1

INTRODUCTORY QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR THE

SOCIAL SCIENCES

Copyright © 2014 by John R. Ablett1

CHAPTER 1

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS AND

CONCEPTS

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this initial chapter is to revise and introduce a range of basic
mathematical definitions, concepts and terminology that will be encountered regularly
throughout this text. Often much of this material is labelled basic algebra. For many
students, numerous concepts covered should be familiar from their experience of
secondary school mathematics. However some concepts, such as inverse functions and
summation notation, may not be so familiar.

The material presented in this chapter should not be difficult for someone who has
studied mathematics till the end of high school. Because of this, there may be a
tendency not to put sufficient effort into completely mastering the material. This
tendency should be avoided, as all too often difficulties in understanding more advanced
material result from an insufficient grasp of preliminary concepts and techniques, rather
than the degree of difficulty of the advanced material itself.

1.1 Sets and Set Notation

A set is just a collection of elements. Simple examples include the students in a
particular university, the houses in a particular street, etc. These are examples of sets
consisting of a finite number of elements. However, sets may also consist of an infinite
number of elements, such as the set of whole numbers (integers) from 1 to infinity. It is
important to be familiar with the basic notation and definitions relating to sets, as these
are required in the study of probability and many other areas.

1
The author is an employee at Western Sydney University (email address:
J.Ablett@westernsydney.edu.au). Other than for any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all
other rights are reserved and permission should be sought through the author prior to any reproduction of
this work.
 2

Definitions (Sets)
The set of all elements of interest in a particular problem or context is called the
universal set, which can be denoted by, say, S. Other basic definitions relating to sets
are as follows:

(i) A null set, denoted  , contains no elements.

(ii) If an element denoted ‘x’ is a member of a set A, this is commonly denoted
x  A : if ‘x’ is not a member of set A, this can be denoted x  A .
(iii) The intersection of sets A and B, denoted A  B , is the set of elements in
both A and B.
(iv) The union of sets A and B, denoted A  B , is the set of elements in A and/or
B.
(v) Set A is said to be a subset of set B, denoted A  B , if all elements in A are
also in B: if A is not a subset of B, this can be denoted A  B .
(vi) The complement of set A, denoted A , is the set of points in S but not in A.
(vii) If A  B   , we say A and B are mutually exclusive or disjoint sets; they
have no element in common.

An implication of definition (v) above is that   A for any set A: the nil elements in
 are also in any set A. This also permits us to say that the intersection of mutually
exclusive subsets of a universal set S, i.e.  , is also in S.

Example 1.1.1
Consider the set S of the first 10 letters in the English alphabet. This set can be
described in the following way

S  a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j

Now consider the sets X, Y and Z defined as

X  a, e, i
Y  b, c, d, f, g, h, j
Z  a, d, e, g, h, j

Clearly the sets X, Y and Z are also subsets of S. Therefore we can write

X  S, Y  S, Z  S

It is also easy to verify the following:

eX
Z  X  a , e
XY 
XZ
X  Y  a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j  S
X  Z  a, c, d, e, g, h, i, j
 3

Y  a, e, i  X
Z  b, c, f, i

Venn diagrams are often a convenient symbolic way of portraying sets and the
relationship between them. An example is the following diagram.

Fig. 1.1

AB

A B

In Fig. 1.1, the universal set S includes all elements inside the rectangle. Set A includes
all points inside the circle marked A (analogously for B). The set of elements common
to both A and B, A  B , is given by points in the hatched area. In the Fig. 1.2 below,
the hatched area represents the set of elements in A and/or B, i.e. A  B .

Fig. 1.2

AB

A B

The sets A and B are disjoint (or mutually exclusive) in the Venn diagram shown
below.

Fig. 1.3

A B

S
 4

Example 1.1.2
An appropriate Venn diagram depicting the sets defined in Example 1.1.1 is shown
below.

Z Y

a d g b

e h j c
X
i f

1.2 Basic Categories of Numbers

When you first learnt to count as a child, you would have used ‘counting numbers’ or,
using the more erudite term, natural numbers, which can be described as the set of
whole numbers, or integers, from 1 to infinity (denoted symbolically by  ). The set of
all natural numbers is usually denoted N. The set of all integers, denoted Z, is also
considered to include the number zero and negative whole numbers like  1 and  35 .
Thus the set of integers can be represented by

...,2,1, 0,1, 2,....

Integers allow us to consider operations such as 4 minus 10 equals  6 , which would

not be possible if we confined ourselves to natural numbers.

A rational number is formed as the ratio (or quotient) of an integer over a non-zero
integer. Rational numbers allow us to talk in terms of fractions or proportions. Thus
the fraction 1 2 (or 0.5 when expressed as a decimal) is the ratio of the integer 1 (the
numerator) to the integer 2 (the denominator). Integers themselves are rational
numbers since they can be written as the ratio of themselves to a denominator of 1. The
set of all rational numbers is commonly labelled Q.

Some numbers, the irrational numbers, cannot be written precisely as ratios of integers;
rather, they can be represented as infinite decimals, i.e. numbers with an infinite number
of non-zero digits to the right of the decimal point.2 Common examples of irrational
numbers are: 2  1.4142 , the positive square root of 2; the number   3.1416 (  is
the Greek letter ‘pi’), the area of a circle with a radius of 1; and the base of natural
logarithms e  2.7183 , which is formally defined in Section 1.12.3 Note that the
notation ‘  ’ means ‘approximately equals’.

2
Of course many rational numbers can also be represented as infinite decimals, for example 1/3=0.333....
3
Readers should recall that the square root of a number ‘x’ is a number that can be multiplied by itself,
i.e. ‘squared’, to give the number ‘x’. Roots of a number will be considered in Section 1.7.
 5

Normally we will be concerned with real numbers, which include both the rational and
irrational numbers. Any real number can be thought of as a point on the real number
line that is depicted below.

Fig. 1.4

The Real Number Line

-2 -1 0 1 2 3

In this text, unless otherwise indicated, the term ‘numbers’ will refer to real numbers.
The notation R is used to denote the set of all real numbers. It is assumed that readers
are familiar with the definitions of the basic arithmetic operations of addition (+),
subtraction (  ), multiplication (  ) and division (  ) that can be performed on real
numbers. Readers may also recall the following simple points about arithmetic
operations in the context of real numbers:

(i) Division by zero is not defined.

(ii) Dividing a number ‘x’ by the non-zero number ‘y’ can also be described as
taking the ratio of ‘x’ to ‘y’. Hence we have

x
xy (or x y )
y
3
For example: 3  2   1 .5
2

(iii) The reciprocal of a non-zero number ‘x’ is given by 1 divided by the number,
i.e. 1 x or x1 .

For example, the reciprocal of the number 4 is

1
 0.25
4

1.3 Properties of Real Numbers

In addition to the definitions of simple arithmetic operations, real numbers possess a
number of important basic properties that are detailed in this section. These basic
properties are consistent with arithmetic manipulations and comparisons of physical
quantities. From the minimum list of basic properties, all other properties of real
numbers can be derived.

(a) Properties Related to Arithmetic Operations

In this sub-section the basic properties of real numbers with respect to arithmetic
operations are given. Subsequently basic properties related to inequality expressions are
considered.
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Property 1 of Real Numbers (the Commutative Law of Addition)

For any real numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’

xy yx (e.g. 1  2  2  1  3 )

Property 1 simply says that the order in which the addition or sum of two numbers is
performed is irrelevant.

Property 2 of Real Numbers (the Associative Law of Addition)

For any real numbers ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’

(x  y)  z  x  ( y  z)

Round brackets are used to clarify operations, in particular the order of operations.
Thus the left-hand side of the above equation simply represents the addition of ‘z’ to the
sum of ‘x’ and ‘y’, whilst the right-hand side of the equation represents the addition of
the sum of ‘y’ and ‘z’ to ‘x’. In more complex expressions, we will sometimes also
have recourse to square brackets and parentheses to delineate particular operations.

