ADVANCED STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND

SYSTEMS

ZEHRA FARAZ
B.ARCH, SEMESTER IX
A8304015024
 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Construction is a tedious task and requires machines for easement of the work. There are several
equipment that are used in the Industry. These are used for both large and small scale purposes. They
are put to use in various types of jobs like for building & structural construction, road construction,
underwater and other marine construction works, etc. There are various operations that are involved in
construction projects, whether it’s a large scale or a small scale one;
 Excavation and digging of large quantities of earth,
 Placement of construction materials (e.g.:-Bricks, concrete)
 Compacting and leveling,
 Dozing,
 Grading,
 Hauling etc…

The various construction equipment used, can be broadly divided into three categories of machines
based on the type of system they run on:
1. Hydraulic Equipment
2. Mechanical Equipment
3. Electrical Equipment

Construction equipment can be further studied as under:

1. Electric Hand Tools

An electric hand tool is a tool that is actuated by an additional power source and mechanism
other than the solely manual labor used with hand tools. The most common types of electric
tools use electric motors. Internal combustion engines and compressed air were used earlier.
Other power sources that were used initially include steam engines, direct burning of fuels and
propellants, such as in powder-actuated tools, or even natural power sources such as wind or
moving water. Tools directly driven by animal power are not generally considered power or
electric tools.

Power tools are used in the construction industry, for tasks such as driving (fasteners), drilling,
cutting, shaping, sanding, grinding, routing, polishing, painting, etc.

Electric tools are classified as either stationary or portable, where portable means hand-held.
Portable electric tools have obvious advantages in mobility. Stationary power tools, however,
often have advantages in speed and precision. A typical table saw, for instance, not only cuts
faster than a regular hand saw, but the cuts are smoother, straighter, and more square than what
is normally achievable with a hand-held power saw. Some stationary power tools can produce
objects that cannot be made in any other way. Lathes, for example, produce truly round
objects.

A. Wall Chaser

A wall chaser is a specialised power tool used for cutting narrow grooves in walls,
for instance when laying electrical cable. The tool is usually powered by an electric
motor which drives a pair of abrasive discs like those found in an angle grinder,
positioned closely together.

B. Angle Grinders

An angle grinder, also known as a side grinder or disc grinder, is a handheld power

tool used for grinding (abrasive cutting) and polishing. Although developed
originally as tools for rigid abrasive discs, the availability of an interchangeable
power source has encouraged their use with a wide variety of cutters and
attachments. The motor drives a geared head at a right-angle on which is mounted
an abrasive disc or a thinner cut-off disc, either of which can be replaced when
worn. Angle grinders typically have an adjustable guard and a side-handle for two-
handed operation. Certain angle grinders, depending on their speed range, can be
used as sanders, employing a sanding disc with a backing pad or disc. The backing
system is typically made of hard plastic, phenolic resin, or medium-hard rubber
depending on the amount of flexibility desired. Angle grinders are standard
equipment on construction sites. There are many different kinds of discs that are
used for various materials and tasks, such as cut-off discs (diamond blade), abrasive
grinding discs, grinding stones, sanding discs, wire brush wheels and polishing
pads. The angle grinder has large bearings to counter side forces generated during
cutting, unlike a power drill, where the force is axial.

The most important factors in choosing the right grinder are the disc size and
how powerful the motor is. Other factors include power source (pneumatic or
electric), rpm, and arbor size. Generally disc size and power increase together. Disc
size is usually measured in inches or millimeters. Pneumatic grinders are generally
used for lighter duty jobs where more precision is required. This is likely because
pneumatic grinders can be small and light yet remain powerful, because they do not
contain heavy copper motor windings, while it is harder for an electric grinder to
maintain adequate power with smaller size. Electric grinders are more commonly
used for larger, heavy duty jobs. However, there are also small electric grinders and
large pneumatic grinders.

C. Belt Sander

A belt sander or strip sander is a sander used in shaping and finishing wood and
other materials. It consists of an electric motor that turns a pair of drums on
which a continuous loop of sandpaper is mounted. Belt sanders may be
handheld and moved over the material, or stationary (fixed), where the material
is moved to the sanding belt. Belt sanders can have a very aggressive action on
wood and are normally used only for the beginning stages of the sanding
process, or used to rapidly remove material. Sometimes they are also used for
removing paints or finishes from wood. Fitted with fine grit sand paper, a belt
sander can be used to achieve a completely smooth surface.
Sanding wood produces a large amount of sawdust. Therefore, belt
sanders employed in woodworking are usually equipped with some type of dust
collection system. It may be as simple as a cloth filter bag attached to a portable
sander or a large vacuum system to suck dust particles away into a central
collector. Taut-belt sanders allow for adjusting the angle of the idler drum to
keep the belt centered.

