the filing system used, two things must be provided fo access to the file be kept there, Controlling 'd by a sin gle tronic file, ut undle les. Two of e hard copy More than in be Solved all Materia) 1) who may have and 2) how long material will access to the files is important Otherwise, some documents are sure 1 disappear or be written over, Furthermor, there may be policy decisions as to who may s¢ What is available. Certainly any person involved in a traffic crash should be permitted to see the official report and other factual data relating ‘9 the crash. Ifthe official report is strictly factual enI i Ch 1—Preparation for Taffc Crash Investigation 13 which it should be, there is no good reason why anybody should not see it ~ in most states it is a public record and falls under “freedom of information” laws. Never let anybody take any original material related to the collision for any reason. Arrange to have the material copied. ‘The separate case envelopes or electronic files for photos and other data make it easier to control who has access to such material than if it were in the more accessible crash report file. Clearing the file of obsolete material may be governed by administrative regulation or even bylaw as to how long it must be kept. The statute of limitations relating to litigation may have to be considered in this connection. It is generally easier to remove obsolete material as the files are being used than to try to do it as a special project from time to time, say once a year, In any case, definite rules must be followed. For example, all crash reports may be kept for three years, but reports of fatal and other specified collisions for pethaps twice as long, 6. EQUIPMENT What tools are needed for information gathering and recording depends on the extent to which crashes are to be investigated. If the only record of even serious crashes is the official traffic crash report form, no special equipment is needed. Otherwise, equipment requirements depend on two things: 1. The extent to. which additional information is to be collected both at the scene and as follow up 2. How much ofthe additional information is gathered by law enforcement and how much is obtained by others, for example, professional or amateur photographers and insurance investigators Some equipment and supplies are essential for obtaining and especially for recording traffic crash information. However, excellent data collection is possible with a well-trained investigator who has only a basic laptop computer or even just pencil and paper for notes. Elaborate equipment is no substitute for investigator competence Emergency Equipment ‘The need for such things as warning devices and emergency medical supplies for any given crash depends on facilities of associated agencies such as fire departments, EMS, public works or highway departments, and towing services. Such equipment is beyond the scope of this chapter. Forms Forms, of course, are basic equipment, especially the official crash report form. Properly structured, a form can, to a limited extent, guide routine data collection. This is very helpful for inexperienced or ill-trained investigators. A clipboard or other writing surface is usually provided for making notes in the field that can be copied to hard copy or electronic report forms. Interviewing requires only a pencil and paper for notes, but is more often transcribed on 4 computer or even recorded. Recorders for this purpose have much to recommend them. They are inexpensive, easy to carry, and simple to use even in the dark, when it is cold, and otherwise under adverse circumstances. ‘The recording have the clear advantage of recording exactly what was said at the time by the investigator and others. They can also be used to record telephone interviews. Measuring Minimum equipment for measurements is a measuring tape, preferably 100 feet (30 meters) Jong, at least % inch (1.6 centimeters) wide, and made of reinforced fabric or plastic. Additional traditional equipment for measurement may include:4 + A tape rule, preferably 25 feet (8 meters) long + A measuring wheel, preferably one with two small wheels « Surveyor’ pins or the equivalent ; « Anchor weights, for holding the end of a tape when no helper is available + Material for marking spots to be located: lumber crayon or aerosol spray paint, preferably orange or yellow . + Nails and cards for marking off-road locations + A line level and chalk (“snap”) line for measuring grades and horizontal and vertical distances of falls There are also many electronic devices available for measuring crash scenes. ‘The most common of these are total stations or laser-based photogrammetry. Total stations are commonly used for surveying applications and are available from a number of manufacturers. LIDAR speed measurement devices commonly used by law enforcement agencies frequently also have the capability of being used as a measuring device. Again, these devices are available from a number of manufacturers. See Chapter 11 for a more detailed discussion of electronic measuring devices. For any electronic measuring device, specific training for the users is needed. Total stations are generally stored in a central location and brought to crash scenes by trained users. Since LIDAR speed