Property 2 allows us to break down the calculation of the sum of any finite number of
real numbers into a sequence of sums of two numbers. Thus for any five real numbers
‘v’, ‘w’, ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’, we can write, for example

v  w  x  y  z  (v  w)  (x  y)  z  (v  w)  ((x  y)  z)

Property 3 of Real Numbers (Zero is an Additive Identity)

For any real number ‘y’

y0 y (e.g. 1  0  1 )

Property 4 of Real Numbers (Existence of an Additive Inverse)

For any real number ‘y’, there exists a number denoted  y (the negative of ‘y’) such
that

y  ( y)  0 (e.g. 2  (2)  0 )

Property 5 of Real Numbers (the Commutative Law of Multiplication)

For any real numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’

x y  y x (e.g. 3  2  2  3  6 )

Regularly the multiplication sign ‘  ’ is dropped, with multiplication simply being

indicated by juxtaposition. Thus the product of ‘x’ and ‘y’ (‘x’ multiplied by, or times,
‘y’) can be denoted ( x  y) or simply ‘xy’. In subsequent chapters, juxtaposition will
generally be used to indicate multiplication.
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Property 6 of Real Numbers (the Associative Law of Multiplication)

For any real numbers ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’

(x  y)  z  x  ( y  z)

The associative law for multiplication essentially means that when we multiply more
than two numbers together, the order in which the individual operations are performed
is irrelevant.

Property 7 of Real Numbers (1 is a Multiplicative Identity)

For any real number ‘y’

y 1  y

Property 8 of Real Numbers (Existence of a Multiplicative Inverse)

For any non-zero real number ‘y’

1
y  y  y 1  1 for y  0
y

(The symbol/sign ‘  ’ means ‘does not equal’)

In words, the multiplication of a non-zero number by its reciprocal gives the number 1.

Given Property 8 and previously stated properties, it follows that

(i) For any numbers ‘y’ and ‘z’, and a non-zero number ‘x’, if x  y  x  z , then
yz.

This is easily verified since we have (for x  0 )

xy  xz
(x 1  x)  y  (x 1  x)  z
1 y  1 z
yz

Clearly if x  0 , xy  xz need not imply y  z : for example,

0 2  03  0

(ii) For any numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’, if x  y  0 , then x  0 and/or y  0 .

Again this is easy to demonstrate. Since 0  0  0 , it is obviously true for

x  y  0 . If x  y  0 and x  0 , then
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xy  0
(x 1  x)  y  x 1  0
1 y  0
y0
(Similarly for x  y  0 and y  0 )

Property 9 of Real Numbers (The Distributive Law)

For any real numbers ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’

x  ( y  z)  (x  y)  (x  z)

For example

3  (2  1)  (3  2)  (3 1)  6  3  9

By Property 5 it also follows that

( y  z)  x  (x  y)  (x  z)  ( y  x)  (z  x)

(b) Properties Related to Inequalities

Strict and non-strict inequality notation allows us to describe precisely the relative
positions of two numbers on the real number line as well as intervals on the real number
line. Before stating some basic properties of real numbers related to inequalities,
familiarity with a number of definitions is required.

Definitions (Inequalities)
Suppose ‘x’ and ‘y’ are real numbers. Then we have the following definitions:

(i) If ‘x’ is to the left of ‘y’ on the real number line, denoted x  y or y  x , ‘x’ is
said to be (strictly) less than ‘y’, and ‘y’ is said to be (strictly) greater than ‘x’.
(ii) A positive number ‘x’ is such that ‘x’ is strictly greater than 0, i.e. x  0 ,
whilst a negative number ‘y’ is such that y  0 .
(iii) y  x  0 is an equivalent statement to x  y .
(iv) If ‘x’ is to the right of ‘y’ on the real number line, ‘x’ is said to be (strictly)
greater than ‘y’, denoted x  y or, equivalently, y  x  0 .
(v) x  y means ‘x’ is less than or equal to ‘y’ (a non-strict inequality).
(vi) x  y means ‘x’ is greater than or equal to ‘y’ (a non-strict inequality).
(vii) x  y and y  x are equivalent statements.
(viii) A non-negative number ‘x’ is such that x  0 , whilst a non-positive number ‘y’
is such that y  0 .

Placing a minus sign ‘  ’ in front of a real number, which can be thought of as

multiplying the number by (1) , is called taking the negative of the number. From
definition (iii) above, y  x is equivalent to y  x  0 . Therefore if 0  x , it must be
 9

the case that 0  x   x  0 . Similarly from definition (iv) above, x  y is equivalent

to y  x  0 . Therefore if x  0 , it must be the case that 0  x   x  0 . It can be
concluded that taking the negative of a number changes a positive number to a negative
number, and a negative number to a positive number. In both cases the resulting
number is the same distance from 0, but on the opposite side of 0, compared to the
original number. For example the negative of 4 is  4 , which is 4 units to the left of 0
on the real number line, and the negative of  4 (i.e.  (4) ) is 4. The negative of 0 is
of course 0 itself.

The subtraction of a number ‘y’ from a number ‘x’ can be thought of as the addition of
( y) , the negative of ‘y’, to ‘x’, that is

x  y  x  (y)

For example

2  (3)  2  (3)  1

An implication of the above observation is that the subtraction of the negative of a

number ‘y’ from a number ‘x’ is equivalent to simply adding ‘y’ to ‘x’, that is

x  (y)  x  y

Furthermore, the above observation leads us to conclude that subtracting a negative

number results in the addition of a positive number. For example:

2  (3)  2  3  5

We can now state the final basic properties of real numbers, which concern inequalities.

Property 10 of Real Numbers (Trichotomy Law)

For any real number ‘x’, one (only) of the following three statements must be true

 x  0 (‘x’ is positive)
 x0
 x0 (‘x’ is negative)

Property 11 of Real Numbers

If real numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’ are both positive, then x  y is also positive.

Property 12 of Real Numbers

If real numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’ are both positive, then x  y is also positive.
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Additional Implied Properties Related to Inequalities

With respect to inequalities, the basic properties of real numbers together with
associated definitions imply a number of further properties. These include:

(i) Suppose real numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’ such that x  y , and any real number ‘z’. Then

xz yz

This must be so since x  y implies

y  x  ( y  z)  (x  z)  0
yzxz
xz yz

(ii) For any real numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’, one (only) of the following three statements
must be true.

 xy
 xy
 xy

This is implied by Property 10 since, considering the real number (x  y) , one of the
following statements must be true

 x  y  0 , i.e. x  y
 x  y  0 , i.e. x  y
 x  y  0 , i.e. x  y

(iii) If real numbers ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’ are such that x  y and y  z , then it must be the
case that x  z , i.e. x  y  z .

To demonstrate this, we can firstly write

y  x  0 and z  y  0

Then by Property 11:

(y  x)  (z  y)  0
zx 0
xz

(iv) If real numbers ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’ are such that x  y and z  0 , then xz  yz .

Again this is easy to demonstrate since

xy0 , z0
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(x  y)  (z)   xz  y(z)   xz  yz  0
yz  xz
xz  yz

Therefore multiplying an inequality through by a negative number changes the direction

of the inequality.

(v) If ‘x’ and ‘y’ are both negative real numbers, then x  y  0 .

To demonstrate this, we again refer to Property 12.

x  0 implies 0  x   x  0
y  0 implies 0  y   y  0

Then

(x)  ( y)  (1)  (x)  (1)  ( y)  (1)  (1)  x  y  x  y  0

( (1)  (1) means taking the negative of  1 , yielding 1)

For instance, (3)  (2)  6  0 .

(vi) If real numbers ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’ are such that x  y and z  0 , then xz  yz .

This is so since we have x  y  0 , and by properties 12 and 9

(x  y)  z  xz  yz  0
xz  yz

Thus multiplying through an inequality by a positive number does not change the
direction of the inequality.

(vii) If ‘x’ is negative real number and ‘y’ is a positive real number, then x  y  0 .

This is readily demonstrated by appeal to Property 12. We have

x  0 implies 0  x   x  0

Therefore

xy  0
xy  0

For example, (3)  2   6  0

This is just a generalization of the observation earlier in this subsection that multiplying
a real number by  1 (i.e. taking the negative of the number) changes the sign of the
number.
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1.4 Describing Intervals on the Real Number Line

Regularly we are concerned with a set consisting of all the points corresponding to
numbers in some interval on the real number line, for example the set of real numbers
between 0 and 1. In such cases it is important to clearly indicate whether the end point
or end points of the interval are included in the set.

