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1.9 COURSE ASSESSMENT: Through THREE IN CLASS TESTS AND ONE SEMINAR
PRESENTATION
2
st
1.9.1 1 Test will weigh 10% of final grade: Objective type of questions & one essay question
1.9.2 2nd Test will weigh 20% of final grade: Objective type of questions & one essay question
1.9.3 One Seminar presentation will weigh 10% of the final grade
1.9.4 3rd Test is THE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION and will weigh 60% of final grade: Essay
type of questions
1.9.4 Dates for the 1st and 2nd Tests will be agreed upon in class as course progresses
1.10 COURSE MATERIALS HAVE BEEN DRAWN FROM THE FOLLOWING BOOKS:
Hughes, M. and C.J. Kroehler, 2005. Sociology: The Core. 7th Edition. McGraw Hill. Boston
Lenski, G. and J. Lenski, 1987. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macro sociology. 5th Edition.
McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York
Ritzer, George, 1996. Sociological Theory. 4th Edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. New York
Rogers, E.M., R.B. Burdge, P.F. Korsching, and J.F. Donnermeyer, 1988. Social Change in Rural
Societies: An Introduction to Rural Sociology, 3rd Edition. Englewood Cliffs: NJ, Prentice Hall
Rogers, E.M. 2003. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th Edition. The Free Press. New York
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1 SOCIOLOGY/RURAL SOCIOLOGY
First conceived of as Social Physics and used by the French Auguste Comte (1738-1857), Sociology is
the term used to denote the scientific study of people in group relationships. It is the scientific study of
social behaviour. Sociology focuses on patterned and recurrent relationships between and among
people as well as on the social factors that have influence on the patterned relationships. Thus three key
issues feature heavily in the definition of sociology as a subject matter: a science; patterned and
recurrent relationships; and social factors shaping the relationships.
1.1 Sociology as a science
Simply stated, science is “definite knowledge acquired through empirical methods”.
Use of scientific knowledge: Knowledge helps us understand and explain some aspects of the world
around us. More elaboratively, knowledge helps us to describe, explain, predict, and understand aspects
of the world in which we live.
1.2 Sociology Focuses on Relationships
Sociologists are interested in patterned human relationships rather than individual behaviour.
Yet if you visited almost any college classroom, you would find similar patterns of behaviour: students
remain in their seats while professors lecture, professors assign grades, students take examinations,
students ask questions etc. Although individual students and professors differ from class to class, they
related to one another in patterned ways. This patterned relationship is the subject matter of sociology.
1.3 Sociology Focuses on Social Factors
The sociological approach assumes that the behaviour of a group is not determined by the characteristic
of its individual members. Emile Durkheim, a pioneering nineteenth century French sociologist,
developed the approach that assumes that the behavior of a group is not determined by the
characteristic of its individual members but the social factors. Thus, Durkheim argued for example that
we do not attempt to explain the nature of bronze from its component parts of lead, copper and tin.
Instead, we consider bronze an alloy, a unique metal produced by the synthesis of several distinct
metals. The hardness of bronze is not predictable from its components, each of which is soft and
malleable. Durkheim reasoned that if a combination of certain metals produces a unique metal, some
similar process might happen in groups of people.
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1.4 CULTURE
Beliefs
A belief is a symbolic statement about reality. It states what is real and what is not real or what is true of
false. Symbols are representations of ideas so their meaning can be communicated among individuals
within the same society.
Values
Values are symbolic statements of what is right and important. Values are broad cultural principles
embodying ideas about what most people in a society consider desirable.
Norms
A norm is a symbolic statement of expected behavior. Unlike beliefs and values (which are symbolic
statements of ideas and preferences), norms represent the actual rules of the game. The norms of society
provide standards for behavior that are generally consistent with its values and beliefs, specifying what is
appropriate or inappropriate, and the limits of what is allowable. Many norms are designed for specific
roles.
There are two types of norms: (i) prescriptive and (ii) proscriptive. Prescriptive norms specify what
should be done while Proscriptive norms specific what should not be done
Attitude/behaviour
Attitude is a relatively enduring set of beliefs possessed by an individual about an object. The objects
about which we have opinions or attitudes include people, actions, and ideas:
Attitudes represent our evaluation or feelings about the world around us. Attitudes are possessed by each
of us, and as such, individuals within the same society display widely divergent opinions about the same
thing. However, one’s culture (beliefs, values, and norms) is important in determining our attitudes.
Attitudes are generally indicative of how people will behave. They are predispositions to act. Thus
studies of attitudes are so numerous as they provide a clue of expected behavior. However, many other
factors intervene in translating attitudes into behavior, including individual abilities, competing motives
etc.
1.5 SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Expected behaviour of members of a society is facilitated within the context of that society’s social
structure.
Social structure refers to the total pattern of organization of a society, including established customs, laws
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and institutions. It refers to various positions occupied by individuals in a social system. Individual’s
position in the social structure is mirrored in the patterned relationships among individuals and groups. It
touches on one part of the subject matter of sociology.
Status
In society, every member occupies a series of positions, and associated with each position is a set of
specific responsibilities. These positions include parent, doctor, student, police officer, professor etc. The
socially defined position of an individual relative to other positions in society is called status: it is a slot
that a person occupies within a society. Like many terms in sociology, status becomes meaningful only
when two or more specific individuals are compared; our status depends upon who we are and with
whom we are compared. A status or position may be either temporary or permanent. Each of us occupies
many temporary statuses. Thus, we go to a bank and occupy the status of a customer, and transact our
business with somebody who holds the position of a bank teller. Later in the same day, we may have a
conversation with the same person, who now has the status of a neighbour. Some statuses are based on
specific situation, such as the status of a patient.
Roles
A role is a set of socially defined expectations about the beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavioral norms
associated with a distinctive status.
Examples of roles: father, parent, husband, farmer etc
Social Class
Geologist study layers of rock, called strata. We also find layer upon layer pattern existing in society.
Social strata in society are organized on the basis of status and role. Individuals occupying certain
positions in society have more wealth, power, and prestige than individuals holding other statuses.
Social stratification is the process by which positions in society are differentiated into layers with
resultant inequalities. A social stratum includes individuals occupying statuses associated with
approximately the same level of wealth, power and prestige.
1.6 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Social organization refers to the way in which individuals and relationships are ordered with reference to
the goals of the society concerned. The organization of individuals as they relate to societal goals takes
the form of group formation.
1.7 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
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The Country Life Commission, created by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in 1910 identified the main
social problems of rural America and the studies that followed fostered the emergence of Rural Sociology
as a problem-oriented and applied discipline. Rural Sociology (and agriculture economics) was formalized
as a teaching, research and extension activity within the colleges of agriculture in the U.S. with the
passage of the Purnell Act in 1925. The Act made provision for use of Federal funds to study rural
communities
(i) Deals with groups of people: students/farmers/girls/secondary school girls/university
students etc. it is different from psychology: which deals with mental processes of
individuals
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(ii) Deals with relationships/interactions (e.g. among livestock keepers and between livestock keepers
and professionals). Social interaction exists when two or more persons mutually influence each
other's behaviour
Interactions/relationships are shaped by both individuals and social factors through the process of
socialization, a process through which an individual's personality is shaped.
(iii) it is a problem-oriented science that aims at solving social problems in rural areas
Do we have social problems in rural Tanzania? Then, rural sociology has something to offer. What is a
social problem? A problem emanating from social factors and whose solution lies primarily in social
rather than technical approaches:
Examples: Animal diseases afflict many of our herds even though technical solutions (drugs, vaccines,
quarantines) are available to control the diseases.
The ability and intention to solve a social problem (assuming availability of a technical solution) lies in
ones attitude as is translated into a specific behaviour. "Human beings the world over have very different
ideas about what is pleasant and unpleasant, polite and rude, true and false, right and wrong. All these
differences, found within a single biological species, are expressions of human culture" John J. Macionis,
1987.