D. Biscuit Joiner
 A biscuit joiner (or sometimes plate joiner) is a woodworking tool used to join
two pieces of wood together. A biscuit joiner uses a small circular saw blade to
cut a crescent-shaped hole (called the mouth) in the opposite edges of two
pieces of wood or wood composite panels. An oval-shaped, highly dried and
compressed wooden biscuit (beech or particle wood) is covered with glue, or
glue is applied in the slot. The biscuit is immediately placed in the slot, and the
two boards are clamped together. The wet glue expands the biscuit, further
improving the bond.
The workpieces are brought together and the user marks the location for the
biscuits. Precise measurement is not required, as the biscuits are hidden when
the pieces are assembled, so a quick pencil stroke that marks both pieces where
they align is all that is required. The parts are separated and the machine is used
to cut the slots in each piece. The machine has reference marks on the center
line of the blade for easy alignment to the marks on the materials being joined.

E. Chainsaw

A chainsaw is a handheld mechanical saw which cuts with a set of teeth

attached to a rotating chain that runs along a guide bar. Special chainsaws can
cut concrete, brick and natural stone. These use similar chains to ordinary
chainsaws, but with cutting edges embedded with diamond grit. They may use
gasoline or hydraulic power, and the chain is lubricated with water, because of
high friction and to remove stone-dust. The machine is used in construction, for
example in cutting deep square holes in walls or floors, in stone sculpture for
removing large chunks of stone during pre-carving, by fire departments for
gaining access to buildings and in restoration of buildings and monuments, for
removing parts with minimal damage to the surrounding structure. More
recently concrete chainsaws with electric motors of 230 volts have also been
developed.
Because the material to be cut is non-fibrous, there is much less chance of
kickback. Therefore, the most-used method of cutting is plunge-cutting, by
pushing the tip of the blade into the material. With this method square cuts as
small as the blade width can be achieved. Pushback can occur if a block shifts
when nearly cut through and pinches the blade, but overall the machine is less
dangerous than a wood-cutting chainsaw.
 F. Circular Saw

A circular saw is a power-saw using a toothed or abrasive disc or blade to cut different
materials using a rotary motion spinning around an arbor. A hole saw and ring saw also use a
rotary motion but are different from a circular saw. Circular saws may also be loosely used for
the blade itself.

G. Cold Saw

A cold saw is a circular saw designed to cut metal which uses a toothed blade to transfer the
heat generated by cutting to the chips created by the saw blade, allowing both the blade and
material being cut to remain cool. This is in contrast to an abrasive saw, which abrades the
metal and generates a great deal of heat absorbed by the material being cut and saw blade.

H. Grinder

A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is one of power tools or machine tools used for
grinding, it is a type of machining using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of
abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the work piece via shear deformation.
Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must show high surface quality (e.g., low surface
roughness) and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions in
grinding is of the order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a finishing
operation and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to 0.50 mm depth. However,
there are some roughing applications in which grinding removes high volumes of metal quite
rapidly.
 2. Concrete Vibrators

A concrete vibrator is a construction tool typically used on concrete pouring sites. These machines and
an assortment of attachments are designed for multiple applications. The vibrators are used to ensure
that the pour is free of air bubbles and are even. This is so that the concrete remains strong and has a
smooth finish even after removal of the form work. It is not exactly necessary for small jobs but it can
be essential for large load bearing projects.

The machines range in sizes from small battery powered wands to larger plug in versions that are used
on very deep pours. A concrete vibrator can reach to the bottom of the pouring forms should be used
in all cases. This ensures even treatment during the entire concrete pour process. Attachments are
selected on the basis of depth and type of concrete used during the concrete pour. A typical concrete
vibrator utilizes an off-center weight that spins at 10,000 times a minute. This results in a large air
pocket within the concrete to disperse as the concrete is being gradually shaken. Especially in the
concrete pours of low slump concrete that uses minimal amount of water. The use of a vibrator is
essential in order to ensure that the concrete does not form bubbles or holes. This tool will help to
create an even and attractive surface instead of one that is ragged filled with bubbles on the surface.
The proper use of a concrete vibrator would require some form of training. The head should be slowly
lowered then pulled out gradually to avoid the formation of an air pocket in the pour. The tool should
also never be dragged through a pour. This will leave a groove in the concrete behind it. The time
required varies and is dependent on the mix. That being said, the mix should not take more than 30
seconds to settle the concrete sufficiently moving on to the next section of the concrete.
If the concrete vibrator is being used incorrectly on a concrete mix that has a wide range of material
sizes, this can cause the larger rocks to settle at the bottom which then makes the concrete weaker.
Additionally, the tool can push rock and gravel away from the area that is being shaken. This causes
the weaker concrete paste to fill the area. This again may result in instability. The main goal is to build
a strong matrix of material that could withstand the many years of usage. However, if it is being used
correctly, the operator will be able to see large bubbles floating towards the surface of the concrete
pour. A layer of mortar will also appear on the surface. This is to indicate that the concrete is mixed
evenly and is unlikely to have honeycombing and air pockets.
The first thing to take into consideration when choosing a concrete vibrator would be the size of it.
The size depends on how much concrete you will need to vibrate. When considering this, it is crucial
to think whether the concrete has to be vibrated quickly or some time allowance is provided. It is
advised to spend a little extra on a vibrator that has a lot of horsepower if speed is a large considering
factor. On top of that, there are also external and internal concrete vibrators to choose from. However,
the latter is the more commonly used option for many projects these days.