Suppose we consider the set of real numbers between ‘a’ and ‘b’, but not including ‘a’
and ‘b’, where a  b . Such a set is called an open interval as it does not contain its end
points. A short but precise way of describing this set or interval is given by

 x : a  x  b (1)

The notation in parentheses in (1) is translated as the set of points (numbers) ‘x’ such
that ‘x’ is between ‘a’ and ‘b’. A graphical representation of this set is given below.

Fig. 1.5

a b

In the above diagram, empty circles centred at the points ‘a’ and ‘b’ indicate that the
numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’ are not included in the set.

The interval from ‘a’ to ‘b’ including both these points is called the closed interval from
‘a’ to ‘b’. The convenient notation for this interval and its graphical representation are
as follows.

 x : a  x  b (2)

Fig. 1.6

a b

(The circle at an end point is filled if it is included in the set)

Other possible types of intervals are given by

 x : a  x  b (3)
 x : a  x  b (4)
 x : x  a (5)
 x : x  a (6)
 x : x  a (7)
 x : x  a (8)
 13

The sets given by (3) and (4) above are sometimes called, for obvious reasons, half-
closed or half-open intervals. The sets given by (5) to (8) are called infinite intervals as
they extend indefinitely to one side of ‘a’. Sometimes the set of real numbers itself is
denoted by the infinite interval written as (, ) .

Example 1.4.1
Graph the following sets/intervals:

 x : 0  x  1
 x : 0  x  1
 x : x  1
 x : x  1
 x : 0  x  1 :

0 1

 x : 0  x  1 :

0 1

 x : x  1:

0 1

 x : x  1:

0 1

1.5 Absolute Value

Sometimes simply the ‘size’ of a real number or, in other words, its distance from 0, is
of concern, regardless of whether the number is negative or positive. This distance is
called its absolute value or modulus. We have the following formal definition.

Definition (Absolute Value or Modulus)

The absolute value of a number ‘x’ is given by

 x if x  0
x 
 x if x  0
 14

Hence a positive number is its own absolute value whilst the absolute value of a
negative number is simply the number without its minus sign. As in the above
definition, absolute value is normally represented by two vertical bars, one on either
side of the number. As examples, we have

2 2
3  3

1.6 Further Points about Arithmetic Operations

There are a number of additional useful points that can be made with respect to
arithmetic operations on real numbers. These are listed and discussed below.

(i) Given the definition of the reciprocal of a number, division of the number ‘x’ by
the number ‘y’ is equivalent to multiplying ‘x’ by the reciprocal of ‘y’, and vice
versa.

This means the results in Section 1.4 concerning the sign of a product can also be
applied directly to division. In particular, dividing a positive number by a negative
number, and vice versa, results in a negative number, and dividing a negative number
by a negative number yields a positive number. For example

2 1
 2   0.4
5 5
2  1
 2      0.4
5  5

(ii) Dividing a number ‘x’ by the ratio of two numbers is equivalent to multiplying ‘x’
by the reciprocal of the ratio. Thus, given two non-zero numbers ‘y’ and ‘z’, we
can write

x z xz
 x  for y  0 , z  0
y z y y

Some specific examples are given by

5 4 20
 5 
34 3 3
3 8 24
 3   8
3 8 3 3
2 ( 7 ) 2 6 12
  
( 5) 6  7  5 35
 15

(iii) A fraction or ratio of two numbers can sometimes be simplified by dividing the
numerator (‘top’) and denominator (‘bottom’) by a common factor. This
operation, often described as cancelling the common factor, of course makes no
difference to the number the ratio represents. In general we have for any number
‘y’ and non-zero numbers ‘x’ and ‘z’

xy y
 for x  0 , z  0
xz z

(The common factor ‘x’ has been cancelled)

Hence, for example

20 2 (10) 2
 
30 3 (10) 3

(iv) When adding or subtracting fractions it often useful to apply the following simple
procedures, which essentially amount to combining the two operations of, firstly,
expressing the fractions as ratios with the same (common) denominator and,
secondly, performing the required arithmetic operation on the numerators.

Suppose any numbers ‘w’ and ‘y’, and non-zero numbers ‘x’ and ‘z’. Then

w y zw  xy
  for x  0 , z  0
x z xz

w y zw  xy
  for x  0 , z  0
x z xz

Applying these rules to some specific examples:

2 4 3 (2)  5 (4) 6  20 26
   
5 3 5 (3) 15 15
10 5 3 (10)  11(5) 30  55 25
   
11 3 11(3) 33 33

Since any number can be thought of as the ratio of itself to 1, these procedures are also
applicable to cases where a fraction is added to or subtracted from a non-fractional
number. For example:

43 5 43 55 (5)  1 (43) 232

5    
55 1 55 1 (55) 55

97 97 2 1 (97 )  100 (2) 97  200 103

2    
100 100 1 100 100 100
 16

It is expected that some readers can perform such calculations mentally.4

Drill Exercises 1.6

Calculate the following, expressing your answers as fractions.

1 45
(i) 
2 92
 3
(ii) 2 
 20 
35
(iii) 4  
46
 10 4
(iv)  10 ( 2)
56 ( 3)

1.7 Powers and Roots of Numbers

In mathematics we are often required to raise a number to some power. It is important
to understand what this means.

Definitions (Raising a Number to a Non-Negative Integer Power)

Consider any number ‘b’.

(i) If ‘n’ is a positive integer, the expression b n is defined to represent the number
obtained by multiplying ‘n’ b’s together, or ‘b’ raised to the power ‘n’.

(ii) If n  0 and b  0 , then by definition, b0  1 .

Given definition (i) above, clearly b1  b . The ‘n’ in the expression b n is often called
the exponent, whilst ‘b’ is called the base. Common examples are b 2 and b3 , or ‘b-
squared’ and ‘b-cubed’, respectively. We have, for example

23  2  2  2  8

4
1  1  1  1  1  1
        
2  2  2  2  2  16

Definition (Roots of a Number)

If ‘n’ is a positive integer, and the number ‘b’ is such that b n  y , we say ‘b’ is an ‘n’th
root of ‘y’.

4
The advent of pocket calculators in the 1970’s can be considered one major reason why mental
arithmetic is no longer considered as important a life skill as it once was. This is somewhat unfortunate,
as the clarity of thought processes developed in the practice of mental arithmetic can conceivably be
applied to other problem solving situations.
 17

The second and third roots of a number ‘y’ (if they exist, cf. below) are commonly
referred to as the square and cube roots of ‘y’, respectively.

It should be clear that an ‘n’th root of ‘y’ will not be defined if ‘y’ is a negative number
and ‘n’ is an even integer, since raising any number to an even power ‘n’ must result in
a positive number: this follows from the properties of real numbers. Thus the square
root of  2 is not defined. Furthermore, the ‘n’th root of ‘y’ will not be unique if ‘y’ is
positive and ‘n’ is an even integer, since raising any number to an even power gives the
same result as raising the negative of the number to the same even power. For example
the square roots of 4 are 2 (positive square root) and  2 (negative square root).

The following basic result will be proved in a later chapter.5

Theorem 1.1 (Existence of a Unique Root for a Non-Negative Number)

If ‘y’ is non-negative (i.e. y  0 ) and ‘n’ is a positive integer, then there will exist a
unique number b  0 such that b n  y .

Stated more succinctly, Theorem 1.1 says that all non-negative real numbers possess a
unique non-negative ‘n’th root.

When there are positive and negative ‘n’th roots, the positive ‘n’th root is referred to as
the principal ‘n’th root. When ‘y’ is negative and ‘n’ is an odd number, the sole root of
‘y’, which in this case must be a negative number, is also called the principal ‘n’th root
of ‘y’. When referring to the principal ‘n’th root of a number ‘y’, the notation n y is
regularly used, although y1 n is an alternative. In circumstances where ‘y’ has both
positive and negative ‘n’th roots, the negative root can be denoted  n y or  y1 n :
shorthand ways of denoting both roots are  n y or  y1 n (  means ‘plus or minus’).
The principal square root of ‘y’ is normally denoted simply by y . Examples of the
use of this notation include:

4  41 2  2

4
256  4

3
 27  3 (since (3)(3)(3)  27 )

So far b n has only been defined where ‘n’ is a non-negative integer. The next
definition extends the definition of b n to include any rational exponent.

