ABSTRACT

Engine is the main power source of Automobiles, where combustion takes

place & produces heat which converts into mechanical energy. We know IC-Engines
are used in Automobiles, Aero planes etc. But the incomplete Combustion produces
some harmful gasses, which is one main cause of air pollution. Modern Science &
Technology has been taken many positive steps for emission control like, using CNGs
& LPGs instead of petrol & diesel. Now technology brings Electrical bikes, scooters
& cars. The battery of electrical vehicle can charge easily like mobile. But they have
very less load carrying capacity & not suitable for long run.

So we are going to design and fabrication of electrically Operated reciprocatory

motion i.e. Electromagnetic Actuator. This actuator works on the principle of
magnetic repulsion between two magnets. This electromagnetic actuator consists of
two magnets, one of them is an Electromagnet and other one is a Permanent Magnet.
Permanent Magnet acts as piston and Electromagnet is located at the top of the
cylinder. The Electromagnet is energized by a battery source of suitable voltage and
the polarities of electromagnet are set in such a way that it will repel the permanent
magnet i.e. piston from TDC to BDC. There is a solenoid formed in which current is
passed resulting in magnetic flux. When current flows it repels the piston .When the
piston is at BDC the supply of Electromagnet is discontinued, the permanent magnet
which was repelled to BDC will come back to its initial position i.e. TDC. This
procedure completes our output work. Switching of electromagnet is controlled by
relay. The total power supplied by battery will be just to fulfill the copper losses of
winding and power required to magnetize the windings. So electric energy is
converted into linear motion.

Keywords: - Electromagnet, Eco friendly, Repulsion.

1
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
IC Engine, one of the greatest inventions of mankind, is one of the most
important elements in our life today. It’s most important application being in
automobiles, trains, and aero planes. Our lifestyle today cannot exist without a way to
commutate. IC engines make use of gasoline and diesel. The population is in the
rising trends this means more the number of individuals, more the requirement of
automobiles to commute.
1.2 Need of technology
Today fossil fuels are widely used as a source of energy in various different fields like
power plants, internal & external combustion engines, as heat source in
manufacturing industries, etc. But its stock is very limited and due to this tremendous
use, fossil fuels are depleting at faster rate. So, in this world of energy crisis, it is
inevitable to develop alternative technologies to use renewable energy sources, so that
fossil fuels can be conserved. One of the major fields in which fossil fuels are used is
Internal Combustion Engine.
1.3 Oil dependency
The World’s Oil supply is a limited resource. Different organizations have different
durations, but they all agree that Oil will end. In 2002 ExxonMobil charted that Oil
should end around 2040. New Oil supplies have been found since then but Oil will
end. Oil, Fossil Fuel, remains the top global energy source and the fuel of choice for
transportation. Demand for Oil is projected to rise by approximately 25 percent
through 2040, led by increased commercial transportation activity. A growing share
of this demand will be met by sources such as deep-water, Oil sands and tight Oil,
which are increasing as a result of advances in technology.Such mitigation could
include energy conservation, fuel substitution, and the use of unconventional Oil.
Because mitigation can reduce the use of traditional petroleum sources, it can also

2
affect the timing of peak Oil and the shape of the Hubbert curve. The less we use, the
longer it will last.

Fig1.1: Chart by ExxonMobil 2014 from website.

Is vital for security, energy security. The DOD has completed a plan in June 2011,
Operational Energy Strategy that outlines three ways to increase energy security: 1)
reduces demand for fuel, 2) diversify energy supply and 3) incorporating these
considerations into building the future force.
The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine will end the need of Oil in transportation
and power generation.

1.4 Oil expenses

The cost of fuel changes over time and affects the operating cost of any organization.
The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine will end fuel cost.
FedEx is an example of a company that would have saved $12 billion in three years of
operations (Tables 1 and 2).

1.5 Oil cost projections

U.S. energy information administration petroleum product prices (Figure 2).

1.6 Climate change

3
What is Climate Change? According to Wikipedia “Climate Change is a significant
and lasting change in the statistical distribution

Fuel Expenses

2012 2011 2010

Expense [in
millions] 4,956 4,151 3,106

Percent of
Revenue 11.6 10.6 8.9

Table 1.1: The United State Government would have saved $2.5 billion in two years
operations.
United State Government Fuel Expenses

Fuel Type 2010 2011

Gasoline 939,024,355 1,046,695,356

Diesel 213,360,941 248,901,198

Biodiesel
[B100] 592 211,104

Biodiesel
[B20] 19,255,051 24,822,915

CNG 1,178,322 1,116,769

Electric 387,128 468,852

Ethanol/E-85 26,392,840 38,496,662

LNG 570 648

LPG 292,968 477,127

Hydrogen 20,509 17,513

Grand Total 1,199,913,276 1,361,208,134

Table 1.2: Fuel cost by fuel type by year.

4
 Fig1.2 : U.S. energy information administration petroleum product prices

Weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years”. It may be a
change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the
average conditions [i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events]. Climate Change is
caused by factors that include oceanic processes [such as oceanic circulation], biotic
processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic
eruptions, and human-induced alterations of the natural world; these latter effects are
currently causing global warming, and “Climate Change” is often used to describe
human-specific impacts.”

The EPA states “Over the past century, human activities have released large amounts
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The majority of
greenhouse gases come from burning Fossil Fuels to produce energy, although
deforestation, industrial processes, and some agricultural practices also emit gases
into the atmosphere.”

The burning of Fossil Fuels is the primarily used in two industries, Transportation
and Power. The Transportation Industry uses Fossil Fuel in the Combustion Engine
in vehicles of all sizes. The Power Industry burns Fossil Fuel in large power plants
to turn turbines to produce electricity.

The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine produces NO carbon dioxide and other

harmful greenhouse gases. Carbon Dioxide is one of the causes of the World’s
Climate Changed. With most of the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases is
from the Fossil Fuel combustion and the second larges from the Combustion Engine.

The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine can end the use of Fossil Fuels in the
Transportation Industry and Power Industry.

5
Every year there are around 50 million automobiles being manufactured all over the
world this situation is very grim. With this rise in use of fossil fuels, there arises a
need to switch to alternative sources of fuel, to drive our engines. But the challenge is
to develop machines which have much higher efficiencies than what we make use
today. The most versatile form of energy that is widely used is electricity. Electric
motors are replacing existing IC engines rapidly. But the storage of electricity holds a
drawback, as a large amount of energy cannot be stored. This demands our machines
to possess higher efficiencies, consuming lesser energy and producing more output.

With this rising need of switching to alternative fuels, and alternative sources of
energy, magnetism shows a bright spot in the current scenario. Magnetism is a
phenomenon which exists in our body, our earth as well as our universe. The virtual
concept of black holes have been said to be related to strong magnetic fields. The
tremendous energy within a black hole pulls matter inside it to nowhere. If magnetism
can possess such potential, then tapping it the right way can create wonders. Various
researches across the world have proved that magnetic power can be used to develop
over-unity devices. Though practically it possesses a lot of limitations to gain
efficiency over unity, achieving near around the same can change the scenario a lot.

Our engine is totally different from ordinary IC Engine, because of the inventory
advancement in operating principles. We have changed the operating principle of IC
Engine by using electromagnetic effect instead of combustion of fossil fuels. This
engine works on the principle of magnetic repulsion between two magnets. This
electromagnetic engine consists of two magnets, one of them is an Electromagnet and
other one is a Permanent Magnet. Permanent Magnet acts as piston and
Electromagnet is located at the top of the cylinder instead of spark plug and valve
arrangement in IC Engines. In this way this engine does not contain any spark plug
and fuel injection system. The Electromagnet is energized by a battery source of
suitable voltage and the polarities of electromagnet are set in such a way that it will
repel the permanent magnet i.e. piston from TDC to BDC, which will result in the
rotary motion of crank shaft.