1.9 Importance of rural sociology
1.9.1 Provides information about rural societies, which is useful at the stage of formulating and
introducing new ideas to rural societies
1.9.2 Rural sociology attempts to find out why the results of a certain intervention/project/programme
have been as they are
1.9.3 Knowledge of rural sociology has clarified the concept of adoption of innovations
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2: SOCIAL CHANGE
2.1 Social change implies alteration in the structure of organization of society or its component parts.
Cultural change on the other hand involves a change in normative, cognitive and material (e.g. from
steam engine to diesel engine) culture. Since social and cultural changes are intertwined with each other
we will use the term change to refer to both social and cultural change.
Society is defined as the largest distinguishable unit of interacting individuals who share a pattern of social
organization that regulates the interaction between them. It is an autonomous group of people engaged in a
broad range of cooperative activities.
Examples of social change:
Types of families:
(i) From extended type towards nuclear type of families: extended family - is one in which parents,
their children and their children's children live together in one housing unit. A family is also called
extended if the ties with relatives outside the nuclear family are maintained through visiting or
economic support
(ii) From two/three generation to one/two generation families
Types of marriage:
From polygamous towards monogamous
From “marriage” towards cohabitation
2.2 Sources of Change
The basic sources of change are innovation, diffusion, crises and conflicts.
2.2.1 Innovation
Innovation is an obvious source of change. For example, introduction of improved technologies in on
farm activities may result in a new form of division of labor along gender lines.
2.2.2 Diffusion
Diffusion involves the spreading of cultural traits from one society to another. Improvement in
transportation and communication has contributed to more efficient diffusion process. However, it has
been found that material culture diffuse more readily than non-material culture e.g. it is easier for
missionaries to distribute bibles than to alter ritual patterns/religious beliefs.
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Example 2 in relation to (land use) conflict: the current land use conflict in Arusha involving the
Maasai and the Barbaigs on the one hand and the government and private interests (state, farms,
national parks, bean companies etc) on the other is the result of alienation of communal grazing
land by the latter for investment in farming and wildlife conservation. The conflict has greatly
contributed to the decline in the productivity of livestock due to the diminution of grazing land.
This in turn has affected the availability of food for the pastoralists, especially the poor ones
forcing them to change their food habits (from pastoral diet comprising meat, blood and milk to
other foodstuff eaten by non-pastoral people such as “ugali”) as well as to adopt agropastoralism
requiring a new form of organization both at household and community level.
early microscope was invented in 1674 by Leeuwenhoek, it was not until the germ theory of diseases had
been established, which led to the need to identify microorganisms, that the value of microscope to
medicine and biology became established.
2.3.3 Costs and vested interests
Costs are another important factor influencing the willingness to accept change. Cost includes both
economic (monetary) and social. In order for an innovation to gain wide public acceptance, it must be
reasonably priced. The limited use of tractors in agriculture in Tanzanian is largely attributed to high
costs involved in purchasing and maintaining them. Change affects people differently. Some individual
and groups are likely to lose more benefits and privileges from change than others. Those who benefit
from the status quo often have vested interests in maintaining it, and are likely to mount considerable
opposition to change when it threatens to diminish their power and rewards, among others. For example,
Ujamaa was strongly opposed by the Tanzanian kulaks because it threatened their accessibility to land
and farm labour for their plantations, estates etc.
2.3.4 Isolation and contact
Because most cultural patterns are transmitted by diffusion, those societies in closest contact with others
are most likely to change than societies with less contact. Ecological factors such as mountains or terrain
that hinders communication may play significant role in facilitating or retarding innovation. For example,
the Hadzape, the Tindiga are very isolated and would therefore have little contact, hence, less innovation.
However, in contemporary times, ecological factors might be by- passed due to modern ways of
communication, such as the television, thereby facilitating innovation.
2.3.5 Change Agents
Change is often proposed by individuals who deem it necessary or desirable. Such persons may be called
change agents. Change agents may be government officials or non-government officials. Generally,
existence of change agents is likely to facilitate social change.
2.4 Theories of Social and Cultural Change
There are different theories that attempt to explain the nature of change. Three influential theoretical
perspectives on the process of change are examined. These are conflict, functionalism (equilibrium), and
rise – and fall (cyclic).
2.4.1 Conflict Theory
For Karl Marx, without conflict no progress. This is the law which civilization has followed to the present
day. According to Karl Marx society consisted of conflicting groups with different values and interests.
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Generally all conflict theorists maintain that the competition between groups for scarce resources
inevitably produces divergence, opposition, and conflict. The enduring struggle of these social groups or
forces makes for continuing change. It is important to note that conflict is not necessarily turbulent, as for
example during collective bargaining.
To discover the direction, quantity and quality of change one need only analyze productive forces of
society, as well as relations of production. Under capitalism, according to Marx the main relationships
are between wage-workers and owners. The common relationship of wage-workers to the forces of
production is that they work upon them for wages but do not own or control them. The common
relationship of owners (or capitalist) to the forces of production is that they own them and realize
profits but do not necessarily work upon them. The conflict of interests between the two occur because
it is to the advantage of wage-workers to get high salaries, while it is to the advantage of owners to get
higher profits, but both salaries and profits must come from the same source. Because of the in-built
conflicts of interest between social classes, different social classes tend to struggle for power against
other classes. Marx was of the view that capitalists who owned the forces of production would
eventually be overthrown by the proletarians who worked for survival wages. After the successful
revolution of the workers, a communistic society without social classes and without exploitation would
replace capitalism. Marx view of conflict is conceptualized in the capitalist system. Dahrendorf’s
conflict theory is situated in the post-capitalist era. He instead points out that conflict arises as those
who possess authority seek to maintain the status quo, while those who lack it attempt to expand their
powers- so the source of conflict is authority relationships and not economic interests.
2.4.2 Functionalism
Although functionalism is associated with the sociologist Talcott Parsons who developed it to its highest
level it had its origins in the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Basically functionalism regards
society as an organism or a mechanical system made up of parts, which work together for the benefit of
the whole. A function is that work performed by a part for the benefit of the whole. If we use the organic
analogy, for example, we say that a part, an organ such as a heart, performers the function of circulation
which benefits the whole organism by providing oxygen to the blood and removing carbon dioxide which
is a waste product. When applied to social change, functionalism sees the movement of society from the
simple to the more complex. Differentiation and specialization may occur in any part of society. And this
requires that they be integrated with other parts so that the whole society becomes adapted to its
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environment. The parts of society are in equilibrium and any change, for example changes in the
economic institutions, results in temporary disequilibrium until adjustments in the other parts result in a
return to equilibrium. Despite changes, however, the emphasis of functionalist theory is on stability. In the
face of inevitable change which results from the interdependence and interlocking functions of any
complex system, stability and order are maintained by the shared values which are passed down from
generation to generation, or by sanctions embodied in coercive institutions which punish deviance.
However, functionalism has been criticized, among others, as a conservative theory, which seeks to
preserve an order that benefits the rich and powerful. Its stress on stability reveals its obsession with its
need to survive, to preserve its favoured position.
3: DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS
"One reason why there is so much interest in the diffusion of innovations is because
getting a new idea adopted, even when it has obvious advantages, is often very
difficult....Rogers 1983:1"
“Getting a new idea adopted, even when it has obvious advantages, is difficult. Many
innovations require a lengthy period of many years from the time when they become
available to the time when they are widely adopted. Therefore, a common problem for
many individuals and organizations is how to speed up the rate of diffusion of an
innovation…..Rogers 2003:1”
Examples of innovations:
(i) Tractorization,
(ii) Oxenization,
(iii) Cattle dipping,
(iv)Computerization,
(v) e-learning and
(vi)e-commerce
Technological innovations:
Most of the new ideas whose diffusion has been analysed are technological innovations, and we often
use the word “innovation” and technology as synonyms. Because there are innovations that are not
technological, it is therefore not proper to equate innovations with technology.
Technology clusters:
A technology cluster consists of one or more distinguishable elements of technology that are perceived
as being closely interrelated. In the field of agricultural innovations, a technology cluster would consist
of a package of innovations related to crop production and would invariably include: use of improved
seeds, proper spacing, use of fertilizers, use of pesticides etc.