3. Power Float

A power float is a hand-operated machine used to produce a smooth, dense and level surface finish to
insitu concrete beds. Power floating eliminates the time and materials needed to apply a finishing
screed and is quicker and less labour-intensive process than hand trowelling. Power floats have an
electric motor or petrol engine fixed over a circular pan or skimmer which smooths concrete before
hardened steel reversible metal blades rotate at up to 150 rpm over the surface to create a hardened
finish. Before power floating the concrete must be left to partially set, having been leveled and
tamped. The amount of setting time necessary before power floating will depend on variables such as;
air temperature, humidity, the specification of the mix and so on. A rough guide for considering when
to begin power floating is when walking on the surface leaves indentations of 3-4 mm. If the concrete
is too wet the machine will tear up the surface, and if it is too dry, it will not be possible to trim high
spots or fill low spots effectively.
Floating usually starts at one end of the slab and moves to the other. The operator holds the float at
waist-height and moves backwards so that the float removes their footprints. The speed should be slow
and consistent. Once the surface has been floated, the blades are angled to suit the concrete and
achieve the specified finish. Blade angles of around 5-10 degrees are usual, but these may need to be
increased after each pass over the surface.

4. Pumps
Water pumps are commonly used on construction sites for dewatering or removing excess water
accumulation. Water can build up due to heavy rains or from a high water table, and pumps allow you
to move the water quickly to minimize downtime. Water pumps suitable for this application come in
two main types and can be electric, gas-powered, hydraulic, or manual.

Water Pump Types

There are two basic types of water pumps: centrifugal and positive displacement. Both types are
designed to move water from one place to another continuously.
A centrifugal water pump uses a rotating impeller to move water into the pump and pressurize the
discharge flow.

Centrifugal water pumps come in several different types, including standard, trash, and submersible
models. All liquids can be pumped using centrifugal water pumps, even those with low viscosity.
These pumps work well with thin liquids and offer high flow rates.

Positive displacement water pumps deliver a fixed amount of flow through the mechanical
contraction and expansion of a flexible diaphragm.

Positive displacement pumps are used in many industries that manage high-viscosity liquids and where
sensitive solids may be present. They are recommended for applications requiring a combination of
low flow and high pressure.
Considerations for Centrifugal Water Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are used in many construction and water system applications, in addition to
dewatering. They are employed to pump water supplies in buildings and are compatible with
pneumatic systems and where no suction lift is required. They are also used to pump water from
domestic wells and to boost pressure in water intake lines. Centrifugal pumps can provide a
continuous pressure source for fire protection systems, and they can serve as sump pumps in either
vertical or horizontal configurations.
Centrifugal pumps are prone to several common problems. Some pumps may need recirculating liquid
to prevent overheating caused by low flows. Centrifugal pumps must be primed, or filled with the
pumped fluid, to operate properly. When the positive suction head of a system is too low for the
selected pump, it can result in cavitation, a condition where air bubbles form near the impeller, leading
to shockwaves inside the pump. Finally, wear of the pump impeller can be worsened by suspended
solids in the liquid.
Considerations for Positive Displacement Water Pumps
Positive displacement water pumps, sometimes called rotary pumps, are very efficient due to the fact
that they remove air from the lines and thus eliminate the need to bleed the air. These pumps are also
effective for dealing with high-viscosity liquids.
The primary drawback of positive displacement pumps is that they require a very small clearance
between the rotating pump and the outer edge of the unit. As a result, the rotation must occur at very
slow speeds. If the pump is operated at higher speeds, the liquids can erode and eventually reduce the
efficiency of the water pump.

Water Pump Features and Specifications

There are several important factors to consider when choosing a water pump for construction:
Power—including the flow rate and horsepower
Material—weather-resistant materials required for exposed applications
Motor type/fuel type: electric, gas, diesel, hydraulic, or manual
Head—total head discharge, or maximum pump power, suitable for the intended application

5. Rollers
Rollers are a type of construction plant used for compacting materials such as soil, gravel, sand, road
surfaces and so on. The material can be compacted by vibration, impact loading, kneading, and direct
pressure. Different types of roller can be used depending on the requirements of the project and the
type of material that needs to be compacted.
Types of Rollers
Depending upon the project requirement and soil to be compacted, different types of rollers are used
for compaction work. The various types of rollers which are used for compaction are:
 A. Cylindrical Rollers
B. Sheepsfoot Rollers
C. Pneumatic tyred Rollers
D. Smooth wheeled Rollers
E. Vibratory Rollers
F. Grid Rollers

The following types of road rollers are generally used.

A. Cylindrical Roller

 This is a light roller of iron, concrete or stone; drawn by hand or bullocks. The size varies, but
it is generally about 1 metre in dia. and about 1.5 metre long.
 This ground pressure generated by this type of roller is about 7 kg/cm2.

B.  Sheepsfoot Roller

As the name indicates, this type of roller consists of a drum having many round or rectangular shaped
protrusions or “feet” on it. These rollers are also called tamping rollers. Various types are available
having different diameters and widths of drum and different lengths and shapes of feet. The most
common type is the one having two drums 1.22 meters wide and 1.06 either as taper-foot or club-foot
rollers according to the shape of the feet. Area of each protrusion can vary from 30 to 80 cm2.
The coverage area is about 8 to 12%.