When the piston is at BDC the supply of Electromagnet is discontinued, the

permanent magnet which was repelled to BDC will come back to its initial position
i.e. TDC. This procedure completes one revolution of crank shaft i.e. our output work.

6
A copper winding is also wound to the cylinder block to get additional power to the
piston to reciprocate. This winding is connected to a battery to create a magnetic field
inside the cylinder and reciprocate permanent magnet piston on basis of repulsion
forces created by winding.

The total power supplied by battery will be just to fulfil the copper losses of winding
and power required to magnetize the windings. The present project relates to an
electromagnetic piston engine adapted to produce driving power by the
electromagnetic force created by a reciprocal movement of a piston in a cylinder. In
the recent years, the development of electric vehicles is exploding. Such electric
vehicles use an electric drive motor as a power source.

Conventional electric drive motors are designed to pick up rotational energy of a rotor
as a power by directly rotating the rotor by electromagnetic force. The electric drive
motors of such a type, however, lead naturally to an increase in the weight of a rotor
in order to pick up greater outputs and, as a consequence, suffer from the
disadvantages that the weight of the portion corresponding to a rotary assembly
section becomes heavy.

Then such electric drive motors require a power transmission mechanism for
transmitting the driving power from a power source to the wheels to be designed to be
adapted to the features of the electric drive motors. Power transmission mechanisms
for internal combustion piston engines, which have been generally used for
conventional vehicles, cannot always be applied to electric vehicles as they are. These
problems impose greater burdens upon the designing of electric vehicles.

For internal combustion piston engines, there is a variety of resistance that results
from their structures. They may include, for example,

1. Air intake resistance of an air cleaner

2. Resistance of a cam shaft

3. Compression resistance in a cylinder

4. Resistance of a piston to an inner wall of a cylinder

5. Resistance of a cooling fan

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6. Resistance of a water pump

7. Resistance of an oil pump

The loss of energy due to these resistances is the causes of reducing the energy
efficiency of the internal combustion piston engines. An overall system assembly of
the internal combustion piston engine further has the additional problem with an
increase in the entire weight due to the necessity of installment of a mechanism for
cooling the internal combustion piston engine because the internal combustion piston
engine cannot avoid the generation of a considerably large amount of heat by the
principles of the engine themselves.

Given the foregoing problems inherent in conventional internal combustion piston

engines, the present invention has the object to provide an electromagnetic piston
engine which can offer the effects of eliminating the various resistances inherent in
the conventional internal combustion piston engines, reducing the weight
corresponding to a rotary assembly section even if greater outputs can be taken,
further making ready applications to power transmission mechanisms for use with
conventional internal combustion piston engines, and achieving improved efficiency
in utilizing energy.

The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine:

• NO Fossil Fuels

• NO effect on the climate – totally green

• 97% more HP then the Combustion Engine

• Low Operating Cost – 110,000 hours or 12 years

• Placed in any vehicle – cars to large trucks

• Renewable Electricity 2kW to 9MW per engine

• Changes the understanding of physics

In a world of dramatic, and at times, severe climatic change due to the overproduction
of carbon dioxide through the burning of Fossil Fuels; and an over dependence on Oil,

8
which has made the world subservient to a few countries, we face an almost
insurmountable problem that screams for a solution.

The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine is environmentally friendly solution.

CHAPTER 2

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 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

Reciprocating motors have been and continue to be used in virtually every
available mode of transportation and for all types of power supply needs throughout
the entire World. Generally, reciprocating motors have a piston slidably disposed in a
cylinder and utilize a driving force to drive the piston in one or both directions inside
the cylinder so as to rotate an output shaft, such as a crankshaft. The most commonly
utilized reciprocating motor is an internal combustion engine. The typical internal
combustion engine comprises a series of cylinders each having a piston reciprocating
inside to drive a crankshaft in order to produce motion or power.

Air and fuel are combined in the piston chamber, defined inside the cylinder by the
top of the piston, and ignited by a spark from a spark plug to provide an explosive
driving force that drives the piston downward. The fuel and air are fed into the piston
chamber through an intake valve and, after combustion; exhaust air is forced out
through an exhaust valve. To obtain proper performance of the fuel/air igniting
sequence, the valve activating mechanism must open and close the intake and exhaust
valves at the proper times. Due to relatively high engine operating speeds, this process
happens at a very fast rate. Due to their extensive use, the internal combustion engine
has been the subject of intensive efforts in India and most countries since the
beginning of the utilization to improve the engine’s operating characteristics.

Despite these efforts, internal combustion engines are well known for relatively
inefficient utilization of fuel, such as gasoline and other products made from oil, and
being significant contributors to the air pollution problems that exist in most cities and
towns. As such, the continued use of internal combustion engines is recognized by
many persons as a significant draw on the Earth’s limited natural resources and a
substantial threat to human health. Other types of reciprocating devices are also well
known. For instance, electromagnetic reciprocating engines utilize electromagnetic
force as the driving force to move the piston inside the cylinder and rotate the output
shaft.

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A typical configuration for such engines comprises a plurality of electromagnets
disposed around the cylinder that are actuated by electric currents to provide the
electromagnetic force necessary to drive the piston in a reciprocating motion in the
cylinder. It is well known that this type of electromagnetic engine must have a
somewhat large supply of electrical current to power the electromagnets and typically
requires complex control mechanism to provide the electrical current to the
electromagnets in a manner required to operate the engine.

For these and other practical reasons, electromagnetic reciprocating engines have
generally not become very well accepted. Another source of power that has been
utilized to reciprocate a piston inside a cylinder is the magnetic energy stored in
permanent magnets. As is well known, when the same polarity ends of two magnets
are placed near each other the repulsion force of the two magnetic fields will repel the
magnets and, conversely, when the opposite polarity ends of two magnets are placed
near each other the attraction force of the magnetic fields will attract the magnets
toward each other, assuming one or both of the magnets are allowed to move.

A known advantage of utilizing permanent magnets as the driving force for a

reciprocating motor is that the energy available from these magnets is relatively
constant and capable of providing a long operating life. In order to use permanent
magnets to reciprocally drive a piston inside a cylinder, however, a mechanism must
be provided that first utilizes the advantage of dissimilar polarity to attract the piston
to the permanent magnet and then utilize the advantage of similar polarity to drive the
piston in a way from the permanent magnet.

Naturally, this must be done in a very rapid manner at the proper time. The difficulties
With being able to rapidly switch polarity when using permanent magnets, as opposed
to electromagnetic force, has heretofore substantially limited the ability to utilize the
advantages of permanent magnets as a driving force to reciprocate a piston in a
cylinder so as to rotate an output shaft for the purposes of motion or the generation of
electricity. Over the years, various reciprocating devices that utilize permanent
magnets as the driving force to reciprocate a piston or other actuating devices, to one
extent or another, have been patented. For instance,

11
US. Pat. No. 3,676,719 to Pecci discloses an electromagnetic motor having an
electromagnetic solenoid, located within a on centric counter bore, having a coil
disposed about an inner sleeve and electromagnetic insulating end Walls at the ends
thereof. A ferrous metal core is slidably received in the inner sleeve and reciprocates
in response to electromagnetic force to rotate a drive shaft.

US. Pat. No. 3,81 1,058 to Kiniski discloses a reciprocating device comprising an
open-bottomed cylinder having a piston made out of magnetic material, With a
predetermined polarity, slidably disposed in the cylinder chamber.

A disc that is rotatable is mounted to the engine block below the cylinder has at least
one permanent magnet, of like polarity, on the surface facing the open bottom of the
cylinder such that the rotation of the disc periodically align the permanent magnet
With the piston so the repulsive force there between causes the piston to reciprocate in
the cylinder chamber.