Examples:
(i) The package of rice growing innovations of the Green Revolution in Asia and
(ii) The package of wheat growing innovation of the Green Revolution in Latin America
(iv)Telephone and
(v) E-mail,
Using the criterion of number of people reached, communication channels are classified as either
(i) inter-personal or
(ii) mass media in nature.
Inter-personal communication channels
are means of transmitting messages that involve a face to face exchange between two or more
individuals and therefore reaches only few people at a time.
Mass media communication channels
are all those means of transmitting messages that involve a mass medium, which enables a source of
one or a few individuals to reach an audience of many.
Using the criterion of location with regard to the social system of reference, communication channels
are classified as being either
(i) localite or
(ii) cosmopolite.
Localite communication channels
are from within the social system that is being referred to or the social system being investigated.
Cosmopolite communication channels
are those from outside the social system of reference or the social system being investigated. Mass
media are always cosmopolite. Interpersonal communication channels can be localite or cosmopolite.
of innovations concerns the rate of adoption, defined as the relative speed with which an innovation is
adopted by members of a social system. When the number of individuals adopting a new idea is plotted
on a cumulative frequency basis over time, the resulting distribution is an S-shaped curve. Rate of
adoption is usually measured as the number of members of the system that adopt the innovation in a
given time. It is the time required for a certain percentage of the members of a social system to adopt
an innovation. Rate of adoption therefore looks at adoption for a system, while innovativeness looks at
adoption of individual members in a system
4: ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS
Collective
innovation decisions are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by consensus among
members of a system.
All units in the system usually must conform to the systems decision once it is made.
Authority
innovation decisions are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by a relatively few
individuals in a system who possess power, status, or technical expertise.
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
PRIOR CONDITIONS
1. Previous practice
2. Felt needs/problems I. KNOWLEDGE II. PERSUATION III. DECISION IV. IMPLEMENTATION V. CONFIRMATION
3. Innovativeness
4. Norms of the social
system
1. Adoption
Continued Adoption
Later adoption
Discontinuance
2. Rejection
Characteristics of the Perceived Characteristics of the Continued Rejection
Decision-Making Unit Innovation
1. Socioeconomic 1. Relative advantage
characteristics 2. Compatibility
2. Personality variables 3. Complexity
3. Communication 4. Trialability
behaviour 5. Observability
The innovation-decision process is the process through which an individual (or other decision-making unit) passes from first knowledge of an innovation, to forming an
attitude toward the innovation, to a decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea and to confirmation of this decision
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4.3.1.1 The awareness type of knowledge tries to answer the “what is the innovation”
question. Awareness knowledge makes the adopting unit know that the innovation exists. The
knowledge is the first level of knowledge and may motivate the adopting unit to seek second
and third types of knowledge. Although concentrated at the knowledge stage, awareness type
of knowledge may also occur at the persuasion and decision stages of the adoption process
4.3.1.2 The “how to” knowledge type consists of information necessary to use an innovation
properly. The adopting unit must understand what quantity of an innovation to secure, how to
use it correctly, and e.t.c. For complex innovations, the amount of how-to knowledge needed
for adoption is much greater than for relatively simple innovations. Accordingly, when
adequate amount of “how to” knowledge is not obtained prior to the trial and adoption stages,
rejection and discontinuance of an innovation are more likely to result.
4.3.1.3 The “principles” knowledge type consists of information dealing with the functioning
principles underlying how the innovation works. It consists of information that is forms the
basis for the functioning of the technology. The “principles” knowledge affords competence of
the adopting unit in evaluating the effectiveness of an innovation. It is usually possible to
adopt an innovation without the “principles” knowledge. However, such adoption suffers the
risk of misuse and discontinuance.
Examples of principles knowledge include:
(i) the germs theory, which underlies the functioning of water boiling,
vaccinations, and latrines in village sanitations and health campaigns
(ii) the fundamentals of human reproduction, which form a basis for family
planning innovations
(iii) the biology of plant growth, which underlies the adoption of fertilizers by
farmers
Although the main outcome of the persuasion stage in the innovation-decision process is a
favourable or unfavourable attitude toward an innovation, the ultimate outcome of the formed
attitude is change in overt behaviour in the form of adoption or rejection of the innovation by
the adopting unit. However, research has shown that there are many situations where
favourable attitude has not translated into adoption of new ideas by adopting units. The
discordance between favourable attitude and adoption is referred to as Knowledge-Attitude-
Practice (KAP) gap.
4.3.3 The Decision Stage
This stage takes place when an adopting unit engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt
or reject an innovation. Adoption is the decision to make full use of an innovation as the best
course of action available while rejection is the decision not to adopt an innovation. Most
adopting units do not adopt an innovation without first trying out the new idea on a
probationary basis to determine the usefulness of the new idea to their own situation. This
small-scale trial is often an important part of the decision to adopt. It is the trying out a new
idea on a partial basis so as to evaluate the innovation as it holds for the specific context of the
adopting unit. Innovations that can be divided for trial are generally adopted more rapidly
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than those that cannot be divided for trial. One method for facilitating trial of innovations is
distribution to clients of free samples of new ideas
While trial is normally conceived in terms of the adopting unit trying out the innovation, the
trial of a new idea by a peer is also possible at the decision stage. This type of trial is referred
to as “trial by others” and can substitute, at least in part, for the individual’s trial of an
innovation, at least for some individuals and for some innovations.
Rejection can also occur after a prior decision to adopt. At the decision stage, there are two
types of rejection:
(i) Active rejection, which consists of considering adoption of an innovation (including its
trial), but then deciding not to adopt it
(ii) Passive rejection (also called non-adoption), which consists of never really considering
use of the innovation
The Decision-making environment of a farmer
A farmer is essentially a manager of his/her farm enterprise for which the enterprise may
comprise of land, crops, livestock, etc. As a manager, a farmer has to constantly make
decisions on not only what to produce, but also on how to produce what is to be produced.
Most of extension intervention is on how to produce. Extension is a way of attempting to
influence the decisions of the farmer, i.e. to persuade farmers to make certain decisions rather
than others in line with what an extension organization considers to be in the best interest of
the farmer.
Apart from individual farmer characteristics and extension effort, the decision-making
environment of the farmer as a manager includes:
the infrastructural environment;
the policy environment; and
the physical environment.
The farmer's decision-making environment therefore comprises of:
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Re-invention:
With reference to adoption, the concept of re-invention denotes modifying an innovation
before finally adopting the innovation. Re-invention is defined as the degree to which an
innovation is changed or modified by a user in the process of adopting the innovation.
Re-invention occurs at the implementation stage for many innovations and for many
adopters
A higher degree of re-invention leads to a faster rate of adoption of an innovation. This
stems from the fact that innovations that are more flexible fits in wider range of
adopter’s conditions.
A higher degree of re-invention leads to a higher degree of sustainability of an
innovation. Sustainability is here defined as the degree to which an innovation
continues to be used over time after a diffusion programme end.
Over adoption: Within the adoption literature, over adoption is defined as the adoption of an
innovation by an individual when experts feel that the individual should have rejected the
innovation. Over adoption may occur because of insufficient knowledge about the innovation
by the adopter, an inability to predict the innovation’s consequences and/or the status
conferring aspect of the innovation.
Example of over adoption due to status conferring: buying a sophisticated mobile phone
that has many features that the adopter shall never use
Discontinuance:
Discontinuance is defined as a decision to reject a previously adopted innovation. There are
two variants of discontinuance:
(i) replacement and
(ii) disenchantment
Replacement discontinuance
is a decision to reject an idea in order to adopt a better idea that supersedes the earlier adopted
idea
Disenchantment discontinuance
is a decision to reject an idea as a result of dissatisfaction with its performance.
The innovation decision period
The innovation decision period is the length of time in days, months or years, required for an
adopting unit (individual or organization) to pass through the innovation decision process.