The thickness of compacting layer is kept about 5 cm more than the length of each foot. This type
of roller mostly used for compaction of cohesive soils such as heavy clays and silty clays. Not
effective with sandy soils. The weight of the drum can be increased by filling the drum with water or
damp sand.

The factors that governs the amount of compaction of soil are as follow:

 Gross weight of the roller

 Area of each feet
 No of feet or lugs in contact with ground
 Total no of feet per drum
 Maximum pressure is exerted on soil when a foot is vertical.
  The soil is supposed to be consolidated when the impression by the projecting teeth is not more
than 12 mm deep or when the surface has been rolled 16 to 20 times.
 10 to 20 passes are generally required to give complete coverage.
 The density of the consolidated soil should be about 1.48 kg/cm3. The top layer has to be
finished with a smooth wheel roller.
 Pressure on the feet may be increased by filling the drum with wet sand or some other material,
which may be 4 to 7kg/cm2 for light rollers and upto 25 to 70 kg/cm2 for giant rollers.

C. Pneumatic Tyred Rollers

This type of roller consists of a heavily loaded wagon with several rows of four to six closely spaced
tyres. This is also called rubber tyred roller. It provided uniform pressure throughout the width.

The factors governing the amount of compaction are as follows:

 Tyre pressure
 Area of contact

Tyre pressure may be upto about 7 kg/cm2. The coverage area is about 80%. The gross weight of the
roller is about 6 to 10 tonnes which can be increased to 25 tonnes by ballasting with steel section or
other means. The maximum density can be achieved by 8 passes of the roller. The optimum speed of
roller is between 6 to 24 km/h. Used for compacting cold laid bituminous pavements, soft base
course materials or layers of loose soil. These rollers are also suitable for compacting closely graded
sands, and fine-grained cohesive soils at moisture content approaching their plastic limits, though the
compaction is not as high as that with the smooth wheel roller. They are particularly efficient when
used to finish off the embankment compacted by sheepsfoot roller or on loose sandy soils.

D. Smooth Wheeled Roller

This type of roller consists of a large steel drum in front and one or two wheels or drum on the rear
end. Depending upon the number of wheels on the rear, it can be of following two types:

 Tandem rollers (having one wheel at rear and one wheel in front)
 Three wheeled rollers (having two wheel at rear and one in front)

The weight of tandem roller varies from 2 to 8 tonnes and that of two wheeled roller varies from 8
to 10 tonnes.

Three wheeled roller

It ground coverage provided by smooth wheeled roller is 100%. The weight of the roller can be
increased by filling the inside space of the drum with water or wet sand. This is called ballasting.
The ground pressure exerted by tandem rollers is about 10 to 17 kg/cm2. Performance of smooth
wheel roller depend upon it load per cm width and diameter of the roll. The speed and number of
passes of a smooth wheeled roller depends on the type of soil to be compacted and project
requirements. The optimum working speed has found to be 3 to 6 km/h and about 8 passes are
adequate for compacting 20 cm layer. Smooth wheel rollers are most suitable for consolidating
stone soling, gravel, sand, hard core, ballast and surface dressings. Not suitable for consolidating
embankments and soft sub-grades, but are better suited than any other plant for compacting silty and
sandy soils and with fewer passes. When the moisture content is a little more than optimum it will
compact more easily. The two types (i.e. steam and diesel) are very much alike, the difference being
mainly in power unit. Adjustable weight devices are available which can be fitted to the wheels so
that the rolling pressure can be varied to suit different consolidation requirements. When engaged on
heavy work, the sliding weights must always be at the rear of the roller. The sliding weight must
never be moved when the roller is on a gradient.

The steam road roller can stand heavier wear and tear and is much simpler to work than the diesel
roller but it takes over an hour to start up and cannot be temporarily shut off, while the diesel type can
be started up and shut down in a few minutes and does not consume fuel when standing temporarily
idle on a job. Steam road rollers are now getting outdated. Diesel rollers are cheaper in running cost.

Some rollers are made with its prime movers or engine as a separate unit which is a tractor, and is
mounted on the roller, and which has its own advantages. Scrappers are provided on all the wheels in
adjustable positions covering the full width of the roll, with water sprinkling arrangement, for
scraping of the mud and keeping the wheels clean during rolling.

The maximum grade a road roller can climb is 1 in 5.

 E. Vibratory Rollers

Vibratory Roller

This type of roller is fitted with one or two smooth surfaced steel wheels 0.9 m to 1.5 m in diameter
and 1.2 m to 1.8 m wide. Self propelled vibratory rollers are now available weighing from 4 to 6
tonnes. Vibrations are generated by the rotation of an eccentric shaft inside. A vibratory roller is used
for compacting granular base courses. It is sometimes used for asphaltic concrete work.

F. Grid Rollers

Grid Roller

These rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of a network of steel bars forming a
grid with squire holes and may be ballasted with concrete blocks. They are generally towed units and
can operate at speeds between 5 and 24 km/h. Typical weights vary between 5 tonnes net and 15
tonnes ballasted. Grid rollers provide high contact pressure but little kneading action and are
suitable for compacting most coarse grained soils.