US. Pat. No. 3,967,146 discloses a magnetic motion conversion motor having
permanent magnets arranged with like poles facing each other and a magnetic flux
field suppressor disposed between the magnets for repeatedly causing a magnetic
repelling and attracting action as it is moved into alignment between the like poles of
the magnets. The magnets reciprocally drive piston rods connected to crankshafts that
are connected to a common drive shaft, as the main output shaft.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,317,058 to Blalock discloses an electromagnetic reciprocating engine

having a non-ferromagnetic cylinder with a permanent magnetic piston reciprocally
disposed therein and an electromagnet disposed at the outer end of the cylinder. A
switching device, interconnecting the electromagnet to an electrical power source,
causes the electromagnet to create an electrical field that reciprocates the piston
within the cylinder.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,507,579 to Turner discloses a reciprocating piston electric motor
having a magnetic piston slidably disposed in a nonmagnetic cylinder that has wire
coils wrapped around the ends thereof that are electrically activated to reciprocate the
piston inside the cylinder to drive a crankshaft connected to the piston by a piston rod.

12
U.S. Pat. No. 5,457,349 to Gifford discloses a reciprocating electromagnetic magnetic
engine having fixed magnets mounted in the piston that intermittently attract and repel
sequentially energized electromagnets that are radially mounted in the cylinder walls.
A computerized control mechanism regulates the timing of the electromagnets to
reciprocate the piston and drive a rotatable crankshaft.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,552,450 to Harty, et al. discloses a reciprocating engine having a
piston, Which is reciprocally disposed in a cylinder, that is driven by opposing
electromagnets connected With the piston and cylinder. A polarity switching
mechanism switches polarity to reciprocate the piston.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,557,473 to Butler discloses an electromagnetic reciprocating engine

comprising an electro magnet with opposing magnetic poles disposed between
permanent magnets mounted on either ends of a moving frame connected to a
crankshaft. Magnetic attraction and repulsion forces are used to reciprocate the frame
and rotate the crank shaft. One of the major disadvantages associated with previously
disclosed or presently available permanent magnet reciprocating motors is that
mechanism for switching polarity to reciprocally drive the piston in the cylinder
generally utilizes one or more electromagnets, which use a switching mechanism
interconnecting a power source with the electromagnets. A significant problem with
the use of an electromagnet to reciprocate a piston to or away from a permanent
magnet is that the force field of the permanent magnet is strongly attracted to the iron
core of the electromagnet.

This strong magnetic attraction force makes it very difficult, if not impossible, for the
magnetic repelling force to overcome the attraction between the permanent magnet
and the iron core, thereby eliminating the repel step (of the attract/ repel action) that is
necessary to reciprocate the piston in response to the magnetic switching. If the strong
magnetic attraction between the permanent magnet and the iron core can be
overcome, it requires an excessive amount of energy for the electromagnet. Other
devices utilize an electric motor or other prime mover to rotate or pivot a member
having the permanent magnets so as to periodically attract or repel magnets on the
piston to provide the force necessary for reciprocating the piston.

13
Naturally, the use of an external prime mover substantially reduces the energy
efficiency of the magnetically actuated reciprocating motor and, therefore, one of the
primary benefits of such motors. Another major disadvantage that is associated with
presently Available magnetically actuated reciprocating motors is that the switching
mechanisms are generally somewhat complicated and subject to malfunction or
cessation of operation. What is needed, therefore, is an improved magnetically
actuated reciprocating motor that has an improved mechanism for switching polarities
so as to periodically attract and repel a piston-like magnetic actuator to reciprocally
move the actuator and rotatably drive an output shaft.

An improved reciprocating motor will not utilize iron core electromagnets to attract
and repel the magnetic actuator toward or away from a permanent magnet so as to
avoid excessive attraction between the permanent magnet and iron core. The
reciprocating motor should not rely on a prime mover or the like to reciprocate
permanent magnets from an attracting position to a repelling position so as to
reciprocally drive a piston disposed in a cylinder.

The preferred reciprocating motor should be simple to operate, require a limited

number of moving components and be relatively inexpensive to manufacture. The
preferred reciprocating motor should connect to a crankshaft or other output shaft to
produce rotary power and be adaptable to a Wide variety of reciprocating motor uses,
including vehicle motion and power generation.

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 CHAPTER 3
ABOUT
MAGNETISM

3.1 ABOUT MAGNETISM

Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by bar magnet.
Magnetic Field lines of a solenoid which are similar to a bar magnet as illustrated
above with the iron Filings.

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is
Invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that
pulls on other Magnetic materials and attracts or repels other magnets. A permanent
magnet is one that stays Magnetized, such as a magnet used to hold notes on a
refrigerator door. Materials which can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are
strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic. These include iron, nickel,
cobalt, some rare earth metals and some of their alloys, and some naturally occurring
minerals such as lodestone.

The other type of magnet is an electromagnet, a coil of wire which acts as a magnet
when an electric current passes through it, but stops being a magnet when the current
stops. Often an electromagnet is wrapped around core of ferromagnetic material like
steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil. Permanent magnets are
made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials which are designed to stay magnetized,
while "soft" ferromagnetic materials like soft iron are attracted to a magnet but don't
tend to stay magnetized.

Although ferromagnetic materials are the only ones strongly enough attracted to a
magnet
to be commonly considered "magnetic", all other substances respond weakly to a
magnetic field, by one of several other types of magnetism. Paramagnetic materials,
such as aluminum and oxygen are weakly attracted to a magnet. Diamagnetic

15
materials, such as carbon and water, which include all substances not having another
type of magnetism, are weakly repelled by a magnet.

The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment, while the local
strength of the magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.

3.2 Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets

Fig3.1: A bout magnetism

3.3 Magnetization and demagnetization

Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:

Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field
and
hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method, and is similar to the
industrial
Processes used to create permanent magnets. Placing the item in an external magnetic
field will result in the item retaining some of the magnetism on removal. Vibration
has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials aligned with the earth's
magnetic field and which are subject to vibration (e.g. frame of a conveyor) have been
shown to acquire significant residual magnetism.

A magnetic field much stronger than the earth's can be generated inside a solenoid by
passing direct current through it.
Stroking - An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other
repeatedly
in the same direction.

16
Magnetized materials can be demagnetized in the following ways:

 Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature - the molecular motion destroys
the
alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization.
 Hammering or jarring - the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the
magnetic domains. Will leave some residual magnetization.

CHAPTER 4
COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

4. Components and Description

4.1 Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced
by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is
turned off. Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices,
such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific
instruments, and magnetic separation equipment, as well as being employed as
industrial lifting electromagnets for picking up and moving heavy iron objects like
scrap iron.

Fig4.1.1:Electromagnet

A simple electromagnet consisting of a coil of insulated wire wrapped around an iron

core. The strength of magnetic field generated is proportional to the amount of
current.

17
 Fig4.1.2:Magnetic field

Current (I) through a wire produces a magnetic field (B). The field is oriented
according to the right-hand rule.

An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire (see
drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is
wound into a coil with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all
the turns of wire passes through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field
there. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube (a helix) is called a solenoid; a
solenoid that is bent into a donut shape so that the ends meet is called a toroid. Much
stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "core" of ferromagnetic material, such
as soft iron, is placed inside the coil. The ferromagnetic core increases the magnetic
field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the
high magnetic permeability μ of the ferromagnetic material. This is called a
ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet.

Fig4.1.3: Magnetic field produced by a solenoid

18
Magnetic field produced by a solenoid(coil of wire). This drawing shows a cross
section through the center of the coil. The crosses are wires in which current is
moving into the page; the dots are wires in which current is moving up out of the
page.

The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of
the right-hand rule.  If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the
direction of current flow (conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the
windings, the thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the
magnet that the field lines emerge from is defined to be the North Pole.

The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the

magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the
amount of electric current. However, a continuous supply of electrical energy is
required to maintain the field.