Even though the innovation decision process starts with the knowledge stage and ends with the
confirmation stage, the innovation decision period is usually measured as the length of time
from knowledge stage to decision to reject or adopt stage. The innovation decision period
takes many years as the following example on diffusion of hybrid maize in Iowa, U.S.A.
illustrates:
In 1928, hybrid maize was released in Iowa as a new technology
The diffusion of the technology was heavily promoted by the Iowa Agricultural
Extension Service and by salesperson from seed companies
In 1933, (5 years after the innovation was released) only 10% of the Iowa farmers had
adopted hybrid maize
In 1936, (8 years after the innovation was released) only 40% of the Iowa farmers had
adopted hybrid maize
By 1941, (13 years after the innovation was released) all but 2 of the Iowa farmers had
adopted hybrid maize
Furthermore, even though the hybrid maize seed innovation had a high degree of relative
advantage (increasing production by 20%) over the open-pollinated seed that it replaced, the
typical farmer moved slowly from awareness-knowledge of the innovation to adoption. The
innovation decision period from first knowledge to the adoption decision averaged about 9
years for all respondents. In addition, the average respondent took 3 to 4 years after planting
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his first hybrid seed , usually on a small trial plot of about 0.4ha, before deciding to plant
100% of his maize hectarage with hybrid varieties.
Length of innovation decision period by type of innovation
Attributes of innovations have also been found to have an influence on the innovation decision
period. Thus, while the average innovation period for the adoption of hybrid maize in Iowa
was 9 years, the innovation period for adoption of weed spray in the same area averaged 2.1
years. Innovations with such attributes as high relative advantage, compatibility with social
system and trialability are adopted faster and therefore have short innovation decision periods.
Communication Channels by Stages in the Innovation-Decision process
Communication channels are differently suited to the different stages in the innovation-
decision process. Communication channels can be classified on two criteria as follows: (i)
mass versus interpersonal and (ii) cosmopolite versus localite channels.
Mass versus interpersonal communication channels
Mass channels are means of transmitting messages that involve a mass medium such as radio,
television, newspapers, which enables a source of one or a few individuals to reach an
audience of many. Mass channels are characterised by: (i) reaching a large audience rapidly,
(ii) create knowledge and spread information and (iii) change weakly held attitudes.
Interpersonal channels involve a face-to-face exchange between two or more individuals.
These channels are more effective in dealing with resistance or apathy on the part of an
individual as they provide a two-way exchange of communication, thus affording clarification.
They are also relatively important in changing one’s strongly held attitude. As a conclusion
therefore, mass media channels are relatively more important at the knowledge stage and inter-
personal channels are relatively important at the persuasion stage in the innovation-decision
process
Cosmopolite versus localite communication channels
Cosmopolite communication channels are those linking an individual with sources outside the
social system under study or of reference while localite channels link an individual with
sources within the social system. Cosmopolite channels are relatively more important at the
knowledge stage, and localite channels are relatively more important at the persuasion stage in
the innovation-decision process.
process. This is however more tedious and less meaningful. It is much easier and more
meaningful to describe individuals in terms of adopter categories. Adopter categories are
defined as the classification of members of a social system on the basis of innovativeness.
Each adopter category will therefore have individuals with a similar degree of innovativeness.
Innovativeness
is the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other
members of the community (Rogers, 1983:242)….
On the basis of innovativeness, research has identified five adopter categories, namely
(i) innovators (2.5%),
(ii) early adopters (13.5%),
(iii) early majority (34%),
(iv)late majority (34%), and
(v) laggards (16%).
(v) Have an important role of launching a new idea in a social system by importing it:
this is the gate keeping group with regard to flow of new ideas in a social system.
(vi) Are cosmopolite (rather than localite) in terms of social relationships.
(vii) Are not very much respected in the community
4.4.2 Early Adopters :( 13.5%)
(i) Respectable
(ii) Localite
(iii) Greatest degree of opinion leadership: Opinion leadership is defined as the
degree to which an individual is able to informally influence other individuals'
attitudes or overt behaviour in a desired way with relative frequency.
(iv) Serve as role model as they are not too far ahead of the average individual and
potential adopters look to early adopters for advice and information about
innovations.
4.4.3 Early majority :( 34%)
(i) Deliberate/Carefully thought out moves
(ii) Frequently interact with their peers but do not attain opinion leadership status
(iii) Provide interconnectedness in a system's network by being links between the very early
and the
relatively late to adopt category
(iv) May deliberate for some time before completely adopting a new idea.
4.4.4 Late majority: (34%)
(i) Sceptical
(ii) Adoption is in response to both economic necessity and peer pressure
(iii) Have relatively scarce resources.
4.4.5 Laggards: (16%)
(i) Traditional
(ii) Last to adopt
(iii) Most localite
(iv) Most are near isolates in social networks
years and 4.65 years respectively to adopt 2,4-D weed spray among Iowa farmers.
Given the short innovation decision period, it is no wonder that innovators are the first one to
adopt innovations in a social system. In addition to being the first to be exposed to
innovations, two other explanations have been advanced to explain the shorter innovation
decision of innovators:
a) innovators utilise technically accurate sources and channels about innovations, such as
direct contact with scientists and
b) they place higher credibility in these sources than does the average individual
Communication Channels by Adopter Categories
Research has indicated a relationship between communication channel and adopter category as
follows:
(i) Mass media channels are relatively more important than interpersonal channels for
earlier adopters than for later adopters
(ii) Cosmopolite channels are relatively more important than localite channels for earlier
adopters than for later adopters
Innovativeness/Needs paradox
The concept explains a paradox in adoption. The paradox is that individuals or other adopting
units in a social system who most need an innovation do not adopt the innovation as fast or do
not adopt the innovation at all when compared with those who do not need the innovation.
Examples:
a) Poorer farmers who would benefit more by adopting agricultural innovations do
adopt late while the relatively well-off farmers, whose needs are not as high as
those of poorer farmers adopt agricultural innovation earlier than the poor
b) Poorer members of society with big families do not adopt family planning
innovations although they are the ones who need more family planning than the
relatively wealthy or elite families
4.5 Measuring adoption
4.5.1 Theoretical foundations of measurement
In the broadest sense, measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according
to rules. A numeral is a symbol of the form: 1,2,.... or I,II, etc. Measurement entails relating
objects to numerals. The ultimate goal of measurement is to specify clearly observable
referents/indicants of the terms contained in one's hypotheses.
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The most interesting and difficult work of measurement is the rule. A rule is a guide, a method,
or a command that tells us what to do. A numeral by itself has no quantitative meaning unless
we give it such a meaning; it is simply a symbol of a special kind. Note that the term "numeral"
is used because measurement ordinarily uses numerals, which, after being assigned quantitative
meaning, become number. A number then is a numeral that has been assigned quantitative
meaning
4.5.2 Measurement and reality isomorphism
Measurement can be a meaningless business, if not carefully done. The measurement
procedure and the number system should be isomorphic to reality if the measurement has to be
meaningful. Isomorphism means identity or similarity of form. Thus measurement procedures
should have relational and empirical correspondence with reality. This is the rule of
correspondence: it is the rule that assigns to each member of one set some one member of
another set. In research, the members of one set can be individuals, or symbols standing for
individuals, and the members of the other set can be numerals or numbers
process, one must know the meaning of the concepts of education and prejudice. This is
clarification of the concepts embedded in the theory. Education can for example be defined
as "the extent of one's intellectual and moral training and knowledge. On the other hand,
prejudice can be defined as an emotional, rigidly held prejudgment about an individual
based on his/her group membership
Many different indicators can be chosen to measure a given concept. However, no two indicators
measure a given concept or variable in the same way and no single indicator is likely to
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Because of the imperfect correspondence between indicators and concepts, researchers often
choose to rely on more than one indicator when measuring a concept. Sometimes several
measures of a given concept are analyzed separately, yielding multiple tests or cross-checks of a
hypothesis. At other times, indicators are combined to form a new variable, as when answers to
several questions, each a distinct indicator, are combined to create a variable. In general
researchers use several indicators to measure complex concepts like prejudice, but for simpler
concepts like education, researchers use single indicators. For case adoption, one might use
either single indicators or several indicators depending on one’s conceptualization of the concept
of adoption. Thus a researcher who views adoption as being composed of many elements is
likely to measure adoption using many indicators than a researcher who views adoption as being
composed of one indicator, in which case this researcher would measure adoption using one
indicator.
Example: In crop production, “use of improved seeds” can be viewed as an innovation.