6. Earth moving & Excavation Equipment

A. Scrapers
 Scraper, in engineering, machine for moving earth over short distances (up to about two miles)
over relatively smooth areas. Either self-propelled or towed, it consists of a wagon with a gate
having a bladed bottom. The blade scrapes up earth as the wagon pushes forward and forces
the excavated material into the wagon. When the wagon is filled, the gate is closed, and the
material is carried to the place of disposal. The scraper is the dominant tool in highway
construction.

B. Graders
Motor grader also named as road grader is a self-propelled machine with an adjustable blade.
Position of blade is between the front and rear axle. That blade is most commonly used for
cutting, spreading and leveling of material.

This machine has also a scarify option which is used for scarifying the underlying layer and
then removal of that layer with the help of blade. After that a new layer is made by spreading
some other soil or that scarify soil again. Motor graders are classified on the basis of frame
structure. Depending on frame arrangement motor grader is classified as;

a. Rigid frame motor grader

b. Articulated frame motor grader

Rigid frame motor grader has only one axle. Axle is unable to turn left or right about a point.
Articulated frame motor grader has a hinge in between the front and the rare axle. That type of
grader is most commonly used where small space is available during turning.

Motor grader is one of the pieces of construction machinery that is used to create a well
smooth, wide-ranging, and level surface. Most commonly motor graders are used for the
maintenance of road. It spread the soil and then flattens that soil. Before the pavement of
 asphalt layer motor graders are used for uniformly flat surface so that asphalt distribute
uniformly throughout the surface.

USES OF MOTOR GRADER:

 Now a day’s grader is used for moving of earth from one location to another.
 Leveling of soil so that next bitumen layer spread uniformly throughout the surface.
 Scarifying. Scarifying is the removal of complete layer of soil and then spreading of a
new layer at that particular location.
 Mixing of two materials.
 Spreading of soil, aggregates etc…
 Trenching
 Land grading. It is the process in which a certain slope is achieved with the help of
motor grader.
 Ditching
 And for cutting of bank canals.
 Motor grader is also used as snow removing machine. Because of speed and normal
wheel instead of crawler wheel. This makes motor grader as most suitable machine for
this type of operations in areas where snow rate is above the normal conditions.

C. Shovels

A shovel is a digging and loading machine consisting of a revolving deck with a power plant,
driving and controlling mechanisms, sometimes a counterweight, and a front attachment, such
as a boom or crane, supporting a handle with a digger at the end. The whole mechanism is
mounted on a base platform with tracks or wheels. Power shovels are used principally for
excavation and removal of debris.
Mechanical cable-operated shovels apply engine power to the base and to the attachment by
means of clutches, gears, shafts, winch drums, and cable. Electric cable-operated shovels have
several electric motors supplied with current by a power line, or more rarely, by a deck-
mounted generator, replacing the engine and most of the clutches, gears, and shafts of the
mechanical shovel. Hydraulic shovels have engine-driven pumps to provide pressure for rams
and motors. Mechanical shovels may include some electrical or hydraulic functions.

There are five principal types of front attachments, which may be interchangeable in small and
medium-sized machines of the cable type. The dipper shovel, the oldest and most important
 excavating machine (rail-mounted, steam-powered units were in use in 1835), is for hard
digging and truck loading. It consists of a heavy, relatively short boom and a dipper stick (a
beam that pivots on the boom) with digging bucket attached. The bucket has a hinged bottom
that can be opened by the operator. Forward and upward motion fills the bucket. If a long
boom is unnecessary and the ground is hard and unyielding, the most suitable excavators are
the dipper shovels. The hoe, or backhoe, attachment may replace the boom, stick, and bucket of
the dipper shovel for digging below working level; it pulls the load toward the deck of the
shovel instead of away from it. Modern hydraulically powered hoes may be mounted on any
shovel carrier or on the rear of a tractor. A lifting crane can be attached in place of the digging
shovel to raise heavy loads, move them laterally by swinging or travelling, and then lower
them into new locations. Specially constructed lifting cranes are designed for hydraulic
machines. The dragline excavator has a long boom of lattice design that extends from the cab
at an angle of about 35° with the ground. From its end is suspended a hoist cable, at the end of
which is the digging bucket. The dragline runs from the cab directly to the bucket; when the
bucket is lowered, a pull on the dragline causes it to dig into the earth. The machine then
swings the loaded bucket into a disposal area and tips its contents. On soft and watery land,
particularly in building power dams, the long reach of the dragline is more effective than
bulldozers and other surface-earth removers. The clamshell is a bucket with two hinged jaws
carried by a crane suspended from the boom by two lines: one raises and lowers the bucket,
and the other pulls the jaws together against gravity for digging action. It is used chiefly for
deep, narrow excavations, as in well digging, for piling materials up high, and for rehandling
loose material, such as sand or gravel, but it can do almost any type of digging.

D. Skimmers

A skimmer, also known as a trenching machine is used for excavating long trenches, such as
those necessary for pipelines. They will normally dig trenches 0.25-1.5 m wide and up to
depths of 3 m, where a high degree of accuracy is required. The machine moves forwards when
excavating with buckets either mounted on a wheel at the front, or on a chain which is carried
by a jib. These excavators are rigged using a universal power unit for surface stripping and
shallow excavation work up to 300 mm deep where a high degree of accuracy is required. They
usually require attendant haulage vehicles to remove the spoil and need to be transported
between sites on a low-loader. Because of their limitations and the alternative machines
available they are seldom used today.