4.1.1 Working of Iron Core

The material of the core of the magnet (usually iron) is composed of small regions

called magnetic domains that act like tiny magnets (see ferromagnetism). Before the
current in the electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random
directions, so their tiny magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no
large scale magnetic field. When a current is passed through the wire wrapped around
the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron, and causes the domains to turn,
aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic fields add to the wire's
field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the magnet.
The larger the current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and
the stronger the magnetic field is. Finally all the domains are lined up, and further
increases in current only cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this phenomenon
is called saturation.

When the current in the coil is turned off, most of the domains lose alignment and
return to a random state and the field disappears. However some of the alignment
persists, because the domains have difficulty turning their direction of magnetization,
leaving the core a weak permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called hysteresis and

19
the remaining magnetic field is called remanent magnetism. The residual
magnetization of the core can be removed by degaussing.

Fig4.1.4: Electromagnet used in the Tevatron particle accelerator, Fermi lab,

USA

4.1.2 History

Fig4.1.5: Sturgeon's electromagnet, 1824

Danish scientist Hans Christianorsted discovered in 1820 that electric currents create

magnetic fields. British scientist William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in
1824.His first electromagnet was a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that was wrapped
with about 18 turns of bare copper wire (insulated wire didn't exist yet). The iron

20
was varnished to insulate it from the windings. When a current was passed through
the coil, the iron became magnetized and attracted other pieces of iron; when the
current was stopped, it lost magnetization. Sturgeon displayed its power by showing
that although it only weighed seven ounces (roughly 200 grams), it could lift nine
pounds (roughly 4 kilos) when the current of a single-cell battery was applied.
However, Sturgeon's magnets were weak because the un insulated wire he used could
only be wrapped in a single spaced out layer around the core, limiting the number of
turns. Beginning in 1827, US scientist Joseph Henry systematically improved and
popularized the electromagnet. By using wire insulated by silk thread he was able to
wind multiple layers of wire on cores, creating powerful magnets with thousands of
turns of wire, including one that could support 2,063 lb (936 kg). The first major use
for electromagnets was in telegraph sounders.

The magnetic domain theory of how ferromagnetic cores work was first proposed in
1906 by French physicist Pierre-Ernest Weiss, and the detailed modern quantum
mechanical theory of ferromagnetism were worked out in the 1920s by Werner
Heisenberg, Lev Landau, Felix Bloch and others.

4.1.3 USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS

Fig4.1.6: Industrial electromagnet lifting scrap iron, 1914

21
Electromagnets are very widely used in electric and electromechanical devices,
including:

 Motors and generators

 Transformers

 Relays, including reed relays originally used in telephone exchanges

 Electric bells

 Loudspeakers

 Magnetic recording and data storage equipment: tape recorders, VCRs, hard

disks

 Scientific instruments such as MRI machines and mass spectrometers

 Particle accelerators

 Magnetic locks

 Magnetic separation of material

 Industrial lifting magnets.

4.1.4 Magnetic circuit – The constant B field approximation

22
 Fig4.1.7: Magnetic field of a typical electromagnet.

Magnetic field (green) of a typical electromagnet, with the iron

core forming a closed loop with two air gaps G in it. Most of the magnetic
field B is concentrated in the core. However some of the field lines BL, called
the "leakage flux", do not follow the full core circuit and so do not contribute
to the force exerted by the electromagnet. In the gaps the field lines spread out
beyond the boundaries of the core in "fringing fields" BF. This increases the
"resistance" (reluctance) of the magnetic circuit, decreasing the total magnetic
flux in the core. Both the leakage flux and the fringing fields get larger as the
gaps are increased, reducing the force exerted by the magnet. Line L shows the
average length of the magnetic circuit, used in equation (1) below. It is the
sum of the length Lcore in the iron core and the length Lgap in the air gaps

Since most of the magnetic field is confined within the outlines of the core loop, this
allows a simplification of the mathematical analysis. See the drawing at right. A
common simplifying assumption satisfied by many electromagnets, which will be
used in this section, is that the magnetic field strength B is constant around

23
the magnetic circuit and zero outside it. Most of the magnetic field will be
concentrated in the core material (C). Within the core the magnetic field (B) will be
approximately uniform across any cross section, so if in addition the core has roughly
constant area throughout its length, the field in the core will be constant. This just
leaves the air gaps (G), if any, between core sections. In the gaps the magnetic field
lines are no longer confined by the core, so they 'bulge' out beyond the outlines of the
core before curving back to enter the next piece of core material, reducing the field
strength in the gap. The bulges (BF) are called fringing fields. However, as long as the
length of the gap is smaller than the cross section dimensions of the core, the field in
the gap will be approximately the same as in the core. In addition, some of the
magnetic field lines (BL) will take 'short cuts' and not pass through the entire core
circuit, and thus will not contribute to the force exerted by the magnet. This also
includes field lines that encircle the wire windings but do not enter the core. This is
called leakage flux. Therefore the equations in this section are valid for
electromagnets for which:

1. The magnetic circuit is a single loop of core material, possibly broken by a

few air gaps

2. The core has roughly the same cross sectional area throughout its length.

3. Any air gaps between sections of core material are not large compared with
the cross sectional dimensions of the core.

4. There is negligible leakage flux

The main nonlinear feature of ferromagnetic materials is that the B field saturates at a

certain value, which is around 1.6  teslas (T) for most high permeability core steels.
The B field increases quickly with increasing current up to that value, but above that
value the field levels off and becomes almost constant, regardless of how much
current is sent through the windings.

4.1.5 Force exerted by magnetic field

Max. Force exerted by electromagnet on piston

F1 = (N2I2KA)/2G

24
 Where, N = number of turns = 500

I = Current flowing through coil = 5 A

K = Permeability of free space = 4π×10-7

A = Cross-sectional area of electromagnet (A = 50×50mmsqure)

G = Least distance between electromagnet and permanent magnet = 0.005 m

4.1.6 Core losses

In alternating current (AC) electromagnets, used in transformers, inductors, and AC

motors and generators, the magnetic field is constantly changing. This causes energy
losses in their magnetic cores that are dissipated as heat in the core. The losses stem
from two processes:

 Eddy currents: From Faraday's law of induction, the changing magnetic field

induces circulating electric currents inside nearby conductors, called eddy
currents. The energy in these currents is dissipated as heat in the electrical
resistance of the conductor, so they are a cause of energy loss. Since the
magnet's iron core is conductive, and most of the magnetic field is
concentrated there, eddy currents in the core are the major problem. Eddy
currents are closed loops of current that flow in planes perpendicular to the
magnetic field. The energy dissipated is proportional to the area enclosed by
the loop. To prevent them, the cores of AC electromagnets are made of stacks
of thin steel sheets, or laminations, oriented parallel to the magnetic field, with
an insulating coating on the surface. The insulation layers prevent eddy current
from flowing between the sheets. Any remaining eddy currents must flow
within the cross section of each individual lamination, which reduces losses
greatly. Another alternative is to use a ferrite core, which is a nonconductor.

 Hysteresis losses: Reversing the direction of magnetization of the magnetic

domains in the core material each cycle causes energy loss, because of
the coercivity  of the material. These losses are called hysteresis. The energy
lost per cycle is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop in the BH graph.
To minimize this loss, magnetic cores used in transformers and other AC

25
 electromagnets are made of "soft" low coercivity materials, such as silicon
steel or soft ferrite. The energy loss per cycle of the AC current is constant for
each of these processes, so the power loss increases linearly with frequency.