This is a case where adoption would be measured by a single indicator. On the other hand,
a package consisting of (i) use of improved seeds, (ii) specific plant spacing, (iii) use of
herbicides to control weeds, and (iv) use of pesticides to control pests can be viewed as an
innovation. In this case adoption would be measured by use of many indicators.
4.5.3.3 Operationalization: This is the final step in measurement and involves the delineation
of procedures necessary for sorting units into categories. The detailed description of the
research operations or procedures necessary to assign units of analysis to the categories of a
variable is called operational definition
Example of operationalization: in our examples of the variables years of schooling and
degree of prejudice toward blacks might be operationalized by asking people questions.
The complete operational definitions would consist of the specific questions asked, together
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with response categories and instructions for gathering the data and assigning cases to
categories
From the aforementioned on measuring concepts, adoption can be measured by using one or
several indicators. We use a single indicator if the innovation consists of only one indicator.
However, we use many indicators if the innovation consist of many indicators and is construed
as a package.
Example of measuring adoption by a single indicator: If the innovation is “use of improved
seeds”
Example of measuring adoption by many indicators: if the innovation is “timely planting,
use of improved seeds, proper spacing, use of fertilizers etc”. Use of many indicators in
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measuring adoption is confined to adoption of technology clusters for the case adoption of
technology.
4.6 Rate of adoption
Rate of adoption is defined as the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by
members of a social system. When the number of individuals adopting a new idea is plotted on
a cumulative frequency basis over time, the resulting distribution is an S-shaped curve. Rate of
adoption is usually measured as the number of members of the system that adopt the
innovation in a given time. It is the time required for a certain percentage of the members of a
social system to adopt an innovation. Rate of adoption therefore looks at adoption for a
system, while innovativeness looks at adoption of individual members in a system
4.7 Factors influencing rate of adoption
Research has identified many factors that influence the rate of adoption of innovations. The
factors can be categorised into 5 main groups:
(i) communication channels,
(ii) nature of the social system,
(iii) type of innovation decision
(iv) perceived attributes of innovations, and
(v) extent of change agent’s promotion efforts.
Since we have already covered the first 3 groups of the factors, the proceeding part shall cover
the remaining two groups of factors influencing the rate of adoption of innovations.
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going to be. Relative advantage may be measured in economic terms such as profitability, but
social prestige factors, convenience, and satisfaction are also often important components.
Diffusion scholars have found relative advantage to be one of the strongest predictors of an
innovation’s rate of adoption. Relative advantage is the ratio of the expected benefits and the
costs of adoption of an innovation. Sub dimensions of relative advantage include economic
profitability; low initial cost; a decrease in discomfort; social prestige; a saving of time and
effort and immediacy of reward.
(iii) Positive versus negative incentives: Most incentives are positive in that they reward a
desired behavioural change. However, it is possible to penalize an individual by
imposing a penalty or by withdrawing desiderata for not adopting an innovation.
Example: the government of Singapore decreed that the mother in any family
with a third or further child would not be eligible to receive maternity leave and
that the parents would have to pay all hospital and delivery costs, which are
otherwise free to all citizens;
(iv) Monetary versus non-monetary incentives: While the majority of incentives are
monetary, non-monetary incentives do also exist. Examples of non-monetary
incentives include reward tours, certificates of recognition, vacations etc;
(v) Immediate versus delayed incentives:
Immediate incentives are paid at the time of adoption while delayed incentives are awarded
when considerable time has passed after one has adopted. Example of delayed incentives:
awarding an incentive for adopting contraceptive use after the use has had an effect on
fertility i.e. one gets an incentive to contraceptive use after one has been able not to
conceive for a long period of time
4.7.1.2 Compatibility:
Compatibility is defined as the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent
with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters. An idea that is more
compatible is less uncertain to the adopter and fits more closely with the adopter’s situation.
The compatibility of an innovation as perceived by members of a social system is positively
related to its rate of adoption. Accordingly, an idea that is not compatible with the prevalent
values and norms of a social system will not be adopted as rapidly as an innovation that is
compatible. Adoption of an incompatible innovation often requires prior adoption of a new
value system that becomes compatible with the innovation. Past experiences include
experiences related earlier to adoption of innovations. The past experience gives meaning to
future innovations and therefore influence decisions on the innovations. Innovation
negativism is an example of situations where past innovation experiences shape decisions on
future innovations. Innovation negativism is defined as the degree to which a past
innovation’s failure conditions a potential adopter to reject future innovations. Examples of
innovation negativism: In Tanzania, failure of past cooperatives is propelling many to
reject current cooperatives
Naming of an innovation:
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The name given to an innovation often affects its perceived compatibility and therefore the
rate of adoption for the innovation. Example: In the U.S. automobile industry, one model
was named Nova, which in means no-go in Spanish. Many potential adopters for buying
the model who knew Spanish were hesitant in buying the model
4.7.1.3 Complexity:
Complexity refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand
and use. The complexity of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, is
negatively related to the innovation’s rate of adoption. Accordingly, new ideas that are simpler
to understand will be adopted more rapidly than innovations that are difficult to understand
and use.
4.8.1 Predetermined goals: Organizations are formally established for the explicit purpose of
achieving certain goals. The objectives of an organization determine, to a large extent, the
structure and function of the organization
4.8.2 Prescribed roles: Organizational tasks are distributed among various positions as roles
or duties. A role is a set of activities to be performed by an individual occupying a given
position. Positions are permanent in organizations as per structure. Individuals occupying the
positions in an organization are not permanent; they come and go leaving the positions intact.
Likewise, the behaviour expected of individuals occupying a given position in an organization
remain the same even though occupied by different individuals
4.8.3 Authority structure: In a formal organization, not all positions have equal authority.
Instead, positions are organized in a hierarchical authority structure that specifies who is
responsible to whom, and who can give orders to whom
4.8.4 Rules and regulations: A formal, established system of written procedures governs
decisions and actions by members of an organization. Rules prescribe procedures for hiring
individuals, for promotion, for firing and for coordinating the control of various activities to
ensure uniform operations
4.8.5 Informal patterns: Every formal organization is characterized by various kinds of
informal practices, norms, and social relationships among its members. These informal practices
emerge over time and fulfill an important function in any organization
Given the relative stability of organizations, one might expect that innovation would be rare in
organizations. On the contrary, innovation goes on all the time in most organizations. However,
many barriers and resistance to change exist in organizations.
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In an organization, the agenda setting process consists of (i) identifying and prioritizing needs
and problems and (ii) searching the organization’s environment to locate innovations of potential
usefulness to address the identified organizational problems.
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41
42
At the agenda setting stage, one or more individuals in an organization identify an important problem
and then identify an innovation as one means of coping with the problem. A performance gap is the
discrepancy between an organization’s performance expectations and its actual performance. This
difference can be a strong impetus to seek an innovation, thus triggering the innovation process.
Sometimes however, knowledge of an innovation, rather than the recognition of a problem or need by
an organization and its attendant search for a solution launches the innovation process.
4.10.2 Matching
This is defined as the stage in the innovation process at which a problem from the organization’s
agenda is conceptually/hypothetically fit with an innovation. The process of hypothetically fitting the
problem with the appropriate innovation to solve the problem is planned and designed and not in an ad
hoc manner. During matching, the organization’s members attempt to determine the feasibility of the
innovation in solving the organization’s problem by contemplating the anticipated benefits and the
problems that the innovation might encounter when it is implemented. At the tail end of the matching
process, the organization’s decision makers may conclude that the innovation is mismatched with the
problem or matches the problem. Where the innovation is mismatched with the problem, the
innovation is rejected, thus terminating the innovation process prior to the idea’s implementation.
However, where the matching is in line with the problem, the innovation is implemented.
4.10.3 Redefining/Restructuring
Redefining/restructuring occurs when the innovation is re-invented so as to accommodate the
organization’s needs and structure more closely and when the organization’s structure is modified to
fit with the innovation. At this stage, the innovation imported from outside the organization gradually
begins to lose its foreign character. During the redefining/restructuring stage, both the organization
and innovation are expected to change, at least to some degree
4.10.4 Clarifying
Clarifying occurs as the innovation is put into more widespread use in an organization, so that the
meaning of the new idea gradually becomes clearer to the organization’s members. Clarifying entails
social construction of the meaning/implication of the innovation to members of the organization. It
involves answering the following questions by members of the organization: (i) how does the
innovation work? (ii) what does it do? (iii) who in the organization will be affected by the innovation?