measuring devices are common in many patrol vehicles, all LIDAR users can be trained to do basic at-scene measurements using that device. Photography Although good at-scene investigations can be made without pictures, photography has long been an important adjunct to investigation, Photos are an indisputable, permanent record of observations. They even record details that the investigator failed to note. Nothing is better a than a photograph for describing damage to vehicles. meras, even the simplest, can take nportant pictures. Digital single lens reflex cameras are the most widely preferred However, more basic “point and shoot” or even smart phone cameras can provide adequate images for daylight crashes. Professional photographers may prefer cameras with very high resolution that are capable of supporting various attachments for photographing under varying circumstances Memory cards. At one time, the size of a digital camera memory card had to be considered carefully. The cost was high for a high capacity memory card. That is no longer the case. Cards that can hold hundreds of exposures are now extremely reasonable in price. Lenses. A normal focal length (50 mm for 35 mm film equivalency) gives a normal perspective. A detailed discussion of normal lenses is included in the chapter on photography (Chapter 8). Longer or shorter focal lengths tend to exaggerate distances. For special close- up pictures, such as that of a lamp filament, a macro lens is needed. Shutters do not need to be fast because in traffic crash photography nothing important is in motion. Y%o or Yias second is usually fast enough. Flash equipments essential for night photos. Because photos at the scene of a traffic collision may need to picture objects at some distance away, strong flash equipment is needed. Filters are rarely needed in traffic crash investigation. Tripods are helpful in obtaining shatP pictures, but few traffic crash investigators want to be bothered with them. 7. TRAINING Courses ‘The effectiveness of an investigator at the various levels of traffic crash investigation = aoe &: achi depends on his training and experience. Some activities can be learned well enough with practice. Others, like describing marks left on the road and measuring to locate the results of a crash, require special training. ‘This need is demonstrated by the fact that investigators who have attended a dozen or more fatal collisions continue to make measurements that really locate little or nothing! Training is especially important when information collection cannot be reduced to filling in blanks on a special form. Instruction in traffic crash investigation generally corresponds to the various levels of collision investigation. Crash reporting is strictly fact finding. Because this work is governed by a very detailed traffic crash report form, only a few hours of instruction are required. For the most part, this instruction emphasizes matters in which the form is not self-explanatory, such as the description of vehicles and the diagram of the crash situation. At-scene additional data collection, for fatal and other serious collisions, requires much more learning since forms to guide it in detail are not available. The most important parts of this training are: + Observing and describing various results of the crash found at the scene, such as tire marks and debris + Measuring at the scenes of traffic crashes + Photography at traffic crash scenes Basic Crash Investigation is the subject of a two-week course at the Northwestern University Center for Public Safety (NUCPS). About half of this time is devoted to describing and measuring results of the crash found at the scene, including some practice in doing this. Technical follow-up of traffic crashes requires additional fact finding, such as more detailed examination of the crash site and damage to vehicles, including tires and lamps. Technical follow-up also requires training in organizing and toa limited extent interpreting data such as Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation 15 preparation of after crash situation maps, both. hard copy and electronic. NUCPS also conducts courses at this level. Traffic Crash Reconstruction, especially, requires training in relating to each other available bits and pieces of information and applyingsomebasic science, especially dynamics, to interpreting them. Training needed for this work is comparable to that required for other professions. Some training useful for traffic ctash reconstruction is to be had in engineering, psychology, physiology, and other conventional college courses. However, such college courses usually do not focus on the peculiar problems of traffic crashes. NUCPS offers an intensive course that covers the basic equations of motion, for traffic crash reconstruction. The Center also offers additional courses in crash reconstruction. In these courses, applicable principles are briefly reviewed, but most of the time is devoted to practice problems in actual reconstruction. Cause analysis requires further, usually speculative, interpretation of often inadequate data, Because techniques suitable for cause analysis have never been adequately developed, no generalized training is available for this activity. Experience Practice is