E. Dragline
 Dragline excavator is another heavy equipment used in construction which is generally used
for larger depth excavations. It consists a long length boom and digging bucket is suspended
from the top of the boom using cable. For the construction of ports, for excavations under
water, sediment removal in water bodies etc. can be done by dragline excavator. They are fitted
with a basic crane jib which uses a rope or chain to control a drag bucket which is swung out to
the excavation position and hauled or dragged back towards the power unit. It is best suited to
bulk excavation in loose or waterlogged soils below its own track level.

F. Trenchers
Trenches, are similar to excavators in the sense that penetrate the soil, break soil and rock, and
from the earth. They differ from excavators in that the soil is removed in one continuous
movement. Digging trenches for pipes used specifically for, but other machines have been
improvised in the past in order to serve this purpose.

Trenchers can come in two types:

a) Chain trenchers

A chain trencher cuts with a digging chain or belt that is driven around a rounded metal
frame, or boom. It resembles a giant chainsaw. This type of trencher can cut ground that
is too hard to cut with a bucket-type excavator, and can also cut narrow and deep
trenches. The angle of the boom can be adjusted to control the depth of the cut. To cut a
trench, the boom is held at a fixed angle while the machine creeps slowly.

The chain trencher is used for digging wider trenches (telecommunication, electricity,
drainage, water, gas, sanitation, etc.) especially in rural areas. The excavated materials
can be removed by conveyor belt reversible either on the right or on the left side. There
are various methods for excavating trenches in rock – principally drill and blast,
hydraulic breakers and chain trenchers. Selection of a trench excavation method must
take into account a range of rock and machine properties. It is suggested that the
 advantages of using chain trenchers in suitable rock outweigh the limitations and may
have cost benefits and fewer adverse environmental effects compared with alternative
methods.

b) Wheel trenchers

A wheel trencher is composed of a toothed metal wheel. It is cheaper to operate and

maintain than chain-type trenchers. It can work in hard or soft soils, either
homogeneous (compact rocks, silts, sands) or heterogeneous (split or broken rock,
alluvia, moraines). This is particularly true because a cutting wheel works by clearing
the soil as a bucket-wheel does, rather than like a rasp (chain trencher).
Consequently, it will be less sensitive to the presence of blocks in the soil. They are
also used to cut pavement for road maintenance and to gain access to utilities under
roads.

Due to its design the wheel may reach variable cutting depths with the same tool, and
can keep a constant soil working angle with a relatively small wheel diameter (which
reduces the weight and therefore the pressure to the ground, and the height of the unit
for transport).

7. Transportation Equipment

Transportation equipment are those that are required for carrying materials. They are:

A. Dumpers

Dump trucks are used in construction sites to carry the material in larger quantities from
one site to another site or to the dump yard. Generally, in big construction site, off-road
dump trucks are used.
These off-road dump trucks contains large wheels with huge space for materials which
enables them to carry huge quantity of material in any type of ground conditions.
 B. Hoists

Hoist is a device for raising or lowering a load by means of a drum or wheel lift to which wraps the
rope or chain. It can be operated by hand, is driven electrically or pneumatically, and the chain or wire
rope fibers are used as lifting device. The load connected to the lifting means of a lifting hook. Also
known as a man-lift, Buck-hoist, temporal lift, builder forklifts, lift or elevator, is this kind of lift is
often in large construction projects large as tall buildings or large hospitals. There are many other uses
for the elevator. Other industries use the buck hoist for full-time operations. The purpose is to transfer
its personnel, material and equipment between the ground and the upper floors, or between plants in
the middle of a structure.

C. Conveyors

A conveyor structure is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves

materials from one location to another location. Conveyors are mainly useful in
applications involving the transportation of heavy or bulky materials. Conveyor
systems allow quick and efficient transportation for a wide variety of materials, which
make them very popular in the material handling and packaging industries.

D. Hoist Cranes, Trucks, Lorries, etc.

 Fast Pace Construction

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other

manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site
where the structure is to be located.

The system consists of:

 Open Prefab System
In this system, almost all the structural components are prefabricated. The filter walls may be
of bricks on of any other local materials. This system is based on the use of large prefab
components. The components used are precast concrete large panels for walls floors roofs
balconies, staircases etc. The casting of the components could be at the site on off the site.
Depending upon the context of prefabrication, this system can also land itself to partial prefab
system and full prefab system.

 Large Panel Prefab System

This system refers to the use of large prefabricated components for any construction activity.
The casting can be either in situ or ex situ. All the main parts of a building, including exterior
and interior walls, floor slabs, roofs, and staircases, may be made up from large-panel
structures. Large-panel structures are used in two main design schemes:
  Frame-Panel, and
 Panel (Frameless) Building.

In frame-panel buildings, all the base loads are borne by the building’s frame, and the panels
are usually used to fill the frame and as enclosure elements.

Frameless buildings are assembled from panels that perform the load-bearing and enclosing
functions simultaneously.