(iv) will the innovation affect me? Clarifying is important in that many individuals in the organization
get to know the innovation, thus accepting the innovation. Too rapid implementation of an innovation
by way of having a widespread use in a short period of time can lead to disastrous results.
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4.10.5 Routinizing
Routinizing occurs when an innovation has become incorporated into the regular activities of the
organization and has lost its separate identity. At routinizing, the innovation process is completed.
4.11 Organizational innovativeness
Early (prior to 1970s) studies on innovation in organizations focused on organizational innovativeness,
measured as the adoption or non-adoption of a set of innovations by a sample of organizations. In
these studies, the premise was the same as adoption of individuals where organizations were construed
as the adopting unit and therefore the unit of analysis. During these early studies, scholars simply
transferred the models and methods of investigating innovativeness, developed earlier for individuals,
to the study of organizations. These earlier studies on organizational innovativeness helped illuminate
the characteristics of innovative organizations. Many of these characteristics were equivalent to the
characteristics of innovative individuals. For example, larger-sized organizations have generally been
found to be more innovative, just as are individuals with larger incomes and higher socioeconomic
status. But certain of the organizational characteristics do not have individual counterparts. For
instance, organizational structural characteristics such as formalization, defined as the degree to which
an organization emphasizing following rules and procedures in the role performance of its members,
were found to be negatively related to organizational innovativeness
4.11.1 Size and organizational innovativeness
Size of an organization has consistently been found to be positively related to the organization’s
innovativeness. Thus larger organizations are more innovative than smaller organizations. Size of
organization was measured in terms of total assets, number of employees, number of branches,
number of subsidiaries or number of customers. The finding that larger size is related to organizational
innovativeness might seem surprising, given the conventional business wisdom that smaller companies
can be more flexible in their operations and freer of stifling bureaucracy. The positive relationship
between size of an organization and innovativeness is explained by the fact that larger organizations
have several dimensions that lead to innovativeness: (i) total resources, (ii) slack resources, defined as
the degree to which an organization has more resources than those required for its ongoing operations,
(iii) employees’ technical expertise, (iv) organizational structure etc.
4.11.2 Structural characteristics of organization and organizational innovativeness
In addition to size, organizational innovativeness is related to such independent variable clusters as (i)
leader characteristics, (ii) internal organizational structural characteristics, and (iii) external
characteristics of the organization (Figure 10-2)
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This state of affairs in centralized organizations makes the initiation of innovations less frequent than
in decentralized organizations. However, implementation of innovations is fast in centralized
organizations once a decision to adopt has been made.
4.11.2.3 Complexity
Organizational complexity is positively related to its innovativeness. Complexity is the degree to
which an organization’s members possess a relatively high level of knowledge and expertise and their
degree of professionalism. While high level of knowledge and expertise is usually measured by the
members’ range of occupational specialties, degree of professionalism is expressed by formal training.
4.11.2.3 Formalization
Organizational formalization is negatively related to its innovativeness. Formalization is defined as the
degree to which an organization emphasizes its members to follow rules and procedures. An
organization’s bureaucracy is measured by its degree of formalization.
4.11.2.4 Interconnectedness
Interconnectedness is positively related to organizational innovativeness, implying that the
organizations with high degree of interconnectedness are more innovative than those with a low
degree of interconnectedness. Interconnectedness is defined as the degree to which the units in a social
system are linked by interpersonal communication networks. High degree of interconnectedness
implies that new ideas can flow more easily among organization’s members.
4.11.2.6 Organizational slack
Organizational slack is defined as the degree to which uncommitted resources are available.
Organizational slack is positively related to organizational innovativeness, especially for high cost
innovations.
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“One of the greatest pains to human nature is the pain of a new idea. It …...makes you think that
after all, your favourite notions may be wrong, your firmest beliefs ill-founded……. Naturally,
therefore, common men hate a new idea, and are disposed more or less to ill-treat the original
man who brings it.” Walter Bagehot, Physics and Politics (1973), p.169.
Change agents are linkers: they link the change agency and the clients by facilitating the flow of
information from a change agency to clients. In the agriculture and livestock sector of the Tanzania
economy, the Ministries of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives; and Livestock
Development and Fisheries are change agencies while farmers and livestock keepers are clients
Change agents often use opinion leaders in a social system as their lieutenants in diffusion activities
and are usually professionals with training in a technical field. The professional training, sometimes
to the level of degree, and the social status that goes with it, usually means that change agents are
heterophilous from their typical clients, thus posing problems of effective communication about the
innovation change agents are promoting.
agent has to work indirectly through for example use of opinion leaders and peers.
5.2.6 Stabilizing Adoption and thus preventing discontinuances
Change agents have to provide reinforcement messages to newly adopted ideas and practices in
order minimize discontinuances. This role of stabilizing adoption is at implementation and
confirmation stages of the adoption process
5.2.7 Achieving
terminal
relationsh
ip
The end goal of for a change agent is to develop self-renewing behaviour on the part of the client.
The change agent should seek to develop clients' ability to enable clients to help themselves.
of their clients, and thus to base their diffusion activities on clients' needs. Because a change agent's
position is located midway between the bureaucracy to which he/she is responsible and the client
system in which he/she works, the agent is necessarily subject to role conflicts as he/she tries to
please both sides. Role conflict is defined as the clash felt when a person occupies two antagonistic
role positions at the same time. The agent is often expected to engage in certain behaviours by the
change agency system, and at the same time he/she is expected by his/her client system to carry on
quite different actions. This is the source of role conflict.
5.3.3 Extent to which the diffusion programme is compatible with clients’ needs
Change agent success in securing adoption of innovations by clients is positively related to the
degree to which the diffusion programme is compatible with clients' needs. Projects not based on
clients' felt needs often fail or produce unexpected results.
Example: One Indian village was provided with development funds to construct irrigation
wells that could approximately double they crop yields. But the villagers wanted wells for
drinking because they had to carry the water about two miles from a river. The peasants built
the wells in the village center, rather than in their fields, and drank the water, instead of
irrigating their crops.
Change agents must be aware of their clients' felt needs and adapt their diffusion programmes to
them. They should not however, relinquish their role in developing and shaping these needs, so as to
benefit the clients' welfare in the long run.
5.3.4 Change agent's empathy with clients
Change agent success in securing adoption of innovations by clients is positively related to change
agent’s empathy with clients. Empathy is the ability of an individual to project himself/herself into
the role of another person. It is putting oneself into somebody's shoes. Through empathy, change
agents are likely to understand the situation of their clients very well and therefore be able to
diagnose the problems of the clients very well, thus being able to develop appropriate solutions to
the problems of the clients
clients, as measured by the number of interpersonal communications with clients in the clients'
system.
Under normal conditions it is not easy for change agents to be homophilous to majority of clients.
This has been demonstrated by research findings that shows the following with regard to change
agents’ contact with clientele:
Contact with change agents is positively related to higher socioeconomic status of clients
Contact with change agents is positively related to greater social participation of clients
Contact with change agent is positively related to higher formal education of clients
Contact with change agent is positively related with cosmopoliteness of clients
The fact that change agents are heterophilous with clients of lower socioeconomic status makes
change agents initiate less contacts with clients of lower socioeconomic status, even though equity
concerns advocates more contact with clients of lower socioeconomic status. The most common
explanation by change agents as to why they do not initiate many contacts to clientele with lower
socioeconomic status is that such clientele are “not responsive”.
Use of para-professional aides is one of the ways of increasing change agent contact with clientele
with lower socioeconomic status. A para-professional aide is a less than fully professional change
agent who intensively contacts clients to influence client’s innovation decisions.