as necessary for traffic crash investigation as it is for defensive driving tactics or firearms proficiency, Taking successful pictures needs as much “target” practice as handling a firearm. There should be practice test skids to measure the slipperiness of various kinds of surfaces, and practice in measuring and photographing tire marks. As practice, an afternoon or two spent in a storage facility for crash damaged vehicles carefully examining recently damaged vehicles totry todetermine from what direction they were struck, the extent of damage to structural parts, and whether any part of the vehicle gouged or scratched the pavement, is time profitably spent. Preparing diagrams of damaged vehicles and16 taking practice photos adds to the effectiveness of the exercise. Measurements can be practiced by placing chalk marks on the paving in an intersection © represent tite marks or vehicle position and then aking a field sketch locating them. Electron! devices can also be used so that operators can gain competence in their functions. “All ofthese exercises take time, of course, Dut such training can make the difference between @ skilled and an amateur investigator. Habits. This is a good place to mention some important habits to form by practice in preparation for traffic crash investigation. Sometimes even otherwise seasoned investi- gators overlook these simple rules. Investigators need to learn to: « Be specific. Do not guess or estimate if measurements can be made. + Evaluate what people say and distinguish fact from opinion. One hard fact is worth a score of theories, conclusions, opinions, and inferences + Make personal observations and do not expect to learn all about the crash from what people say. + Record information at the time and do not depend on memory. + Write well enough so there will be no need for editing later. + Take advantage of opportunities to get facts and avoid thinking, “I'll get that later,” because later is often too late. At every step, think about the data you are collecting, and ask, “Is it reasonable?” Consider how youcan verify data, especially ifinformation seems questionable for any reason, Then try to obtain the same information from some other person or in some other manner. Specific Knowledge Know the territory. It is important to get to the scene ofa crash quickly but safely. Therefore, as part of your equipment maps, GPS and other such directional knowledge of the roads keep handy, street guides, aids, Better is firsthand in the area. Various organizations are likely to have specific responsibilities with respect to crashes Learn what and where they are: the location of hospitals, towing services, and fire departments) EMS. A list of these, together with telephone numbers, and the hours of the day in which their services are available is helpful, and it is a good idea to become acquainted with some of the people in these organizations. ‘Acquaintance with specialists who may be able to help in investigating is also desirable, Photographers, surveyors, court reporters can help with taking statements, and the people in street or highway departments who have plots or maps of the locations in detail can be listed or sought out in case they may be needed. The extent to which you can go in enlisting the aid of such people depends on the policies of the organization. Fire departments can be asked to provide elevated platforms for aerial views of a crash scene and small, remotely controlled aircraft are increasingly being used for this purpose. Department policy. If you are dispatched to investigate a traffic crash, follow policies and rules of your department. Your supervisor must explain these to you, Sometimes the guidelines are in written form or made part of investigator training. 8. PLANNING AT-SCENE INVESTIGATION Principles and Problems _Why planning is needed. Often investigato”s wish they could go back and investigate a crash all over again. ‘They may have neglected to look into an important matter or forgotten a vital activity. These and other mistakes result from lack of planning. Planning is laying out a course of action method of accomplishing objectives. ActivitiesCh 1 — Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation 7 necessary to accomplish the objectives are the various techniques of crash investigation Uiscussed in detail elsewhere. Consequently, in planning, decisions are made about what must be done, what should be done, and what might be done, These decisions establish priorities for activities. Planningalso determines the sequence of activities. The most important activity is not always the most urgent. Planning a particular ‘scene investigation is always difficult because it must be done on extremely short notice, and usually with very limited knowledge of the situation. Also, planning at-scene investigations must be continually adapted to circumstances 4s the investigation proceeds. Throughout the investigation, tactics planned must be guided by the objectives of investigation and associated tasks (for example, emergency activities). Five times during investigation at the scene, the situation can be evaluated well enough to plan what to do next. These stages of planning are: 1. On learning of the crash 2. On arrival at the crash scene 3. When the