4.1.7 High field electromagnets

 Superconducting electromagnets
When a magnetic field higher than the ferromagnetic limit of 1.6 T is
needed, superconducting electromagnets can be used. Instead of using
ferromagnetic materials, these use superconducting windings cooled
with liquid helium, which conduct current without electrical resistance. These
allow enormous currents to flow, which generate intense magnetic fields.
Superconducting magnets are limited by the field strength at which the
winding material ceases to be superconducting. Current designs are limited to
10–20 T, with the current (2009) record of 33.8 T. The necessary refrigeration
equipment and cryostat make them much more expensive than ordinary
electromagnets. However, in high power applications this can be offset by
lower operating costs, since after startup no power is required for the
windings, since no energy is lost to ohmic heating. They are used in particle
accelerators, MRI machines, and research.
 Bitter electromagnets
Both iron-core and superconducting electromagnets have limits to the field
they can produce. Therefore the most powerful man-made magnetic fields
have been generated by air-core non super conducting electromagnets of a
design invented by Francis Bitter in 1933, called Bitter
electromagnets. Instead of wire windings, a Bitter magnet consists of
a solenoid made of a stack of conducting disks, arranged so that the current
moves in a helical path through them. This design has the mechanical strength
to withstand the extreme Lorentz forces of the field, which increase with B2.t.

Definition of terms

26
 square meter cross sectional area of core

Tesla Magnetic field (Magnetic flux density)

Newton Force exerted by magnetic field

ampere per meter Magnetizing field

Ampere Current in the winding wire

Total length of the magnetic field

Meter
path 

Length of the magnetic field path in the core

Meter
material

Meter Length of the magnetic field path in air gaps

ampere meter Pole strength of the electromagnet

Newton per square ampere Permeability of the electromagnet core material

Newton per square ampere Permeability of free space (or air) = 4π(10−7)

Relative permeability of the electromagnet core

-
material

- Number of turns of wire on the electromagnet

Meter Distance between the poles of two electromagnets

4.2 Neodymium magnets

A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB or Neo magnet), the most
widely used type of rare-earth magnet, is a permanent magnet made from an alloy of
neodymium, iron and boron to form the Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure.
Developed in 1982 by General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium
magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet commercially available. They
have replaced other types of magnets in the many applications in modern products
that require strong permanent magnets, such as motors in cordless tools, hard disk
drives and magnetic fasteners.

27
Neodymium is a metal which is ferromagnetic (more specifically it shows ant
ferromagnetic properties), meaning that like iron it can be magnetized to become a
magnet, but its Curie temperature (the temperature above which its ferromagnetism
disappears) is 19 K (−254 °C), so in pure form its magnetism only appears at
extremely low temperatures. However, compounds of neodymium with transition
metals such as iron can have Curie temperatures well above room temperature, and
these are used to make neodymium magnets.

The strength of neodymium magnets is due to several factors. The tetragonal

Nd2Fe14B crystal structure has exceptionally high uniaxial magneto crystalline
anisotropy (HA ~7 T – magnetic field strength H in units of A/m versus magnetic
moment in A·m2). This means a crystal of the material preferentially magnetizes along
a specific crystal axis, but is very difficult to magnetize in other directions. Like other
magnets, the neodymium magnet alloy is composed of microcrystalline grains which
are aligned in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture so their magnetic axes all
point in the same direction. The resistance of the crystal lattice to turning its direction
of magnetization gives the compound a very high coercivity, or resistance to being
demagnetized.

the alloy composition, microstructure, and manufacturing technique employed.

Neodymium magnets (small cylinders) lifting steel spheres. Such magnets can easily
lift thousands of times their own weight. Ferrofluid can be used to disclose a powerful
neodymium magnet's field.

4.2.1 GRADES OF NEODYMIUM MAGNETS

Neodymium magnets are graded according to their maximum energy product, which
relates to the magnetic flux output per unit volume. Higher values indicate stronger
magnets and range from N35 up to N52. Letters following the grade indicate
maximum operating temperatures (often the Curie temperature), which range from M
(up to 100 °C) to EH (200 °C).

Grades of Neodymium magnets

28
N35-N52

N33M-N48M

N30H-N45H

N30SH-N42SH

N30UH-N35UH

N28EH-N35EH

4.2.2 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Some important properties used to compare permanent magnets are:

Remanence (Br)
which measures the strength of the magnetic field

Coercivity (Hci)
the material's resistance to becoming demagnetized Energy product (BHmax)
the density of magnetic energy

Curie temperature (TC)

the temperature at which the material loses its magnetism.

Magnet Br Hci BHmax TC

(T) (kA/m) (kJ/m3) (°C) (°F)

590
–
Nd2Fe14B (sintered) 1.0–1.4 750– 200– 310– 752
2000 440 400

590
–
Nd2Fe14B (bonded) 0.6–0.7 600– 60–100 310– 752

29
 1200 400

132
SmCo5 (sintered) 0.8–1.1 600– 120– 720 8
2000 200

147
Sm(Co, Fe, Cu, Zr)7 0.9– 450– 150– 800 2
(sintered) 1.15 1300 240

129
Alnico (sintered) 0.6–1.4 275 10–88 700– 2–
158
860 0

Sr-ferrite (sintered) 0.2– 100–300 10–40 450 842

0.78

Table 4.1 Properties of magnets

30
31
32
4.3 Crank shaft

A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion

between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine. it
translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion; whereas in a reciprocating
compressor. It converts the rotational motion into reciprocating motion. In order to do the conversion
between two motions, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces
whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each
cylinder attach.

It is typically connected to a flywheel to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke

cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce
the torsional vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest
from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.

4.3.1 Bearings

The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing

journals riding on replaceable bearings (the main bearings) held in the engine block. As the
crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in a multi cylinder engine,
it must be supported by several such bearings, not just one at each end. This was a factor in the
rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, in preference to straight-8 engines. The long
crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers
began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds. High performance engines
often have more main bearings than their lower performance cousins for this reason.

4.3.2 Piston stroke

The distance the axis of the crank throws from the axis of the crankshaft determines the
piston stroke measurement, and thus engine displacement. A common way to increase the low-
speed torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes known as "shaft-stroking." This
also increases the reciprocating vibration, however, limiting the high speed capability of the
engine. In compensation, it improves the low speed operation of the engine, as the longer intake
stroke through smaller valve(s) results in greater turbulence and mixing of the intake charge.
Most modern high speed production engines are classified as "over square" or short-stroke,
wherein the stroke is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore. As such, finding the proper
balance between shaft-stroking speed and length leads to better results.

33
4.3.3 Engine configuration

The configuration, meaning the number of pistons and their placement in relation to each other
leads to straight, V or flat engines. The same basic engine block can sometimes be used with
different crankshafts, however, to alter the firing order. For instance, the 90° V6 engine
configuration, in older days  sometimes derived by using six cylinders of a V8 engine with a 3
throw crankshaft, produces an engine with an inherent pulsation in the power flow due to the
"gap" between the firing pulses alternates between short and long pauses because the 90 degree
engine block does not correspond to the 120 degree spacing of the crankshaft. The same engine,
however, can be made to provide evenly spaced power pulses by using a crankshaft with an
individual crank throw for each cylinder, spaced so that the pistons are actually phased 120°
apart, as in the GM 3800 engine. While most production V8 engines use four crank throws
spaced 90° apart, high-performance V8 engines often use a "flat" crankshaft with throws spaced
180° apart, essentially resulting in two straight four engines running on a common crankcase.
The difference can be heard as the flat-plane crankshafts result in the engine having a smoother,
higher-pitched sound than cross-plane (for example, IRL Indy Car Series compared to NASCAR
Sprint Cup Series, or a Ferrari 355 compared to a Chevrolet Corvette). This type of crankshaft
was also used on early types of V8 engines. See the main article on cross plane crankshafts.

4.3.4 Engine balance

For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating mass of each

piston and connecting rod to improve engine balance. These are typically cast as part of the
crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces. While counter weights add a considerable
amount of weight to the crankshaft, it provides a smoother running engine and allows higher
RPM levels to be reached.