5
A theorem is a proposition or result that can be deduced logically from one or more assumptions or
givens.
 18

Definitions (Rational Exponents)

If b  0 and q  m n is any positive rational number with ‘m’ and ‘n’ both positive
integers, then by definition

(i) bq  bm n  (bm )1 n  (b1 n )m

(The ‘n’th root of b m , or the ‘n’th root of ‘b’ raised to the power ‘m’)

1 1
(ii) b q  q
 mn (  q  0 , the case of a negative exponent)
b b

Given the above definitions, we have for example:

43 2  (43 )1 2  641 2  8
8 2 3  (8 2 )1 3  641 3  4
1 1
10 3  3 
10 1,000
1 1 1
8 2 3  2 3  2 1 3 
8 (8 ) 4

There are a number of results that are useful when manipulating expressions involving
powers and roots. These are collected together in Theorem 1.2 below.

Theorem 1.2 (Results Relating to Rational Exponents)

If ‘q’ and ‘r’ are rational numbers, and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are positive real numbers, then

(i) a q a r  a q r
aq
(ii) r
 a q r
a
(iii) (a q )r  a q r
(iv) (ab)q  a q bq
aq
(v) (a b ) q 
bq

The results in Theorem 1.2 are also applicable for negative ‘a’ and/or ‘b’ provided they
do not involve trying to take an even numbered root of a negative number, as mentioned
above.
 19

Example 1.7.1
Evaluate or simplify the following, making use of the definitions and results concerning
exponents wherever possible.

(i) (a 1 4 ) 3 where a  0

(a 1 4 ) 3  a 3 4

(ii) (2)1 3 (2)5 3

21 325 3  2(1 3)(5 3)  22  4

54
(iii)
52

54
2
 5 4 2  5 2  25
5

(iv) (32 ) 2 3

(32) 2 3  (8  4) 2 3  82 342 3  4(161 3 )  4(81 321 3 )  4(2)21 3  8 3 2

23 2
(v)
43 4

32
23 2 23 2 2
   1
2
34 12 32
4 (4 )

3
 x 2 3y4 3 
(vi)  43
 where x  0
 x 

3
 x 2 3y4 3  (x 2 3 y 4 3 )3 (x 2 3 )3 ( y 4 3 )3 x 2 y 4 y 4
 43

    4  2
 x  (x 4 3 )3 (x 4 3 )3 x x

Irrational Exponents
At this point, we are not in a position to define what is meant by b x , where ‘b’ is a
positive number and ‘x’ is any real number, that is, including irrational numbers. Such
a definition does indeed exist, but requires knowledge of integral calculus. It is
perfectly consistent with our definitions and results for expressions involving rational
exponents. Moreover, the results of Theorem 1.2 also hold for ‘q’ and ‘r’ taking any
real values. Readers are simply asked to accept that b x with ‘x’ an irrational number
does have a meaning, and its value can be calculated using any scientific calculator.
However, we will not encounter irrational exponents in this text.
 20

Calculator Tip: Calculations involving exponents are readily performed with a scientific
calculator.
 In general to calculate x n , input the number ‘x’, press the x y (or y x ) function
key, input the number ‘n’, then press the ‘=’ key.
 Most scientific calculators also have specific function keys for calculating x ,
x 2 and x 1 (i.e. 1 x ). Depending on the calculator, one simply inputs the
number ‘x’ then presses the appropriate function key, or presses the appropriate
function key then inputs the number ‘x’.
 The bracket keys ‘(’ and ‘)’ can facilitate calculations involving fractional
exponents.
 For example, to calculate 34 3 the following sequence of keystrokes can be
used:
i. Input the number 3
ii. Press the x y (or y x ) function key
iii. Use the sequence of keystrokes
( 4  3  ) 
(the answer obtained should be 0.231120…)

Drill Exercises 1.7

(a) Simplify the following expressions:

(i) 36 1 2
(ii) 85 381 3
(iii) (3 64 ) 4
3
 x2 3 
(iv)  2 3 
x 
( x1 2 y1 2 ) 3
(v)
x3 4

(b) Use a calculator to evaluate the following, rounding answers to 6 decimal places
as needed:

(i) 210
(ii) 5
2 3
(iii) 6
(iv) 5 2.56
(v) 0.5 0.6
 21

1.8 Solving Simple Equations

(a) Solving Equations Using Basic Operations

A mathematical equation is simply a statement indicating that one mathematical

expression (left hand side of the equation) equals another mathematical expression
(right hand side of the equation): the notation ‘  ’ can be used to indicate that two
expressions are not equal. An expression in this case can include numbers or any
number of unknown elements (unknowns) or variables.6 In effect, an equation
represents a restriction on the value(s) the variable(s) in the equation can take. If an
equation involves only one variable, any values of this variable that satisfy the equation
are called solutions, or roots, of the equation, and are said to form the solution set.
Where there are two variables in the equation, a solution will take the form of a pair of
values, one for each variable, which satisfies the equation.7 In some cases there may be
no solution to an equation.

Let us start by considering the solution of a single equation involving a single variable.
The process of finding the solution set (if any) to such an equation usually involves the
equation being transformed using a number of operations until any solution(s) can be
readily seen or determined. These operations must be such that the transformed
equation is equivalent to the initial equation in the sense that it has the same solution
set. The following operations will always result in an equivalent equation.8

(i) Adding or subtracting the same expression to or from both sides of the
equation.
(ii) Dividing or multiplying both sides of the equation by the same non-zero
constant (number).
(iii) Swapping left and right hand sides of the equation.
(iv) Replacing one side of the equation by an equivalent expression.

x 4x
An example of (iv) above would be to replace 2  by .
2 2

The following operations can also be used in some circumstances, however they do not
guarantee a transformed equation that will be equivalent to the initial equation.

(v) Multiplying both sides of the equation by the same expression involving the
variable.
(vi) Dividing both sides of the equation by the same expression involving the
variable.
(vii) Raising both sides of the equation to the same power.

6
A mathematical variable is simply some element that can represent various values or numbers. Of
course, if a variable is to satisfy some equation, it may be that the variable can take on only one or some
other restricted number of values in the equation.
7
More generally, a solution to an equation involving ‘n’ variables will be a set of ‘n’ values, one for each
variable, which satisfies the equation.
8
The operations mentioned here can also be applied to equations involving more than one variable.
Moreover the list is not exhaustive. For example, once we have reviewed the concept of a logarithm, the
operation of taking logarithms of both sides of an equation may also result in an equivalent equation in
certain circumstances.
 22

Unless one is sure that operations (v) to (vii) above yield an equivalent equation, it is
important to check whether the solutions obtained for the transformed equation are in
indeed solutions to the original equation. The only complication is that if operation (vi)
is performed, the set of solutions to the transformed equation may not include all the
solutions to the original equation. Subsequent examples illustrate the use of operations
(i) to (vii).

An equation in which all variables appear only to the power ‘1’ (one) is called a linear
equation. All other equations can be referred to as nonlinear equations. The first
example below illustrates the solution of a linear equation in one variable.

Example 1.8.1
Solve 21  3x  4x

21  3x  4x
21  7 x
7 x  21
21
x 3
7

Example 1.8.2
4 2 x
Solve  
7 3 5

4 2 x
 
7 3 5
4 x 2
 
7 5 3
x 2 4 7 (2)  3 (4)
  
5 3 7 3 (7 )
x 2

5 21
10
x
21

Example 1.8.3
3 x x 2
Solve  1
2 3

For this example, we start by bringing all the left hand side of the equation to the same
common denominator, and then we multiply by this denominator to obtain an equivalent
linear equation.
 23

3 x x 2
 1
2 3
3 (3  x )  2 ( x  2)
1
2 (3)
3 (3)  3x  2 x  2(2)
1
6
5x
1
6
5x  6
56x
6x 5
x  1

Example 1.8.4
Solve x 2  4

In this case it is simply a matter of taking the square root of both sides.

x2  4
x   4  2

There is nothing in this example that restrains us to only consider the positive square
root.