emergency is under control 4. When urgent data collection is complete 5. When work at the scene is finished For each of these five stages, Exhibit 4 lists activities to be considered. Activities are listed more or less in the order in which they might be performed. Planning begins on first learning of the crash and continues until at-scene activities are completed. Information on which initial planning is based comes at the time you learn that you will have responsibilities at the scene. At this time, obtain as much data as you can about the collision. Other information needed includes: + Location of the collision + Time of occurrence + What is involved + Extent of injury and damage + Obstruction of traffic + Whether fire or hazardous materials are involved + Have EMS, tow truck, fire equipment, and other investigators been called + What assistance may be available On the basis of this information, plan your route to the scene and consider possible things to be done on arrival. As you approach the scene, begin investigation by watching for vehicles that may have passed the scene; activate front- looking in-vehicle recording devices to assist with this. Later review of registration numbers recorded may lead to discovery of a witness who otherwise would have been unknown. Crash damage to vehicles that may have been involved and fled the scene can also be identified this way. Considerations in Planning Flexibility is necessary. Trying to follow a fixed step-by-step procedure in investigating at the scene can be as bad as having no plan at all. Planas far ahead as possible with the information available at the moment. Then adjust and extend the plan as more information becomes available. While each thing is being done, give it careful attention, but at the same time consider the next step. Urgency is the basis of timing. Decisions based on urgency are intended to accomplish first those things that will be most troublesome if put off. In every crash, for example, the first thing to do on arrival at the scene is to keep the situation from getting worse by preventing fire, attending to the injured, or preventing vehicles from plowing into people or vehicles on the road at the scene, Often several things can be done at the same time. When helping injured pedestrians for instance, their position and location can be noted and perhaps marked, and possibly, they may be questioned. Some activities can be divided and advantageously done at different times during an investigation. For example, necessary photographs of vehicles20 Planning Hit-and-Run Investigations The first steps in most hit-and-run investigations are the same as those in the investigation of any crash, Get to the scene safely and quickly and handle emergency problems. If you know before reaching the scene that the crash may be a hit-and-run case, watch for and record if possible vehicles coming from the direction of the crash. Note descriptions and registration numbers if possible. One of these may be the vehicle involved. At the scene, try to locate the involved parties as soon as possible. Ifa driver cannot quickly be located, consider the possibility of hit-and-run, Lose no time in starting a search for the missing driver. This is more urgent than any other step except keeping the situation from getting worse. Get the best description possible of the missing vehicle and occupants. ‘These may eventually lead to the driver, Remember Particularly odd or unusual things such as customized vehicles or marks on vehicles and identifiable physical characteristics or peculiar clothing of occupants. Communicate available information to your communications center that can then broadcast the description to all law enforcement in the area. This puts a team to work on the problem, As soon as all available information about the missing driver has been obtained, go ahead in Chapter 14. 9. SOURCES Contributors J. Stannard Baker was an engineer who Specialized in crash investigation. He was Director of Research and Development at the Northwestern University Traffic Institute (now the Northwestern University Center for Public Safety) from 1946 to 1971. Mr. Baker was a consultant to the Traffic Institute from 1971 until 1986. He died in 1995, a _| Roy E. Iucke i a long-time employee of Center for Public Safety where he curves nt the Director of Transportation Safety Programe Previously, he was a successor to J Stannard Baker as the Center's Director of Research an, d Development where he was involved in Tua crash investigation and highway safety relate research efforts and has authored many Paper, and reports in these fields. Prior to Joining NUCPS, he was a police officer and commande his agency's traffic unit. Mr. Baker was amon, his instructors when he wasacrash investigation student at the Traffic Institute (now the Center for Public Safety). tly ig References 1. Ricardo Martinez, “Crashes Arerit Accidents,” http://www.nhtsa.gov/ people/injury/airbags/Archive-04/ PresBelt/crash_accident.html 2. National Institutes of Health, “Some Characteristics of Drivers Having Caused Traffic Collisions,” http://www.ncbi.nim nih.gov/pubmed/19203062 3. Standards for Law Enforcement Agencies, Commission on Accreditation of Law Enforcement Agencies, www.caleaorg + Model Policies, International Association of Chiefs of Police, www.iacp.org Model Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria, 4° Edition, 2012, www.mmue.us/ § Standards for Law Enforcement Agencies (Chapter 63), 1983, Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, 4242B Chain Bridge Road, Fairfax VA 22030 Manual on Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents (ANSI D16.