 Large panel structure for exterior walls:

Large-panel structures for exterior walls consist of panels one or two stories in height and one
or tow rooms in width. The panels may be blind (without openings)or with window or door
openings. In terms of design, the wall panels are single-layer (solid) and multilayer (sandwich).
Solid panels are manufactured from materials that have insulating properties and at the same
time can perform supporting functions for example, light weight concrete, cellular concretes,
and hollow ceramic stone. Sandwich wall panels are made with two or three layers, their
thickness depends on the climatic conditions of the region and the physic technical properties
of the materials used for the insulating layer and for the exterior (supporting) layers.
 Large panel structures for interior walls:

They may be non-load bearing and load-bearing. They are made from gypsum-slag concrete or
from other material that act as enclosures. In the case of load-bearing structures, the wall
panels, which combine enclosing and load bearing functions, are made from heavy or
lightweight, silicate or cellular concrete. The dimensions of the panels are determined by the
dimensions of the rooms, their height is equal to the height of a story, the width is equal to the
depth or width of a room.

 Large panel structures for floor slab:

They are made from reinforced concrete. The area of the floor slabs in apartment buildings
usually equals the area of one room and may be 30 sq m. Flagging panels are 5-8 sq m. The
large-panel floor slabs of housing, public and administrative buildings are of both the solid and
sandwich types and in the latter provision is made for a sound insulation layer to reduce air and
impact noise.

 Large panel structure for roof element:

They are used in housing and public buildings mainly in the form of combined atticless roofs,
and in industrial buildings the roof panels have a span upto 12m. The weight of large panel
structure is usually 1.5-7.5 tons. Large panel structures of a high rise apartment building
consist of foundation slab, exterior and interior wall panel, floor slab, deck (blind area), and
exterior panel in the process of installation.
The structural scheme with precast large panel wall can be classified as:

 Cross wall system

In this scheme the cross wall are load bearing walls whereas the façade wall are non-
loading bearing this system is suitable for high rise building.

 Longitudinal wall system

In this case cross walls are non-load bearing whereas longitudinal walls are load
bearing walls.
 Cross wall system
This system is suitable for low rise buildings. A combination of the above systems with
all loads bearing wall can also be adopted.

Joints
A joint is an intentional gap between adjoining elements (typically cladding) or between an
element and some other portion of the structure. Joints may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.

The function of a joint between precast elements is to provide physical separation between the
units and, in conjunction with joint sealants, prevent the ingress of water and air into the
building and if required fire resistance. Two aspects of joint selection need to be emphasized
The positioning of joints in relation to windows and to the structure can affect the
serviceability, construction and maintenance of the building envelope. Poor joint location will
lead to problems which cannot be overcome by joint detailing.

Careful control of construction tolerances is necessary to ensure the integrity of the cladding
system. It is recommended that joints be treated as a strong visual feature of architectural wall
design. Recessing of joints and/or sealants will help diminish the visual impact of possible
variations between adjacent surfaces.

The following general aspects need to be addressed:

Buildability and minimum size:

Select details that are simple to fabricate and install on site. Proven details should be used
wherever possible.

Maintenance and repair:

Although modern sealants have a long service life they, if exposed to sunlight, will eventually
need replacement or repair. Access for repair and replacement must be taken into consideration
in the design of the building. The positioning of services or other features in front of joints will
make future access difficult. Consideration must be given to the fact that inspection and repair
will usually have to be made from the exterior of the building.

Number, location and width of joints:

For maximum economy in manufacture and erection, panels should be as large as practical.
 If architectural requirements dictate more-closely spaced joints, false joints can be used to
achieve a similar visual effect. Weathering of the building facade can be controlled to a large
extent by careful joint location. Recessing the sealant in the joint, or use of an open-drained
system, will minimize concentrated rainwater runoff and water-stain patterns. A nominal joint
width of 20 mm will usually be satisfactory for most conditions and is the recommended
design starting point.

Types of joints:

The most common types of joint between precast concrete cladding and/or wall panels are:

1. Open-Drained Joints.
2. Face-Sealed Joints.
3. Compression-Seal Joints.

Precast Concrete Construction Procedure:

1. After the completion of construction preparations, the layout of the structure is set.
2. Then, the foundation of the columns are constructed
3. After that, the columns are placed using suitable machines and continuously checked by surveyor
for alignment. In the case of Frame system and slab-column system with shear wall. Alternatively,
precast panels are installed in the case of large panel system.
4. Beams for precast frames, and precast floors in the case of large panel systems and column-slab
systems are placed.
5. For precast frames, after the installation of precast concrete beams, precast concrete floors are
erected.
6. The above steps are followed until the construction is finalized. For each system of precast concrete
construction, certain type of connections are used which are discussed below.

On-Site And Off-Site Prefabrication :

PRE-STRESSED TECHNOLOGY:
Introduction
Prestressed concrete is a structural material that allows for predetermined, engineering stresses to be
placed in members to counteract the stresses that occur when they are subject to loading. It combines
the high strength compressive properties of concrete with the high tensile strength of steel. In ordinary
reinforced concrete, stresses are carried by the steel reinforcement, whereas prestressed concrete
supports the load by induced stresses throughout the entire structural element. This makes it more
resistant to shock and vibration than ordinary concrete, and able to form long, thin structures with
much smaller sectional areas to support equivalent loads.