Example 1.8.5
Solve x1 3  2

Raising both sides to the power 3 (i.e. cubing both sides):

x1 3  2
( x1 3 )3  (2)3
x  8

Example 1.8.6
2
Solve  10
x2

2
 10
x2
2  10 ( x  2)
2  10x  20
22  10x
10x  22
x  2.2
 24

We easily verify that this solution is indeed a solution of the original equation.

Example 1.8.7
2x  4
Find a solution, if any, to the equation  x 2
x 2

2x  4
 x 2
x 2
2x  4  ( x  2 ) ( x  2 )
2x  4  x ( x  2 )  2 ( x  2 )
2x  4  x  x 2  2 x  2
2x  4  x  2
x  4  2
x2

It can be seen that the original equation is not defined for x  2 , since this would imply
dividing by 0 on the left hand side of the equation. Therefore there is no solution to the
initial equation.

(b) Cross-Multiplication

Cross-multiplication is sometimes a convenient operation to perform on equations of

the form

w y
 (x  0, z  0) (9)
x z

In (9), ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘w’ and ‘z’ may be constants or variables.

Application of cross-multiplication to equation (9) yields

wz  xy

Clearly, cross-multiplication just combines the two operations represented by

multiplying the equation through successively by the denominators on each side of the
equation. For example, consider solving the following equation for ‘x’:

2 5

3 x

Cross-multiplying:

2x  3 (5)
 25

Then, dividing by 2

15
x  7 .5
2

(c) Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation can be written in the following form:

ax 2  bx  c  0 (10)

In (10), ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are known constants, whilst ‘x’ is a variable. There are
essentially two ways of solving a quadratic equation written as in (10). The first way
involves writing the left hand side as the product of two components or factors, each
involving the variable ‘x’; this process is called factorization. If this can be achieved,
then the solution(s) to the quadratic equation will be given by the value(s) of ‘x’ for
which either or both of the factors are equal to zero, since if any element of a product
equals zero the product will equal zero. The next example illustrates the factoring
method of solution.

Example 1.8.8
Solve the equation x 2  2x  3  0 .

It is readily verified that x 2  2x  3  (x  3)(x  1) . Therefore the quadratic equation

can be re-written as

(x  3)( x  1)  0

This equation is satisfied if

( x  3)  0
x 3

and/or

( x  1)  0
x  1

The solutions are thus x  3 , x  1 .

The factorization of ( ax 2  bx  c ) can sometimes be facilitated by the use of a ‘cross’

diagram that may be familiar to some readers from high school. Consider the following
diagram, in which ‘A’ and ‘B’ involve ‘x’, and ‘C’ and ‘D’ are numbers.
 26

Fig. 1.7

A C

B D

The aim is to find ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’ such that

AB  ax 2 (11)
CD  c (12)
AD  BC  bx (13)

Provided ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’ satisfy (11) to (13), we will have that

ax 2  bx  c  (A  C)(B  D)

Normally when using such a cross diagram, one first finds a combination of ‘A’ and ‘B’
that satisfies (11), then an attempt is made to find ‘C’ and ‘D’ that satisfy (12) and (13).

Example 1.8.9
Draw the appropriate cross diagram for factorizing x 2  2x  3 .

We have
x 3

x 1

That is, x 2  2x  3  (x  3)(x  1) , as in Example 1.8.8. Note that for this example, the
following cross diagram is not suitable, since it does not satisfy requirement (13) (i.e.
 x  3x  2x  2x )

x 3

x 1

Example 1.8.10
Draw a suitable cross diagram for factoring 6 x 2  5x  4 . Subsequently solve the
equation 6x 2  5x  4  0 .
 27

We have

3x 4

2x 1

Thus 6x 2  5x  4  0 can be written as (3x  4)(2x  1)  0 . Solving:

3x  4  0
3x  4
4
x
3

and/or

2x  1  0
2x  1
1
x
2

Factorization of ax 2  bx  c is not always readily performed. In such cases we can use

the formula for the roots (solutions) of a quadratic equation, as stated in the following
theorem.

Theorem 1.3 (Roots of a Quadratic Equation)

Suppose a quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , where ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are known
constants, whilst ‘x’ is a variable. The root(s) (solution(s)) of this equation, if any, are
given by

 b  b 2  4ac
x (14)
2a

Theorem 1.3 makes it clear that there are three possibilities when attempting to solve a
quadratic equation:
 If b2  4ac  0 , there are two distinct solutions
 If b2  4ac  0 , there is only one solution (or a repeated root)
 If b2  4ac  0 , (14) will involve the square root of a negative number, and
therefore there is no (real) solution

A derivation of equation (14) is given in Section 1.9.

 28

Example 1.8.11
Find the solutions, if any, to the following quadratic equations using formula (14):

(i) x 2  2x  3  0

a  1, b  2, c  3

 b  b 2  4ac  (2)  (2) 2  4(1)(3) 2  16

x  
2a 2(1) 2
24

2
24 24
 or
2 2
 1 or 3

(ii)  2x 2  x  5  0

a  2, b  1, c  5

 b  b 2  4ac  1  (1) 2  4(2)(5)  1  41

x  
2a 2(2) 4
 1  41  1  41
 or
4 4

(iii) x 2  2x 1

Re-writing the equation in the form ax 2  bx  c  0 :

x 2  2x  1  0

a  1, b  2, c  1

 b  b 2  4ac  2  (2) 2  4(1)(1)  2  0

x  
2a 2(1) 2
 1

There is only one root in this example.

(iv) x 2  2x  2  0

a  1, b  2, c  2

As b2  4ac  (2)2  4(1)(2)  4  0 , in this example there is no real solution.

 29

Techniques for solving quadratic equations may also be applied to an equation that is
transformable into a quadratic equation by the appropriate substitution of a variable.
The next example illustrates this.

Example 1.8.12
Solve 2q  q1 2 1  0 .

If we perform the substitution p  q1 2 , the equation becomes

2p 2  p  1  0

Then

2p2  p  1  (2p  1)(p 1)  0

Therefore p  1 , and/or

2p  1  0
1
p
2

To find the solutions in terms of ‘q’, we note that

 p  1 implies q1 2  1 and q  1
 p  1 2 implies q1 2  1 2 and q  1 4

It is easy to verify that the above values for ‘q’ satisfy the initial equation.

Drill Exercises 1.8

Solve the following equations for ‘x’:

(i) 4x  1  2  x
2  0 .5 x x  4
(ii) 
3 2
x
(iii)  1  2x
5
(iv) 10x 2  3x
(v) x2 5
8 5
(vi)  0
x  2 (2  x )
(vii)  x 2  3x  10  0
(viii) 4x 2  6x  3  0
(x) 2x 2 3  14x1 3  16  0
 30

1.9 A Derivation of the Formula for the Roots of a Quadratic

Equation
In this section, a simple derivation of formula (14) (Theorem 1.3) is given. Recall that
in general a quadratic equation can be written

ax 2  bx  c  0

Our aim is to solve this equation for ‘x’. Since a  0 (otherwise we would not have a
quadratic equation), we can divide by ‘a’ to give

b c
x2    x   0
a a
b c
x2    x   (15)
a a

The next step is to ‘complete the square’ on the left hand side of the equation, so as to
obtain a squared expression in which ‘x’ appears only to the power 1. To achieve this,
half the constant (coefficient) multiplying ‘x’ in equation (15), i.e. b (2a ) , is squared
and added to both sides of the equation, yielding

c ab 2  4a 2 c
2 2
b  b   b  c b
2
x2    x         2  
a  2a   2a  a 4a a 4a 3

This simplifies to

b 2  4ac
2
 b 
x   
 2a  4a 2

Taking the square root of both sides of this equation and solving for ‘x’ gives the
required result:

b b 2  4ac  b 2  4ac
x  
2a 4a 2 2a
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 31

1.10 Introduction to Functions

In many contexts we are interested in the relationship between the values that two
variable quantities, or variables, take; the opposite of a variable is a constant, the value
of which does not change. For example, the relationship between quantity sold and total
sales revenue, or the level of production and total production costs. In considering the
relationship between two variables, one of the variables can be labelled the input
variable, say ‘x’, whilst the other variable can be labelled the output variable, say ‘y’.
In this context a particular value of ‘y ‘associated with a particular value of ‘x’ is also
called the image of the particular value of ‘x’ considered.