34
Forging and casting

Figure4.3.1 Forged crankshaft

Crankshafts can be forged from a steel bar usually through roll forging or cast in ductile steel.
Today more and more manufacturers tend to favor the use of forged crankshafts due to their
lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent damping. With forged
crankshafts, vanadium micro alloyed steels are mostly used as these steels can be air cooled after
reaching high strengths without additional heat treatment, with exception to the surface
hardening of the bearing surfaces. The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than
high alloy steels. Carbon steels are also used, but these require additional heat treatment to reach
the desired properties. Cast iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production
engines (such as those found in the Ford Focus diesel engines) where the loads are lower. Some
engines also use cast iron crankshafts for low output versions while the more expensive high
output version use forged steel.

4.3.5 Counterweights

Some expensive, high performance crankshafts also use heavy-metal counterweights to make the
crankshaft more compact. The heavy-metal used is most often a tungsten alloy but depleted
uranium has also been used. A cheaper option is to use lead, but compared with tungsten its
density is much lower.

4.3.6 Stress on crankshaft

The shaft is subjected to various forces but generally needs to be analysed in two positions.
Firstly, failure may occur at the position of maximum bending; this may be at the centre of the

35
crank or at either end. In such a condition the failure is due to bending and the pressure in the
cylinder is maximal. Second, the crank may fail due to twisting, so the con rod needs to be
checked for shear at the position of maximal twisting. The pressure at this position is the
maximal pressure, but only a fraction of maximal pressure.

4.3.7 Fatigue strength

The fatigue strength of crankshafts is usually increased by using a radius at the ends of each
main and crankpin bearing. The radius itself reduces the stress in these critical areas, but since
the radius in most cases is rolled, this also leaves some compressive residual stress in the surface,
which prevents cracks from forming.

4.3.8 Hardening

Most production crankshafts use induction hardened bearing surfaces, since that method gives
good results with low costs. It also allows the crankshaft to be reground without re-hardening.
But high performance crankshafts, billet crankshafts in particular, tend to
use nitridization instead. Nitridization is slower and thereby more costly, and in addition it puts
certain demands on the alloying metals in the steel to be able to create stable nitrides. The
advantage of nitridization is that it can be done at low temperatures, it produces a very hard
surface, and the process leaves some compressive residual stress in the surface, which is good for
fatigue properties. The low temperature during treatment is advantageous in that it doesn’t have
any negative effects on the steel, such as annealing. With crankshafts that operate on roller
bearings, the use of carburization tends to be favored due to the high Hertzian contact stresses in
such an application. Like nitriding, carburization also leaves some compressive residual stresses
in the surface.

4.3.9 Crankshaft mechanical advantage

The Mechanical Advantage of a crank, the ratio between the force on the connecting rod and the
torque on the shaft, varies throughout the crank’s cycle. The crankshaft, sometimes abbreviated
to crank, is responsible for conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a
reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotational motion. In
order to do the conversion between two motions, the crankshaft has “crank throws”, additional
bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the “big ends” of the
connecting rods from each cylinder attach.

The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine turns the crankshaft a haft stroke, it applies power
every haft of a revolution. Using a haft stroke, Power – Off [pulse], will produce two benefits, a

36
decrease in the energy required and an increase in horsepower produced. Compared to the
Combustion Engine, that turns a crankshaft using four strokes, the Electromagnetic
Reciprocating Engine is 88% more efficient. That is because the Combustion Engine uses four
strokes. Four strokes is the most efficient way with the combustion process, Intake –
Compression– Power – Exhaust. But the four strokes has power applied every third stroke
leaving three strokes without producing power.

Force Decrease

# Strokes Force Decrease

4 Strokes 1,495 IC

2 Strokes 747 50%

1 Strokes 37400% 75%

1/2 Strokes 187 87%

Table4.2 Decrease in energy

Horsepower
Increase

Power
#Strokes Formula Stroke

4 Strokes 4/5000 1,250

2 Strokes 2/5000 2,500

1 Strokes 1/5000 5,000

1/2 Strokes 5/10000 10,000

Table4.3 Increase in horsepower

 Decrease in energy: The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine turns the crankshaft

a haft stroke before power is provided. The decrease in strokes requires a decrease in
energy, force, required by the crankshaft is because the number of strokes has decreased
compared to the Combustion Engine. The haft stroke requires less power because the
Distances it travels is less than in the Combustion Engine. This smaller distance
decreases the time it takes to turn the crankshaft. This small distance decreases the
amount of force that is required to turn the crank (Table 4.2).

37
  Increase in horsepower: The Electromagnetic Reciprocating Engine turns the
crankshaft a haft stroke before power is provided. This change in strokes will increase the
Horsepower compared to the Combustion Engine. The increase in horsepower is due to
the change of Time it takes to turn the crankshaft before power is provided to the
crankshaft. The definition of the horsepower is HP=Force x Distance/Time, using four
strokes, every 4th strokes is a power stroke, that mean that three strokes are not being
used. An increase in efficiency is possible if the number of power strokes is increase per
revolution. This is accomplished by decreasing the number of strokes from four strokes to
a haft stroke. Using the example of a 300 horsepower Combustion Engine, the power per
revolution is increased from 1250 rpm’s to 10,000 rpm’s. This increases the horsepower
by 88% (Table 4.3).

4.4 Connecting rod

A connecting rod is a shaft which connects a piston to a crank or crankshaft in a reciprocating

engine. Together with the crank, it forms a simple mechanism that converts reciprocating motion
into rotating motion. A connecting rod may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating
motion, its original use. Earlier mechanisms, such as the chain, could only impart pulling motion.
Being rigid, a connecting rod may transmit either push or pull, allowing the rod to rotate the
crank through both halves of a revolution. In a few two-stroke engines the connecting rod is only
required to push. Today, the connecting rod is best known through its use in internal combustion
piston engines, such as automobile engines. These are of a distinctly different design from earlier
forms of connecting rod used in steam engines and steam locomotives.

4.4.1 Small end and big end

The small end attaches to the piston pin, gudgeon pin or wrist pin, which is currently most
often press fit into the connecting rod but can swivel in the piston, a "floating wrist pin" design.
The big end connects to the crankpin (bearing journal) on the crank throw, in most engines
running on replaceable bearing shells accessible via the connecting rod bolts which hold the
bearing "cap" onto the big end. Typically there is a pinhole bored through the bearing on the big
end of the connecting rod so that pressurized lubricating motor oil squirts out onto the thrust side
of the cylinder wall to lubricate the travel of the pistons and piston rings. Most small two-stroke
engines and some single cylinder four-stroke engines avoid the need for a pumped lubrication
system by using a rolling-element bearing instead, however this requires the crankshaft to be
pressed apart and then back together in order to replace a connecting rod.

38
4.4.2 Engine wear and rod length
A major source of engine wear is the sideways force exerted on the piston through the
connecting rod by the crankshaft, which typically wears the cylinder into an oval cross-section
rather than circular, making it impossible for piston rings to correctly seal against the cylinder
walls. Geometrically, it can be seen that longer connecting rods will reduce the amount of this
sideways force, and therefore lead to longer engine life. However, for a given engine block, the
sum of the length of the connecting rod plus the piston stroke is a fixed number, determined by
the fixed distance between the crankshaft axis and the top of the cylinder block where
the cylinder head fastens.

Figure4.4.1 Connecting rod

4.5 Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas
compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving
component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its
purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston
rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the
crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In
some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder.

Figure4.5.1 Piston

39
4.6 Fly wheel
A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational energy.
Flywheels resist changes in rotational speed by their moment of inertia. The amount of energy
stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational speed. The way to change a
flywheel's stored energy is by increasing or decreasing its rotational speed by applying
a torque aligned with its axis of symmetry,

Common uses of a flywheel include:

 Smoothing the power output of an energy source. For example, flywheels are used
in reciprocating engines because the active torque from the individual pistons is
intermittent.
 Energy storage systems
 Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source. This is achieved by
collecting energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it quickly, at rates that
exceed the abilities of the energy source.
 Controlling the orientation of a mechanical system, gyroscope and reaction wheel

Flywheels are typically made of steel and rotate on conventional bearings; these are generally
limited to a maximum revolution rate of a few thousand RPM High energy density flywheels can
be made of carbon fiber composites and employ magnetic bearings, enabling them to revolve at
speeds up to 60,000 RPM (1 kHz).