However, homophily sometimes act as an invisible barrier to the flow of innovations within a
system. The mechanism through which homophily act as a barrier to the flow of innovations is as
follows: New ideas usually enter a system through higher status and more innovative members. A
high degree of homophily would mean that these elite individuals interact mainly with each other,
not with the majority whom they are heterophilous with. This state of affairs confines the spread of
the innovation to elites, thus not trickling down to non elites. Spread on innovations among
homophilous members of a system is referred to as horizontal spread as opposed to vertical spread,
which is the spread among heterophilous members of a system.
Opinion Leaders have greater social participation than their followers. This characteristic implies
that Opinion Leaders have extensive interpersonal network links with their followers, thus being
able spread messages about innovations more easily.
Socioeconomic status:
Opinion Leaders have higher socioeconomic status than their followers
Innovativeness:
Opinion Leaders are more innovative than their followers. Since opinion leaders have to be
recognized by their peers as competent and trustworthy experts about innovations, they have to
adopt new ideas before their followers. However, opinion leaders are not innovators.
6.1 GENERAL
Social organization refers to the way in which individuals and relationships are ordered with reference
to the goals of the society concerned. The organization of individuals as they relate to societal goals
takes the form of group formation
A group can be formally defined as people in communication and together geographically with
common interests or goals. The four critical elements of a group are thus: (a) composed of people, (b)
in interaction or communication, (c) together physically, and (d) common interests or goals. Groups
should be differentiated from categories or aggregates. A category is a number of individuals who share
one or more characteristics such as age or occupation. An aggregate is a collection of individuals held
together in a physical sense, but not interacting with each other.
Examples of groups: individuals in a family; individuals in a neighborhood
Examples of categories: SUA's women employees; adults in Tanzania etc
Examples of aggregates: Residents of Mafiga ward
A group is something to lean on when things go wrong. It acts to support and reinforce the
individual’s view of the outside world. Such benefits greatly encourage conformity to group norms.
Membership of a group provides individuals with companionship, social experience, opportunities
for self-expression and social intercourse. Against these benefits, however, individuals must be
prepared to modify their behaviour to fit in with group norms. The more valuable group
membership is perceived, the more the individual will want to conform. Feelings of attachment will
be greater, and the power of the group to compel obedience to established norms is enhanced.
Eventually group behaviour will settle down to a fixed routine: conformity is demanded of new
entrants who must demonstrate their willingness to abide by group norms. The group will continue
to function despite changes of personnel. It becomes a self-perpetuating identity.
Groups and resistance to change
As a consequence of member’s conformity to group norms, groups are often resistant to change.
Members become set in their ways and attitudes; they come to believe the group norm is right – no
matter what the circumstances-and of course any deviation from the norm would have to be
explained and justified by the individual to other members. And if the deviation is not accepted by
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the group the deviant member is liable to face social ostracism.
Types of groups
Groups can be primary, secondary, formal, or informal. More realistically, it is useful to consider
primary and secondary groups as polar opposites on a continuum. Thus, although primary relationships
are more likely to occur in primary groups and secondary relationships in secondary groups, it is not
unheard of for primary groups to have secondary relationships and for secondary groups to have
primary relationships
Example of Primary groups having secondary relationships: members of a primary group such
as a family occasionally engage in secondary relationships, as when one member of a family lends
money to another member at given interest rate with a specific repayment date
Example of Secondary groups having primary relationships: members of work groups, for
example, frequently relate to one another in a manner that is personal, demonstrates genuine
concern for one another as total personalities, and is fulfilling in itself
The need for emotional support. This might be provided by other group members in times of
crisis. Membership of a group can validate a person’s perceptions of events and issues.
Group dynamics
The study of group dynamics is the study of the forces that operate within groups. It investigates
how power and authority structures emerge, communication system, and intra-group conflict.
Dynamic interactions and relationships within a group create change and redefine the roles of its
members.
Group Leadership
Group leadership is very important for the formation and development of groups as well as the
realization of group objectives. Leadership is defined as the act or process of influencing people so
that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals.
NOTE: The Kiswahili word for leadership is “UONGOZI”, which stands for the following
Kiswahili words “Unganisha”, “Onesha”, “Nyoosha”, “Gawia”, “Onya”, “Zingatia” and
“Imarisha”
Group Leader
A leader is a person who is able to influence the behaviour of others. A leader is a person in
authority to influence others. A leader can arouse emotional reactions. Notice that leadership is
accomplished through others and as such effective leaders do not do everything themselves but
accomplish tasks and attain goals through efforts of others: thus effective leaders make things
happen. Group leadership approaches generally range from the dictator to the passive sleeper and
somewhere in our own background we have probably experienced leaders or teachers who fit either
extreme. We have also experienced leaders or teachers who we can call facilitators, and probably
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remember most positively. The facilitator is a group leader who encourages a group to be alive,
active, productive and at the same time to feel good about itself and what it is accomplishing.
She/he makes a group session something to look forward to, rather than to be avoided.
The Roles of a Good Leader:
In accomplishing leadership responsibilities, leaders perform the following roles:
providing direction for group activities;
defining problems and objectives;
obtaining information from group members and communicating information to them;
motivating the group;
appraising group performance;
arbitrating disputes between group members;
offering ideas and opinions and encouraging other to do the same;
representing the group to outside bodies.
Content Management
The group sets its objectives and interacts to reach them. The facilitator can help the group to do
this in some of the following ways:
Identify clearly what the group’s objectives or reasons for meeting are: Statements of
objectives should be clear, simple and should always be reachable by the group. Consideration of
objectives should be done at the onset of group’s activity/session as it makes it possible for
subsequent activities to the objective. The facilitator should help the group to develop objectives that
are reasonable and reachable.
Stay with the group objectives: The facilitator must always remember the objectives of
the group and remember especially that these objectives belong to the group. They developed them.
The responsibility of a facilitator is to keep these objectives in front of the group, and constantly and
consistently encourage movement towards attaining the objectives. One way to achieve this is to
simply write the group’s objectives on newsprint or a chalkboard when the objectives are initially
developed. These objectives are then to be literally “in front of the group” throughout the group
session, and constantly referred to during discussions. This tangible reminder assists the facilitator
and the group in working toward its objectives.
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Bring out the varied information, ideas and opinion of all group members: When discussing
a topic, it is important to bring out all of the information necessary for clear understanding. When
attempting to plan it is important to bring out all the varied opinions. If a village group was
planning a vegetable garden, those villagers who have experience with village gardens should be
consulted; if a District Extension Team was planning a consultation, the schedules of each member
should be considered. The facilitator ensures that all participants have been consulted both for
information and/or opinion on a given topic. This widespread consultation often prevents
complaints when a project is implemented, or an action is taken.
Allow the group to discuss controversial topics openly: A facilitator does not want to
encourage useless arguments, but s/he does want to encourage an atmosphere that permits open
discussion of opinions. A group should be permitted to work out a controversy until a conclusion
is reached. What is important to remember is that all participants are equal and that every idea, no
matter how odd it may seem, should be given equal respect by the facilitator. If the facilitator
insults someone’s idea, no matter how antagonistic or ridiculous it may seem, the rest of the group
will probably become afraid to speak, wondering whether his or her idea will result in the same
reaction from the facilitator. When an unrelated or extremely argumentative statement is made, the
facilitator could simply suggest that the statement may be taking the group away from its
objectives; point out once again to the objective and then ask someone in the group to take the
group back to the topic and at hand. For example, the facilitator could say, “We all know that this
topic is extremely controversial, that we all have strong opinions about; therefore, we must respect
each other’s strong opinion, learn from it and eventually, as a group, come to some kind of
consensus. Now, let us look at our objective once again. Who can add a point that will help us to
get closer to it?”
Give equal time and respect to all group members: This point follows the previous one in
that wheat is being encouraged is respect for every group member and respect for the idea/opinions
of every group member. Everyone’s ideas should be given equal time and equal respect. This
encourages active participation by all. Yet at times it is obvious that one member is leading the
group away from the topic or that another member is developing a plan that is totally removed from
the group’s plan. The facilitator usually can see when the group is becoming annoyed with a
member or frustrated with his or her diverse idea or pressure to accept them. In this case the
facilitator must again remember to respectfully respond to a person, as the other group members
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will be observing this response and will eventually react to it themselves. In a situation like this,
the facilitator can use the group for support. For example, “Now, Saidi seems to be emphasizing
a particular point. Let’s ask some other group members for their opinion, briefly, and see if
in fact this idea is supported by others. We must again – remember our group objective
when considering Saidi’s point”.