Sometimes the identification of input and output variables is quite natural, as in the case
of quantity sold and sales revenue, where it is normal to think of the former as the input
variable that gives rise to a value of sales revenue. In other cases the distinction may be
arbitrary, such as in the relationship between the quantity sold of a good and unit price
charged for the good by a firm. Other commonly used names for the input variable are
independent or exogenous variable, whilst the output variable is also called the
dependent or endogenous variable.

In many instances, the values taken by input and output variables come from the set of
real numbers, or particular subsets of the set of real numbers. However in mathematics
and statistics it is useful to think more generally in terms of the relationship between
elements from two sets. We have the following basic definition.

Definition (Function)
A function f from one set A to another set B is a rule that associates to each element ‘x’
in A a unique element ‘y’ in B, called the image of ‘x’. Regularly such a rule is
denoted y  f (x) (expressed verbally as ‘f-of-x’).9

A shorthand way of stating that f is a function from set A to set B is

f: A  B

Hence if a function f associates a real number with real number, we can write f: R  R.
A simple example is the function f that associates to each real input number an output
number that is three times the input number. This function can be represented by

f (x)  3x

Thus when ‘x’ takes the value 2, the output variable takes the value f (2)  3(2)  6 .

A function from any set A to the set of real numbers R is called a real valued function.

9
The almost universal custom is to use the notation f ( x ) to denote both the function (rule) and the
particular element ‘y’ associated with a particular element ‘x’. Which interpretation is intended is
normally obvious from the context.
 32

A key aspect of the definition of a function f: A  B is that each element ‘x’ in A has a
unique image in B. Any rule that associates to at least one element in set A more than
one element in set B is not considered a function from A to B by the above definition.
In such cases we can simply say there is a relation between the elements in A and the
elements in B.

Definition (Domain and Range of a Function)

For a function f from set A to set B:

 The set A is called the domain of f.

 The range of f is the set of elements in B that represent the images of all the
elements in A. The range of f can be denoted f (A) .

Thus the domain of a function f from set A to set B is the set of all elements for which
the function is defined, whilst the range of the function need not include all the elements
in B (although it may).

For some functions the domain may be all real numbers, however the domain may be
restricted either because of purely mathematical reasons or the nature of the variables
involved. Common mathematical reasons why the domain of a function may be
restricted include the need to exclude division by zero, for example for the function
f ( x )  1 x , and to avoid square roots of negative numbers. In the context of applied
problems, the variables involved may, for example, not take on negative values for
physical reasons. For example, quantity produced cannot be negative.

Example 1.10.1
State the domain of the following functions:

(i) f ( x )  5  4x

Domain: All real numbers

3
(ii) f (x)  2 
x

Domain: All real numbers except x  0 , i.e. x : x  0

(iii) f (x)  2  x

Domain: x : x  2

1
(iv) f (x) 
( x  1)( x  3)

Domain: x : x  1, x  3
 33

The simplest forms of functions are polynomial functions.

Definition (Polynomial Function)

A polynomial function takes the following general form:

f (x)  a n x n  a n1x n1  a n2 x n2  .........  a 2 x 2  a1x  a 0 (16)

Where ‘n’ is a non-negative integer, and a n , a n 1 ,……, a 0 are constants that can be any
real numbers.

A shorthand way of referring to a set of numbers such as a n , a n 1 ,...., a 0 (or, reversing

the order, a 0 ,...., a n 1 , a n ), which we will use regularly, is given by

{a i : i  0,1,..., n}

In (16), the constants a i (i  1,..., n) , i.e. excluding a 0 , are commonly called the
coefficients of the terms in ‘x’.

The highest power to which ‘x’ is raised in the polynomial function is called the degree
of the polynomial function, which is ‘n’ in (16) if a n does not equal 0. The domain of a
polynomial function is all real numbers. A constant function, such as f (x)  8 , can
be thought of as a polynomial function of degree 0, since by definition x0  1 . The
value of a constant function does not change, no matter what the value of the input
variable.

A polynomial function of degree 1 is usually referred to as a linear function, for

example f (x)  2x  6 .10 The generic linear function of one variable will sometimes be
written f (x)  a  bx , where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants. As shown in the next section,
the graph of f (x)  a  bx is a straight line in two dimensions.11 A polynomial
function of degree 2, such as f (x)  3x 2  2x  4 , is also referred to as a quadratic
function, which was encountered in Section 1.8(c) on quadratic equations.

Definition (Rational Function)

The ratio of one polynomial function to another polynomial function is called a rational
function.

10
Apart from constant functions, all functions that are not linear functions are generally described as non-
linear functions.
11
Mathematicians sometimes call the function f ( x )  a  bx an affine function, reserving the label linear
function (or linear transformation) for functions of the form f ( x )  bx . This distinction is important in
some advanced areas of linear algebra, but we will follow the more common usage of calling
f ( x )  a  bx a linear function.
 34

An example of a rational function is

x 2  4x  2
f (x)  ( x  1)
x 1

It should come as no surprise that functions can be combined to form new functions
using the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Thus for the functions f ( x )  2 x 1 2 and g (x)  x  4 , we can use the arithmetic
operations to form the following functions:

( f  g )(x)  f (x)  g (x)  2x1 2  x  4

( f  g )(x)  f (x)  g (x)  2x1 2  (x  4)  2x1 2  x  4
( f g )(x)  f (x) g (x)  2x1 2 (x  4)  2x3 2  8x1 2
2 x1 2
( f g )( x )  f ( x ) g ( x ) 
x4

In the particular examples given above, the domain of ( f  g )( x) , ( f  g )(x) and

( f g )(x) is x  0 , whilst the domain of ( f g )( x ) is all x  0 except x  4 (to exclude
division by 0).

Composition of functions involves using the output number from one function as the
argument (input number) of another function. Formally we have the following
definition.

Definition (Composition of Functions)

The composition of functions f (x) and g ( x ) is defined as

( f  g )(x)  f ( g (x))

The domain of the composite function ( f  g )( x ) is all ‘x’ such that ‘x’ is in the domain
of g ( x ) and g ( x ) is in the domain of f (x) . As an example, the composition of the
functions f ( x )  2 x 1 2 and g (x)  x  4 is given by

( f  g )(x)  f ( g (x))  f (x  4)  2 (x  4)1 2

If x 8, the above functions yield the values g (8)  8  4  4 and

( f  g )(8)  f ( g (2))  2 (8  4)1 2  4 .

It is important to distinguish between the composition of functions f (x) and g ( x )

( ( f  g )( x ) ), and the composition of g ( x ) and f (x) , i.e. ( g  f )(x)  g ( f (x)) , as
usually these will not be the same function. Continuing the example above we find

( g  f )(x)  g ( f (x))  g (2x1 2 )  2x1 2  4  ( f  g )(x)

 35

It is sometimes convenient to view a particular function as the composition of two

functions.

Definition (Compound Function)

A compound function involves two or more expressions, each associated with a
particular interval (or possibly particular intervals) in its domain.

A simple example of a compound function is given by

x , if x  0

f ( x )  x1 2 , if 0  x  4
2 x , if x  4


For the above function, we have f (1)  1 , f (2)  2 and f (5)  10 .

The final definition presented in this section is that of an inverse function.

Definition (Inverse Functions)

Suppose a function f from one set A to another set B, and that there exists a function
f 1 from set B to set A such that x  f 1 ( y) if and only if y  f (x) . In this case the
function f 1 is called the inverse of the function f.

By the above definition, if y  f (x) is such that a different value of ‘x’ yields a
different value of ‘y’, i.e. f (x) is a one-to-one ‘mapping’, then an inverse function
denoted x  f 1 ( y) will exist. In this case a given value of ‘y’ will yield a unique
value of ‘x’. Not all functions possess an inverse. If for a given function y  f (x) an
inverse x  f 1 ( y) exists, it can normally be found by isolating ‘x’ by manipulation of
the equation y  f (x) .