Carbon-composite flywheel batteries have recently been manufactured and are proving to be
viable in real-world tests on mainstream cars. Additionally, their disposal is more eco-friendly
than traditional lithium ion batteries.

40
 Figure4.6.1 Flywheel

4.7 Cylinder (stainless steel)

In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from

French inoxydable (inoxidizable), is a steel alloy with a minimum of
10.5% chromium content by mass.

Stainless steels are notable for their corrosion resistance, which increases with increasing
chromium content. Molybdenum additions increase corrosion resistance in reducing acids and
against pitting attack in chloride solutions. Thus, there are numerous grades of stainless steel
with varying chromium and molybdenum contents to suit the environment the alloy must endure.
Thus stainless steels are used where both the strength of steel and corrosion resistance are
required.

Stainless steels resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar luster make it
an ideal material for many applications. Stainless steels are rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire,
and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances and as
construction material in large buildings, such as the Chrysler Building. As well as, industrial
equipment (for example, in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and
tankers for chemicals and food products (for example, chemical tankers and road tankers).
Stainless steels corrosion resistance, the ease with which it can be steam cleaned and sterilized
and no need for other surface coatings has also influenced its use in commercial kitchens and
food processing plants.

Figure4.7.1 Stainless steel cyllinder

41
4.8 Copper wire

Magnet wire or enameled wire is a copper or aluminum wire coated with a very thin layer

of insulation. It is used in the construction of transformers, inductors, motors, speakers, hard disk
head actuators, electromagnets, and other applications that require tight coils of insulated wire.

The wire itself is most often fully annealed, electrolytic ally refined copper. Aluminium magnet
wire is sometimes used for large transformers and motors. The insulation is typically made of
tough polymer film materials rather than enamel, as the name might suggest

4.8.1 Cross-section
Smaller diameter magnet wire usually has a round cross-section. This kind of wire is used for
things such as electric guitar pickups. Thicker magnet wire is often square, rectangular or
hexagonal (with rounded corners) in cross section, packing more efficiently and having greater
structural stability and thermal conductivity across adjacent turns.

4.8.2 Applications

Magnet wire is used in windings of electric

motors, transformers, inductors, generators, headphones, loudspeaker coils, hard drive head
positioners, electromagnets, and other devices.

Figure4.8.1 enameled wire copper wire

42
4.9 Transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit another by
electromagnetic induction (transformer action). The electrical energy is always transferred
without a change in frequency, but may involve changes in magnitudes of voltage and current.
Because a transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction, it must be used with
an input source voltage that varies in amplitude. There are many types of power that fit this
description; for ease of explanation and understanding, transformer action will be explained
using an ac voltage as the input source. It is used for the purpose of battery charging. It converts
AC 230 volt into AC 12 Volt having current 1 Amp. The supply of obtain of transformer is AC
by using rectifier circuit it covert into DC unregulated.

Figure4.9.1 Transformer

4.10 Cam and follwer arrangement

Cams are mechanical devices which are used to generate curvilinear or irregular motion of
mechanical elements. They are used to convert rotary motion into oscillatory motion or
oscillatory motion into rotary motion. There are two links namely the cam itself which acts as an
input member. The other link that acts as an output member is called the follower. The cam
transmits the motion to the follower by direct contact. In a cam-follower pair, the cam usually
rotates while the follower translates or oscillates. Complicated output motions which are
otherwise difficult to achieve can easily be produced with the help of cams. Cams are widely

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 used in internal combustion engines, machine tools, printing control mechanisms, textile
weaving industries, automated machines etc.

Necessary elements of a cam mechanism are:

 A driver member known as the cam

 A driven member called the follower
 A frame which supports the cam and guides the follower

Fig4.10.1: Cam and follower arrangement

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 CHAPTER 5
CONSTRUCTION

5.1 CONSTRUCTION
Construction of the electromagnet is similar to the IC Engine. It consists of one Electromagnet
and one permanent magnet. This model of engine is constructed mainly on the cylinder, a
cylindrical steel of a certain thickness which is made of a non-magnetic material is used, in this
case steel has been used to reduce net weight. This cylinder is machined to the required diameter
so that piston reciprocates freely inside it. Piston which is shown in the figure is used to connect
the magnetic top and the connecting rod. Grooves are visible which fix the connecting rod.

Figure5.1 Connecting rod and piston Figure5.2 Stainless steel cylinder

Now, a electromagnet is to be surrounded by the magnetic coil. For that, A plastic bobbin has
been used to support the winding and also to insert it around the cylinder as shown in the figure.
Here insulating coil has been used for the purpose of creating flux free magnetic field.

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 Figure5.3 Iron rod Figure5.4 copper wire

When the bobbin is installed on the cylinder, insulating coil is tube wound around the surface of
the bobbin, copper coil is to be wound tightly on the bobbin so that no air gaps are present. Two
ends of the coils must be left for electrical connections.
Permanent magnet which is to be fitted to the piston base is made of magnetic material, here we
used Mild steel. Neo magnets are fixed at its top using LN Key, as shown in the figure. This acts
as the permanent magnet, used to run the engine.

Figure5.5 Neodymium magnet (N52)

The cam and follower arrangement is used to control the switching of electromagnets. The
schematic diagram of Electromagnetic Engine is shown in fig.
A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational energy.
Flywheels resist changes in rotational speed by their moment of inertia. The amount of energy
stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational speed. It is connected to the
crankshaft as shown in below. And the cylinder base wood is as shown below. It is made up of
wood.

Figure5.6 Flywheel Figure5.7 wood base

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 CHAPTER 6
WORKING

6.1 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF ELCTROMAGNETIC ENGINE

This engine work on three basic principles,
6.1.1 PRINCIPAL OF MAGNET
Like poles repels each other and unlike poles attracts each other.
This will be the basic principle to achieve the reciprocations, where the magnet is successively
attracted and repelled for achieving reciprocating action.

Figure6.1 Principle of magnet

6.1.2. PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROMAGNET

Electric current flowing through a wire wound around an iron nail creates a magnetic field,
which caused an iron nail to become a temporary magnet. The nail can then be used to pick up
paper clips. When the electric current is cut off, the nail loses its magnetic property and the paper
clips fall off. The students will make an electromagnet that will attract a paper clip. They will
then increase the strength of an electromagnet (improve on their initial design) so that it will
attract an increased number of paper clips. The participants will also compare the properties of

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 magnets and electromagnets.

Figure6.2 Principle of electromagnet

6.1.3 Principle of Solenoid

An electric current through the coil creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a force on
the plunger. As a result, the plunger is pulled toward the centre of the coil so that the orifice
opens. This is the basic principle of solenoid.

Figure6.3 Principle of solinoid

Working
Now, D.C current of around 24 Volts is supplied to the coils, it gets magnetized. Strong magnetic
field is created inside the cylinder. Two poles are formed at the either ends of cylinder like north
and South Pole When permanent magnet is placed pointing its north pole upwards, to get
attracted to the top of the cylinder which is set as the opposite pole using the controller, piston
moves to TDC. Now, the electromagnet is placed on the cylinder. We will give the current to the
electromagnet when the piston at TDC. It pushes the piston to BDC due to the magnetic force
and at a time the another piston moves up wards similarly we will give current to the another
electromagnet using cam and follower mechanism. When direction of the current is changed,
north pole is formed at the top of the cylinder and North Pole of the piston gets repelled

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downwards. Piston now moves to the BDC. This is the resultant Reciprocating motion which
converted to the rotary motion of the flywheel, using Connecting rod assembly as shown in the
figure.