Explain and clarify ideas to the group: Use examples frequently to further describe ideas. For
example, the facilitator could say, “your idea is really important and it is supported by an experience
I had in another district in the same area …….”, or “That is an excellent point. An example of that
approach was developed in Babati with their VET and proved to be very successful.” The group
members can also be assisted in explaining what they mean by encouraging their own use of
practical examples. “That is a very relevant idea. Do you know of any areas where it has been
implemented?” “What you are advocating is interesting. Have you had experience in doing this
yourself, or do you know someone with relevant experience?”. Examples take the group from
theory to the reality of daily life. They provide the concrete situations necessary to make a
discussion believable and real to a group.
Summarise Ideas: This is probably one of the most important tasks of a facilitator, to
take all of the information being given by a group and provide a summary. This requires active
listening and active involvement in all discussions. When the summary is presented, it should
always be presented to the group in a way that encourages the group to comment on its accuracy.
For example, “In my opinion, this is the summary of what we have been saying. This is my opinion,
do you agree with me or do you disagree?” “Would any group member like to summarise the ideas
of the group this far?” “What are the group’s ideas on this summary?” “This is what I hear being
said … does the group agree?” “Are all the points here in the summary? What do we need to add if
anything? What do we need to delete?” When the group has developed its summary, it is best to
write it on newsprint, or on a chalkboard.
Assist the group in its own plan development: The role of the facilitator is NOT to influence
the content, not to set the objectives, not to develop the plan, but to assist in achieving the objectives
of the group. The facilitator must never offer his or her opinions in a conclusive manner. S/he must
never say, “Well, this sounds like the final decision, doesn’t it?” or “This certainly is the best
conclusion for use.” “We should certainly adopt this idea”. Rather, the facilitator again reviews the
ideas of the group and re-offers them for consensus or conclusions. S/he says, “These seem to be
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the ideas of the group. What do you think? Do you agree? Do you disagree?”
In all cases the facilitator assists the group in reaching its own conclusions. In planning activities
the facilitator helps the group achieve its objectives in group sessions, the facilitator helps the group
develop it’s own ideas, theories and information. The facilitator is the group’s guide to decision
making - never the final decision maker.
Encourage the group to develop its own theories and answers: The facilitator does not have
all of the answers. His or her role is to encourage active participation in problem-solving thinking
by the group. The facilitator should therefore never present all of the information necessary either
for problem solving or content development, but should consistently encourage group development
of ideas. All members of the group come with knowledge and experience and this should be
respected. The process is similar to constructing a building. The ideas and knowledge of the
members are the blocks and mortar that must be joined to develop, to build the final product. We
can visualize in our minds what the final building will look like, we can even draw plans (set
objectives), but the actual construction process must take place before one can move into the
building. Now sometimes some of the materials are not good, they are flawed. Then the builder
must carefully replace these with new materials so that the end product will be the safest and
strongest. It is the same in a group. Sometimes in the development of ideas or theories, opinions or
knowledge that is flawed is given by a group member. In cases like this the facilitator can often ask
the group for assistance in improving an idea or correcting information, e.g. “What does the group
think about this information. Is it correct?” “What about this idea?” “Will it help us to achieve our
objective?” In the end the facilitator works with the group to develop and build its own theory or
programme.
In addition to assisting with content development, the facilitator has the major responsibility of
helping the group to achieve its objectives in a democratic participatory manner. Some important
support tasks for a facilitator include:
Be lively and energetic: The energy of the group is directly related to the actions of the
facilitator. If the facilitator is lively, talking with the group, drawing out ideas, walking around the
room when necessary, reacting openly to comments, the group stays involved and active. A group
leader who sits behind a desk passively reading or barely communicating will probably put a group
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to sleep. At the same time, this does not mean that a leader should be so active that s/he does not
allow the group to participate. The energy should be put into encouraging participation.
Develop a climate of trust: A facilitator is friendly, open and always respects the ideas of
every group member. Support and encouragement of one group member encourages others to
participate. Building on the contribution of one member is a positive way enables other members to
feel interested in contributing. The facilitator can say, “Now that was a good idea. Can anyone add
specifically to that?” Or “That seems to be very important. Do other members want to add
something?”
Develop group procedures: A facilitator is never a passive leader, but someone assisting the
group in reaching its goal. This means that at times the facilitator will need to set time limits for
discussion, to give direction, to consult the group for methods, to encourage all to participate, or to
develop small group activities that encourage active participation by all.
Work with group tension: Very often controversial topics result in group tension. The facilitator
relieves this tension by making the group aware that such tension in fact does exist and could lead to
productive conclusions. By putting a problem in a wider context, and by reminding the group that the
goal is to reach productive conclusions, not to get stuck in internal arguing, the tension could have a
good result. Very often a facilitator can help relieve unnecessary tension by restating argumentative
comments in less threatening ways: S/he could say, “I think the point Esther was making primarily deals
with …..”; “If we concentrate on this issue of ….”; “let’s try to look more closely at this specific point
from your statement …..”.
Developing conclusions: It is very different to say “We all agree now, don’t we?” than to
say, “Does everyone agree with this statement, conclusion?” The second question allows the
participants to answer as they feel. The first question usually leads to much head nodding and little
real consent.
Eye contact: A facilitator looks directly at the person s/he is talking with and listens
actively to each participant as s/he speaks. A group member is always very aware of whether or
not a leader is listening and feels little reason to participate if the facilitator is not paying attention
actively.
Encouraging participation by all: This can be done in several ways. One good way is to
have large groups break into small groups in circles. This allows the quiet ones to participate
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without the threatening experience of speaking in front of a large group. This also ensures the
development of various group opinions and the sharing of much more information. Another way is
to be constantly aware of who is and is not participating and to ask the quiet ones for their opinions:
For example, “Godwin, we haven’t heard your ideas yet. Do you have anything to add?” At the
same time this means asking the very active participants to give the quiet ones a chance to talk. For
example, “We have heard many good ideas from you Violet. May be some of the other group
members would like to comment on these” or, “You have provided us with good insights. Do you
agree, Veronica?” At all times the facilitator must remember that members need to be encouraged
to participate and even the very active participants need to be quietened in a respectful way so that
they will not stop.
Being conscious of group feeling: Are participants getting bored with a topic or are they too
tired to proceed? Generally, if the facilitator is getting bored or tired, the group probably feels the
same. Express this to the group; ask them for ideas on how a session could move along; change the
topic if necessary or postpone the discussion to a time when members are more likely to be active.
Farmer organizations
Farmer organizations are farmer groups with large number of members. They are formal groups
established for specific objectives. As farmer groups, farmer organizations thrive if all members
actively participate in the activities of the organization. Chamala and Shingi (1997:193-201)
classifies farmer organizations into two groups: (i) community-based, resource oriented and (ii)
commodity based market oriented.
Community-based, resource oriented farmer organizations are generally small, have well defined
geographical areas, and are predominantly concerned with inputs. However, the client base is highly
diversified in terms of the crops and commodities they deal with. An example would be a village
level cooperative or association. On the other hand, commodity-based, market oriented farmer
organizations are generally not small and have to operate in a competitive environment. They
specialize in single commodity and opt for value-added products which have expanded markets.
They are designated as output dominated organizations. In commodity-based, market oriented
farmer organizations, research, input supply, extension, credit, collection of produce, processing and
marketing are all integrated to maximize the returns on the investment of members. An example is
Tanga Diary Limited
According to Chamala and Shingi (1997), the following issues influence the extent of participation
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of members in farmer organizations:
The degree of the farmer’s dependence on the inputs of the organized activity
The degree of certainty of the availability of the outputs
The extent to which the outputs will be available only as a result of collective action
The extent to which the rewards asb.sociated with the collective action will be distributed
equitably
The extent of availability of rewards within a reasonable time frame
The extent to which the rewards are commensurate with the costs associated with continued
participation