-1996), National Safety Council, Itasca, IL General Vehicle Examination, (SN 8084), 2013, Northwestern University Centet for Public Safety, Evanston IL 60204 9. Motor-Vehicle Lamp Examination Record (SN 1122),2013, Northwestern Universit) Center for Public Safety, Evanston IL &cht in their final positions may be taken soon after arrival at the scene. Then much later, after yehicles have been moved, other pictures may be made of damage to the vehicles. It is unnecessary to perform all of the tasks listed in Exhibit 4 in every investigation. Certainly they are not always performed in the same sequence. Crashes are not that much alike Severity of the collision will largely determine what must be done first. When you arrive atthe scene, you may find urgent matters to be attended to that are not part of the actual investigation, Think immediately of what could cause the worst additional damage or injury and take care of those things first. Usually three possibilities must be considered: 1. Injured persons must be given what help is possible at the scene, and transportation to medical care arranged. 2. Fire must be extinguished as quickly as possible and, if necessary, firefighting equipment requested. Attention must be given to possible fire and hazardous materials such as spilled fuel or chemicals; the whole area may have to be blocked off to prevent bystanders from contributing to the hazard. ‘The power company must be called if wires are down. 3. Oncoming vehicles are dangerous, especially at night and at places where Visibility is limited by view obstructions: fog, rain, snow, or smoke. Flares or cones may be placed at intervals along the road. If necessary, someone must be stationed on the road to direct traffic and warn oncoming drivers of a hazard ahead of them. Theft may be a problem to be considered in conducting activities at the scene of a collision. Valuable property accessible to bystanders may be taken, even from injured persons. A sharp lookout for thieves is the least that can be expected of an investigator; it may be necessary Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation 19 to post someone as a guard or to take custody of valuable belongings. How and when to get help is essentially a communication problem, Usually it is not known whether help will be needed until an investigation is started. Any of three types of help may be needed: 1, Emergency help, such EMS, fire equipment, public works or public works or highway departments, and help in controlling crowds or traffic 2. Help in investigating is needed, usually in taking statements from witnesses who live far away and will be difficult to talk to later. Much help is also required in hit-and-run investigations. 3. Somebody to take over if you are so occupied that you cannot get to the scene or if you have to leave before investigation is complete Calling for help depends on what could cause the worst additional damage or injury. Decide quickly what kind of help is necessary: EMS, fire apparatus, tow truck, additional police, or more highly trained crash investigators. In requesting help, try to be specific about what kind, how much, where, and how soon. It will often be impossible to provide all of the help needed, especially when conditions such as adverse weather and holidays result in an unusual number of crashes. Division of work. When there are two or more investigators at the scene of a crash, a logical division of effort may be accomplished by one concentrating on observations and the other on information from people. Observations would include noting marks on the road, final positions of vehicles, and damage to vehicles. ‘This investigator would be responsible for ‘measurements and photographs to record these observations, Information from people would involve inquiries of those involved and other informants as to what they had seen or what they know of the circumstances of the collision,1.0n Learning OF The Traffic Crash ‘Ask ist. Exactly when and where did the crash happen? (Thats, are there likely still crashed vehicles on the roadway), How bad isthe crash and what vehicles were involved? il the scene have been Decide-whether to-go_to the scene. Will the scene hav cleared by the time of artval? Is itn the investigators area? Should supervisors be informed or consulted? ‘Then find out if necessary: Is traffic blocked? Has EMS, wrecker, or fire apparatus been called? Arrange forany needed help. Start forthe scene. With communications the two previous things ‘an be done while on the way. Depending on the crash severity, isan emergency response necessary, or allowed by your agency policy? Arrive alive! You can't help fyou dont make itto the scene. 