Example 1.10.2
Find the inverse of y  f (x)  5x  25

5x  y  25
y
x  f 1 ( y)  5
5

Any function that either increases or decreases over its entire domain (monotonic
functions), as in the above example, will have an inverse. A simple example of inverse
functions is with respect to demand functions in basic microeconomics. The direct
market demand function for a particular good or service expresses the quantity
demanded as a function of price, whilst the inverse demand function expresses price as a
function of quantity demanded.
 36

1.11 The Rectangular Coordinate System

Functions of one variable can be depicted graphically using the rectangular coordinate
system, which consists of two real number lines (‘coordinate axes’) drawn at right
angles to each other, one forming the horizontal (say ‘x’) axis on which the value of the
input variable is measured, and the other forming the vertical (say ‘y’) axis on which the
value of the output variable is measured. It is common, but not essential, that the scale
used for these two axes be the same. A point on a rectangular coordinate system is
precisely located by a pair of numbers, the first representing the value on the horizontal
axis and the second the value on the vertical axis. The two axes cross at the point (0,0),
labelled the origin. On the following graph of a rectangular coordinate system the
points (0,1) , (1, 2) and (1,  2) are indicated.

Fig. 1.8

y
3

2 (1,2)

(0,1) 1

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1

(-1,-2) -2

-3

The set of all points in the rectangular coordinate system is usually denoted R2 (‘2-
space’).

Graphical representations of functions are used widely in this text. The easiest
functions to graph are constant and linear functions. The graph of the constant function
f ( x )  a is simply a horizontal line that goes through the point (0, a) on the vertical
axis, as illustrated below for the function y  f (x)  2 .12 Obviously the line
representing the function extends indefinitely to the left and right.

12
The variable ‘y’ is appended to indicate that the value of the function is to be measured along the
vertical (‘y’) axis.
 37

Fig. 1.9

y
3

y  f (x)  2

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1

-2

-3

The linear function y  f (x)  a  bx is readily graphed by drawing a straight line

through the points on the ‘x’ and ‘y’ axes that satisfy the equation y  a  bx . These
points, called the horizontal and vertical intercepts, or ‘x’ and ‘y’ intercepts, can be
determined by successively setting ‘x’ and ‘y’ equal to 0 and solving for the remaining
variable. Thus for the generic linear function y  f (x)  a  bx , when x  0 , ‘y’ will
equal ‘a’, whilst when y  0 , ‘x’ will equal  a b . The intercepts of such a function are
therefore given by the points (0, a) and ( a b ,0) in the rectangular coordinate system.

Example 1.11.1
Graph the following linear functions:

(i) y  f (x)  2  x

When x  0 , y  2
When y  0 , x  2

y
3 y  f (x)  2  x

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1

-2

-3
 38

(ii) y  g (x)  2  2x

When x  0 , y  2
When y  0 , x  1

y
y  f ( x )  2  2x 3

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1

-2

-3

Example 1.11.2
A step function is a compound function for which the domain is divided into two or
more intervals, over each of which the function takes on a particular constant value.
Graph the following step function:

1, if x  1

y  g ( x )  2, if 1  x  3
3 if x  3


-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
 39

Example 1.11.3
Graph the following compound function.

x , if x  0
 12
y  f ( x )  x  1, if 0  x  4
x 2 if x  4


-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x
-1

The shape of the middle section of the graph of this function can be determined by
plotting several points on the curve.

Example 1.11.4
Consider the quadratic function y  f (x)  ax 2  bx  c , where ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are
constants. If we set f (x)  0 , we obtain the quadratic equation

y  f (x)  ax 2  bx  c  0

In Section 1.8(c) it was stated that the solutions (roots) of this equation, if any, are given
by

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

From the above result it was concluded that the equation would have two distinct
solutions, a unique solution or no solution. Draw example graphs of
y  f (x)  ax  bx  c to illustrate these three possibilities.
2

Although we have not detailed a procedure to graph a non-linear function, it is not

difficult to determine how the graph of y  f (x)  ax 2  bx  c could look for each of
the three possibilities with respect to roots of the equation f (x)  0 . Firstly, if there are
two distinct roots, the graph of f (x) must cross the horizontal axis (‘x’ axis) at two
points, for example as in the graph below.
 40

f (x)  ax 2  bx  c (with b2  4ac  0 )

0 root root x

If there is only one (repeated) root, the graph of f (x) must simply touch the horizontal
axis one point, as in the following diagram.

f (x)  ax 2  bx  c (with b 2  4ac  0 )

0 x
root

Finally if there is no solution to f (x)  0 , f (x) does not touch the horizontal axis at
any point, as illustrated in the next diagram.

f (x)  ax 2  bx  c (with b 2  4ac  0 )

0 x
(No root)

In the above diagrams it is assumed that ‘a’ is greater than 0. If ‘a’ were less than 0, the
graphs of f (x) would be flipped vertically (turned upside down) around the ‘x’ axis.

Drill Exercises 1.11

Graph the following linear functions:

(i) y  f (x)  2  x
(ii) y  f (x)  3x  1
(iii) y  f (x)  0.5x  2
 41

1.12 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

It is useful at this stage to identify two particular commonly encountered and related
types of functions, namely exponential and logarithmic functions. Both of these
functions involve a particular constant referred to as the ‘base’, denoted generally here
by ‘b’, which was introduced in Section 1.7 in relation to powers of a number.

Definition (Exponential Functions)

A function of the form f ( x )  b x , where ‘b’, the base, is a positive constant and ‘x’ is
any real number is called an exponential function.13

Exponential functions differ from polynomial functions in that the variable appears as
an exponent. In accordance with the previous discussion of powers of a number in
Section 1.7, we have by definition that f (0)  b0  1. Exponential functions are also
subject to the rules concerning exponents given in Theorem 1.2 of Section 1.7.

The general form of the graph of an exponential function y  f (x)  bx depends on

whether b  1 , b  1 , or 0  b  1 . The case of b  1 is not particularly interesting as
y  1x  1 for all ‘x’. The cases of b  1 and 0  b  1 are illustrated in Fig. 1.10 and
Fig. 1.11, respectively.

Fig. 1.10

y  bx (b  1)

13
If ‘b’ were allowed to be negative, it would be necessary to restrict the domain of the function to
exclude the possibility of, for example, the function representing the square root of a negative number, i.e.
if ‘x’ took the value of 0.5.
 42

Fig. 1.11

1
y  bx (0  b  1)

A base that is encountered regularly is the irrational base e  2.7183 , and the function
f ( x )  e x is usually referred to as the natural exponential function. The natural base
number ‘e’ occurs in the context of calculus and plays a key role in the description of
continuous growth. To understand the definition of the natural base number ‘e’, let us
start by considering the function y  f ( x )  (1  x )1 x , which is depicted below. This
function is not defined for x  0 , as the exponent 1 x is not defined at this point.14

Fig. 1.12

2 y  (1  x)1 x

The following table gives some indication of how the value of (1  x )1 x changes as ‘x’
tends (gets closer and closer) to 0 from both the left and the right.

14
This function will also not be defined for various values of ‘x’ that at are less than or equal to 1 .
However, here we are only interested in what happens near x  0 .
 43

‘x’ tends to 0 from the left x’ tends to 0 from the right

x (1  x )1 x x (1  x )1 x
-0.5000 4 0.5000 2.2500
-0.1000 2.8680 (approx.) 0.1000 2.5937 (approx.)
-0.0100 2.7320 (approx.) 0.0100 2.7048 (approx.)
-0.0010 2.7196 (approx.) 0.0010 2.7169 (approx.)
-0.0001 2.7184 (approx.) 0.0001 2.7181 (approx.)

The numbers in the second and fourth columns of the above table are rounded to four
decimal places: most of these numbers cannot be written exactly to a finite number of
decimal places. What should be clear is that the closer ‘x’ gets to 0 from both the left
and right, the closer together will be the values of the function f ( x )  (1  x )1 x for
negative and positive ‘x’. In fact as ‘x’ tends to 0, the value of this function tends to a
particular limit which is our definition of the number ‘e’. Formally we have the
following definition.