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50
 Figure6.4 Working of Electromagnetic engine.

CHAPTER 7
CALCULATION

7.1 Calculation
Design
Input voltage = 24V
Input current = 5 A
Input Power = Voltage × Current
= 24 × 5
=120W
Max. Force exerted by electromagnet on piston
F1 = (N2I2KA)/2G
Where,
N = number of turns = 500
I = Current flowing through coil = 5 A
K = Permeability of free space = 4π×10-7
A = Cross-sectional area of electromagnet (A = 50×50mmsqure)
G = Least distance between electromagnet and permanent magnet = 0.005 m
On substitution, we get Max. Force
F1 = 392.69 N
Force exerted by permanent magnet Force
F2 = (B2A)/2μ0
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Where,
B = Flux density (T)
A = Cross-sectional area of magnet (radius r = 0.025 m)
μ0= Permeability of free space = 4π×10-7
Now flux density
B = Br/2 × [(D + z)/ (R2 + (D + z) 2)0.5 – z/ (R2 + z2)0.5]
Where,
Br = Remanence field = 1.21 T
z = distance from a pole face = 0.010 m
D = thickness of magnet = 0.012 m

R = semi-diameter of the magnet = 0.025 m

On substitution we get flux density,
B = 0.3517 T
Now substituting B in the equation of force,
F2 = 96.63N
Since, force F1 and F2 are repulsive,
Total force F = F1 + F2
F = 489.32N.

Therefore the maximum force developed between the electromagnet and permanent magnet is
F = 489.32

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 CHAPTER 8
INDUSTRIAL UTILIZABILITY

8. Industrial Utilizability
The electromagnetic engine according to the present invention is operated by the
electromagnetic action and can generate greater magnetic force by a smaller exciting
current because the number of windings of exciting coils can be increased to a large
extent by its structure. Further, the magnetic force so produced can be utilized as a
driving force so that this engine is extremely superior from the energy-saving point of
view to usual electric drive motors and that it is suitable as a driving source
particularly for electric vehicles and so on.

Where the magnetic force so produced is utilized as a driving force for electric
vehicles in the manner as described hereinabove, a variety of technology developed
for internal combustion piston engines for vehicles, such as power transmission
mechanisms and so on, may also be used for electric vehicles with ease. Therefore,
the current plants and equipment for manufacturing vehicles can also be applied to
manufacturing electric vehicles and the technology involved in the present invention
can also greatly contribute to facilitating the development of electric vehicles.

Further, the electromagnetic engine according to the present invention is not of the
type rotating the rotor directly by the electromagnetic action as with conventional
electric drive motors so that the problems with the heavy weight of a portion
corresponding to the rotary assembly portion and so on, which are involved in
conventional electric drive motors for vehicles, may be solved at once.

Moreover, the electromagnetic engine according to the present invention does not
generate such a large amount of heat from its principles as with conventional internal
combustion piston engines so that no cooling mechanism for cooling engines for
vehicles is required, thereby contributing to making electric vehicles lightweight and
compact in size.

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CHAPTER 9

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CHAPTER9

59
 CHAPTER 9
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

9.1 Advantages

The Electromagnetic Engine can be used as a viable, clean alternative, which will all
but eliminate the production of CO2 resulting from the burning of fossil fuels (i.e., oil
and coal). The Electromagnetic Engine will not require any fuel, thereby creating no
need for oil, Coal or any other burning of Fossil fuels, hence, no CO2 production.
Several market applications have been identified for the new technology, including
vehicle propulsion, renewable electricity, and air travel. The primary market is
renewable electricity that will clean water anywhere.

The world is facing two large problems, Global Warming and Oil supply ending. We
will affect both problems by replacing the one common source, the Combustion
Engine. The combustion engine requires fossil fuel, oil, to operate. The Combustion
Engine burns fuel producing greenhouse gases.

Electromagnetic Engine:

1. Does not require fossil fuel or produce any CO2 gas.

2. Produce 88% more Horse power than the Combustion Engine and 87% less energy.

3. Produces the electricity for electromagnets and others systems- Renewable power.

9.1.1 Engine Efficiency

The Electromagnetic Engine is efficient in converting energy from Electromagnetic

Energy to Mechanical Energy by using Crank shaft. The Combustion Engine uses
crankshaft, but very inefficiently. The Electromagnetic Engine turns the crankshaft
more efficiently than the Combustion Engine, requires less strokes and energy to
produce more horse power than the Combustion Engine.

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9.1.2 Less power consumption

The Electromagnetic engine turns the crankshaft half a stroke or turn before power is
provided. This small Distance decreases the amount of Force that is required to turn
the crank. This decrease will increase that the engine will produce.

9.2 Disadvantages

1. It provides less uniform torque than the Internal Combustion Engine

2. Still research has to done for the system to be applicable for a Multi-Cylinder
system

3. Permanent Magnets loose efficiency with time and hence electro-magnets have to
be incorporated

4. Neo Magnets are costly to manufacture and thus the price of the system is more
than a general internal combustion Engine

5. Flux losses occur inside the cylinder and eventually they become very difficult to
control

6. Life span of the engine tested in lower than the Internal Combustion Engine and a
better choice of the engine material has to be made to increase the life span.

7. Though we have a working prototype of the model suggested but many design
changes still have to be incorporated to increase the efficiency of the system as a
whole

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 CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSION OF PROJECT

The Electromagnetic engine developed is an attempt to curb the pollution generated

by present Internal Combustion Engines. We have successfully demonstrated the
concept of using electromagnetic to produce crank shaft rotation in an Internal
Combustion Engine model. The research conducted is an example that the present
internal combustion engines can be modified and made eco-friendly by using the
suggested concept. Though the research conducted in this report in not adequate to be
commercially applied but we believe that with adequate funding and further research
we would be able to develop the first ever commercially usable electromagnetic
engine. The electromagnetic engine designed is totally different from motor, because
the working principle of both are different as well as the power consumption is also
very less in electromagnetic engine.

The only power consumed is the power consumed by electromagnet. Electromagnet

used here is to repel the permanent magnet. There are no other power consuming
components. Movement of magnet doesn’t induce back electromotive force in
windings of electromagnet and hence nothing happens similar to electric motor here.
Power to be produced at shaft of the engine is much more than the power to be
consumed by electromagnet to repel permanent magnet.
11. Recommendations

1. To generate more power, the number of windings must be increased and effective
cooling technique should be adopted.

2. All the parts of the IC Engine must be casted with non-magnetic material.

3. Neo-magnets on the piston cylinder should be designed for heavy flux density and
their strength should be shielded by avoiding its contact with magnetic materials.

4. Controller circuit should be cooled effectively by using alloy heat sinks as large
currents are drawn during excitation of the cylinder coil.

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12. Bibliography

1. Electromagnetic Engine by Vishal Abasaheb Misal1, Umesh Dattatray Hajare

& Arshad Ashak Atar

2. http://www.electromagnetic.org.uk/reciprocating.htm (Website on EM
engines)

3. Electromagnetic Mechanism by Shirsendu Das (TIT Agartala)

4. Reciprocating Electromagnetic Engine, Leland W.Gifford

5. IJDR journal (Studies on Electromagnetic Engine)

6. Basic concept of electromagnet & electromagnetism from text

book of Physics by C.R.Dasgupta
7. Basic concept of Engine from the book ‘Automotive Engine’ by
Srinivasan
8. Simple Electromagnetic Engine using piston and flywheel by Jestin_Cubetech

9. Teal Benjiman R - Magnetically operable engine

10. Oliver Thurston Davis - Electromagnetic motor and generator

11. William John Hill - Electromagnetic engine

12. Studies on electromagnetic engine - Amarnath Jayaprakash, Balaji, G., Bala

Subramanian, S. and Naveesn

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