2.On Arrival AtThe: ‘Chaose best anproach. Consider ime, possible atic lan route of ariversinvlved, and probable situation atthesre Bc alert for wohicles leaving the scene a possibly canying Gr itand run divers. Use forward looking comers ons to record registration numbers of any kely ooking veh ans Look or conditions contonting a criver approaching visibly, view obstructions. and ‘athe ‘onto Se responding units of any scene hazards. hazardous oe, th involved, advise of placard number f possible i ae Note hazards to approaching traffc. Place fusees, ee = Traffic Crash Scene — ‘stablsh preliminary trafic contrl through vehicle placement. Park Vehicle to provide maximum protection for you and crash victims as you check for injuries and handle emergencies. Closer Is not always better; fre, hazardous materials or obscured views are possible, Is It safe? Wil i block traffic? Can emergency vehicles illuminate the for drivers, possible witnesses and volunteer helpers. ‘ook fr fre and electrical hazatds. Get ther under control. Have spilled hazardous materials guarded. Look for hazards. Put out flares only after checking for fuel spils. Ask helper to direct traffic. Keep bystanders out of roadway, Look forphysicalevidence. Have it quarded until it can be examined, collected, or located by measurements, Phot tograph and collect short lived evidence immediately after handling emergencies, was driving each vehicle and. wt unpremeditated statements confusion, intoxication Gather evidence clues for hit and run cases. ‘especially bystanders who may be anxious witness identity the drivers of each vehicle and ‘scene when the crash occurred ifimportant, et ‘at once from any person who may be difficult to q ‘Who hat_were travel plans? Note Look for signs of nervousness, to leave. Have each their location atthe: signed statements. find later. ition. Look for si impairment; question about drinking by state, but ask for a voluntary cher rivers of serious injury or fatal cols for possible fatigue. signs of alcohol and/or drug oF other drug use. Laws vary ical test from ALL surviving ions. Question about trip plan ‘action. ifs, take enforcement action, from scene if felony prosecution is ‘is sufficient for enforcement Consult prosecuting attorney likely. Delayed enforcement ‘Tell dcivers what reports they must make and dismiss them, Provide ‘crash or report number to involved parties, Have involved parties exchange names and insurance data ‘Determine exact location of collision. and record it ‘Notify relatives of dead or injured and owner of vehicle. Jnform other agencies of conditions needing attention. enti all notes with place and tte. 3. When The Emergency is Under Control 4. When Urgent Data Collection Is Complete ————_L 5: When Work AtThe Crash Scene Is Finished for congestion. Direct Waffc or have W Gree additional resources for assistance, ie, addtional fat Units, publie works, DOT, ete ate fo injured. Ensure medical personnel are respond arterial Bleeding and treat for shock. Advise espana Boo personnel of injury severity. Ask for emergency assistance fom bystanders or other Locate civers Consider possibilty of hit and run and need to alen other responders or aed agencies. 'd. Summon enforcement a Arrange to question and get names and addresses. Note registration plates on vehicles as iesdy witnesses. i Delay removal of vehicles, except to id injured, until positions are marked. data from them: verify adi ‘account of what driver saw af to written statement. Expl questions ‘Observe vehicle condition. and tres. Photogranh tire marks and location of vehicles. ‘Measure to locate marks on road and vehicle final positions. Recaid place to which injured persons and damaged vehicles were or are to be taken, ‘Check license and registration; reco idress and identity. Get step-by-step ind did. Compare initial verbal sttement lore any discrepancies with additional Note lights ight switches, gear poston, Have toad cleared if trafic is obstructed. Ensure vehicle debris s Cleared and no hazards remain before opening scene to traffc 5: View obstructions, vehicle damage. Pavement condition, control devices, general views. ts from witnesses remaining at scene if location will be difficult to revisit ori short ved evidence might dissipate. OF arrange to have it done. ‘Make test skids if needed and not possible later. es especially if vehicles wil ® released out of law enforcement control ‘Complete factual data on report if not completed at scene Complete report. Submit for approval and file. Present case summary t0 prosecutor. Exhibit 4. Highlights for the five stages for planning an at-scene investigation are summarized in this table. aCh 1 ~ Preparation for Traffic Crash Investigation a 10, Tire and Wheel Examination Record (SN 8010), 2013, Northwestern University Center for Public Safety, Evanston IL. 11. Vehicle Crash Damage Record, (SN 8085), 2013, Northwestern University Center for Public Safety, Evanston IL, 12, State of Illinois, “Traffic Crash Form,” wwwdot il. gov/trafficsafety/SR1050.pdf Exhibits ‘The following are sources of tables, drawings, charts, and photographs used in this chapter: Baker, J. Stannard, Amherst, MA Table: 4 Barrette, Roger W., Woodstock, IL Table: 4 Fell, James C, US. Department of ‘Transportation, Washington DC Chart: 3 Hyde, Adam, Antioch, Illinois Table: 4 Lake County Major Crash Assistance Team, Lake County, Illinois Chart: 2 Lucke, Roy E., Evanston, IL Table: 4 State of Illinois, Springfield, IL Chart: 1