Definition (the Natural Base ‘e’)

The natural base ‘e’, an irrational number, is given by the limit

e  lim (1  x)1 x
x 0

The notion of a limit of a function will be covered in more detail in Chapter 2. In the
meantime, the above definition of ‘e’ simply states it is the limit to which the function
f ( x )  (1  x )1 x tends as ‘x’ tends to 0.

Definition (Logarithmic Functions)

Suppose b  0 and b  1 , and the variable ‘x’ is any positive real number. Then the
logarithmic function of ‘x’ with base ‘b’, denoted y  f (x)  Log b x , is such that

y  f (x)  Log b x if and only if x  f 1 (y)  b y

The range of y  f (x)  Log b x is all real numbers.

The above definition indicates that the exponential function x  f 1 (y)  b y is the
inverse of the logarithmic function y  f (x)  Log b x , and vice versa. In words, it is
commonly stated that the logarithm to the base ‘b’ of a number ‘x’ is the power to
which ‘b’ must be raised to give ‘x’. This power is denoted Log b x . For example, since
10 3  1,000 , we can say that the logarithm to the base 10 of 1,000 is 3, or
Log 10 1,000  3 .

When defining a logarithmic function, the possibility that ‘b’ equals 1 is excluded, as
the number 1 raised to any positive power will always be 1. There is also a simple
explanation why the logarithm of a non-positive number is not defined. Given that the
 44

base ‘b’ is restricted to being positive (and not equal to 1), Log b x will not be defined
for x  0 , since when b  0 , raising ‘b’ to any power, positive or negative, will always
give a positive number.

Logarithms to the base 10 are called common logarithms, whilst logarithms to the
irrational base e  2.7183 are called natural logarithms. The logarithm of a number ‘x’
to the natural base ‘e’, i.e. Log e x , is also commonly denoted ln x . If ‘x’ is a variable,
Log e x (or ln x ) is referred to as the natural logarithmic function. Typical graphs of
y  Log b x for b  1 and 0  b  1 are shown below.

Fig. 1.13

y  Logb x (b  1)

1 x

Fig. 1.14

y  Logb x (0  b  1)

1 x

Some basic properties of logarithmic functions are listed in Theorem 1.4 below.
 45

Theorem 1.4 (Basic Properties of Logarithmic Functions)

If ‘b’ is a positive number not equal to 1, and ‘x’ and ‘y’ are any positive real numbers,
then

(i) Log b (xy)  Log b x  Log b y

(ii) Log b (x y)  Log b x  Log b y
(iii) Log b x a  a Log b x
(iv) Log b1  0

Example 1.12.1
2
 xy 
Express ln   in terms of ln x , ln y and ln z .
 z 

2
 xy   xy 
ln    2 ln    2 (ln xy  ln z)  2 (ln x  ln y  ln z)
 z   z 

Example 1.12.2
Write the following equation in an equivalent form free of logarithms.

ln a  ln b  0.2y

We have, by the properties of logarithms:

ln (a b)  0.2 y
e ln ( a b )  e 0.2 y
a b  e 0.2 y

Drill Exercises 1.12

(i) Solve the equation Log 2 x  3 for ‘x’.
(ii) Given x  Log8 2 , express ‘x’ as a simple ratio of two integers.
(iii) Solve the following equation for ‘x’.

3 2
Log b 4  Log b 8  Log b 2  Log b x
2 3
 46

1.13 Summation Notation

In many situations in mathematics we are concerned with sums of numbers or variables.
The description and manipulation of sums can be facilitated by the use of summation
notation.

Suppose we have ‘n’ numbers. By labelling the numbers as, say, a1 , a 2 ,..., a n , we can
represent the numbers by

ai , i  1,..., n

The sum of the numbers can then be denoted

a
i 1
i  a1  a 2  ....  a n

n
The notation a
i 1
i is thus a shorthand way of representing the sum. In words it means

the sum of all the a i from ( i  1 ) to ( i  n ). The symbol  is the upper case version of
the Greek letter ‘sigma’. Obviously the labels we give to the numbers (‘a’ above) and
the index (‘i’ above) are arbitrary.

Example 1.13.1
Suppose we wish to represent the sum of the numbers 3, -4, 1, 1, 7 and 2 using
summation notation. Let us label the six numbers arbitrarily as

b1  3 , b2  4 , b3  1 , b4  1 , b5  7 , b6  2

Then

6
3  (4)  1  1  7  2   bi  10
i 1

Some elementary properties of summation notation are given in Theorem 1.5.

 47

Theorem 1.5 (Basic Properties of Summation Notation)

Given ‘c’ is some constant and a1 , a 2 ,..., a n are ‘n’ numbers:

n n
(i)  ca
i 1
i  c a i
i 1

n
 n 
(ii) 
i 1
( a i  c )    a i   nc
 i 1 

n
 n 2 n
(iii) 
i 1
( a i  c) 2
   a
 i 1 
i   2c 
i 1
a i  nc 2

n
 n  n
(iv)  (a
i 1
i  c) 2    a i2   2c a i  nc 2
 i 1  i 1

Proof:
To prove property (i) we note that

n n

 ca
i 1
i  ca1  ca 2  ...  ca n  c (a1  a 2  ...  a n )  c a i
i 1

With respect to property (ii) we can write

n
 n 

i 1
( a i  c )  ( a 1  c)  ( a 2  c )  ...  ( a n  c)  ( a 1  ...  a n )  ( c  ...  c )    a i   nc
 i 1 

Then for property (iii):

n n

 (a i  c)2   (a i2  2ca i  c2 )
i 1 i 1

 (a12  2ca1  c 2 )  (a 22  2ca 2  c 2 )  ...  (a 2n  2ca n  c 2 )

 n  n
   a i2   2c a i  nc 2
 i 1  i 1

Part (iv) is demonstrated in a similar manner.

 48

Example 1.13.2
Again consider the following six labelled numbers.

b1  3 , b2  4 , b3  1 , b4  1 , b5  7 , b6  2

6
Use property (iii) in Theorem 1.4 to calculate  (b
i 1
i  2) 2 .

In this case, with ( n  6 ) and ( c  2 ):

6
 6 2 6


i 1
( b i  2 ) 2
   b
 i 1 
i   2 (2) 
i 1
bi  6(2)2

 [3  (4)  1  12  7 2  22 ]  4(3  4  1  1  7  2)  24
2 2 2

 80  40  24
 64

Alternatively we could calculate

 (b
i 1
i  2) 2  (3  2) 2  (4  2) 2  (1  2) 2  (1  2) 2  (7  2) 2  (2  2) 2

 64

Double or more generally multiple summations can also be represented conveniently

using summation notation. Suppose for example two sets of numbers represented
respectively by

a1 , a 2 ,..., a n

And

b1 , b 2 ,..., b m

(Where ‘n’ need not equal ‘m’)

Now suppose that we wish to represent the sum of all the possible products of one ‘a’
element with one ‘b’ element. This can be represented by

n m n

 a i b j   (a i b1  a i b2  ....  a i bm )
i 1 j 1 i 1

 (a1b1  a1b2  ....  a1bm )  .....  (a n b1  a n b2  ....  a n bm )

As the order in which the summations are performed is immaterial, we could also write
 49

n m m

 a i b j   (a1b j  a 2b j  ....  a n b j )
i 1 j 1 j 1

 (a1b1  a 2 b1  ....  a n b1 )  .....  (a1bm  a 2 bm  ....  a n bm )

Example 1.13.3
Consider the two sets of numbers given by

a1  3 , a 2  4 , a3  1

And

b1  1 , b 2  2

3 2
Calculate  a b
i 1 j 1
i j .

In this case

3 2 3 3

 a b
i 1 j 1
i j   (a i b1  a i b 2 )   [a i (1)  a i (2)]
i 1 i 1

 [3(1)  3(2)]  [4(1)  (4)( 2)]  [1(1)  1(2)]

 3  4  1
0

Drill Exercises 1.13

Suppose we have the numbers 4, 2, 5, 10 and that we arbitrarily assign the following
labels:

a1  4 , a 2  2 , a3  5 , a 4  10

Calculate:

4
(i) a i 1
i

4
(ii) a i 1
2
i

4
(ii)  (ai 1
i  3) 2