Prestressed concrete was patented by San Franciscan engineer P.H Jackson in 1886, although it did not
emerge as an accepted building material until 50 years later when a shortage of steel, coupled with
technological advancements, made prestressed concrete the building material of choice during
European post-war reconstruction.
It is now commonly used for floor beams, piles and railways sleepers, as well as structures such as
bridges, water tanks, roofs and runways. Generally, prestressed concrete is not necessary for columns
and walls, however, it can be used economically for tall columns and high retaining walls with high
bending stresses.

Pre-tensioning method
In this method, prestressing are induced (i.e tendons(wires) are tensioned) before the concrete is
placed. It is done in factories. In this method, the tendons are enclosed temporarily against some
abutments and then they are pulled by using jack type devices. The concrete is placed while
maintaining the tension. When concrete is hardened sufficiently, the tendons are released slowly or
cut. This will transfer prestress from steel to concrete through bond.
This type of tensioning are done for small structural members like beams,poles,slabs etc
Post-tensioning method
In this method, the prestress is induced or tendons are tensioned only after the concrete is hardened. In
this system, the concreting is done first and a duct is formed in the member with tube or with a
insulated. When concrete has sufficiently hardened then tendons or cable is placed into the ducts or
passages, to the member through anchorage wedges.
Post tensioning method of prestressing can be used for both precast and cast in situ construction. It is
used for large span structures like bridges
Losses due to post tensioning are more than pre stressing:
Elastic deformation of concrete,Relaxation of stress in steel,Shrinkage of concrete,Creep of concrete
these losses are occur in both the methods.apart from these losses there are certain losses which occurs
only in post tensioning as mentioned losses due to Friction,losses due to slip in Anchorage grip
 Defects & Remedies

A defect is a building flaw or design mistake that reduces the value of the building, and causes a
dangerous condition. A construction defect can arise due to many factors, such as poor workmanship
or the use of inferior materials. Building defects do not appear to have been minimized despite recent
advancements in building technology. Some common defects caused by agents such as atmospheric
pollution, poor workmanship or the use of inferior materials and climatic conditions are more frequent.
Defective building construction not only contributes to the final cost of the product but also to the cost
of maintenance, which can be substantial. Defective construction includes activities such as
compaction not done to specifications leading to ground subsidence and eventual early deterioration of
foundations. This may lead to the complete failure of a structure. Conditions under which building
construction takes place are often far from ideal with the focus mainly being on speedy delivery.
Defects resulting of inaccurate construction can be avoided by ensuring that proper inspection
mechanisms are in place. The understanding of building defects and their causes is essential for better
performance of any building. Broadly speaking, building defects fall into two categories viz. defects
that affect the performance of structure and defects that affect the appearance of structure.
Building Defects and Their Remedies:

1. Dampness

Causes of Damp Wall:

There are various causes of ingress of moisture in walls which make them damp:

i. Defective roof-leakage is a major source of water entering the wall and making it damp.
ii. Porous bricks used in construction is a permanent source of dampness in walls as they attract
moisture.
iii. Bad materials used in construction are also a source of damp wall.
iv. Vegetation – Growth of vegetation in the wall indicates presence of moisture or water without
which it could not grow. Vegetation develops further cracks in a wall already having cracks and
cause soakage in the wall.
v. Earth backing against wall – Dumping of earth against wall causes dampness in it.
vi. Cavities, holes left in the wall due to negligence and dab-holes kept for erection of scaffolding
and later not filled properly with concrete are a prospective source of attracting and storing
moisture.
vii. Mortar joints not laid properly and uniformly are sources of attracting moisture.
viii. The worst source of moisture ingress in building wall is the defective damp proof course.
Decayed, dilapidated or defectively laid damp proof course, i.e., failure of the damp proof course
to arrest rising of moisture from below causes dampness in wall.
ix. Earth banks – Construction of earthen bank by the side of a building, side slope covering some
height of the wall above damp proof course would cause dampness in wall.
x. Splashing of rain off the ground on the wall above the damp proof course which happens when
the plinth height is low or there be ground nearby with higher level.
xi. Defective window sills allowing stagnation of water on it.
xii. Sloping ground – This generally happens in hill areas, where buildings are constructed on the
slopes of the hills.
xiii. Dampness in hollow walls is caused due to deposit of mortar droppings during construction
and lack of ventilation.
xiv. Leaking pipes – Soil, waste water, rain water, or water supply pipes allowing water to enter
the walls.
xv. Salt in the plaster – Presence of salt in the plaster or precisely in sand used for plaster will
render the wall damp.

Effects of Dampness in Wall:

There are many injurious effects which are a direct result of dampness in walls of buildings:

i. Unhygienic condition inside the building – inviting various diseases to the inmates.
ii. Decay – The action of moisture on the different portions of the structure induce decay and
disintegration of materials like bricks, stone, steel, timber, etc. as continuous presence of moisture
in the portions causes growth of moss, fungus and corrosion.
iii. Dry rot – The presence of moisture in timber causes the disease in the timber, termed dry rot.
Dry rot is effective due to presence of a virulent type of fungus allied to mushroom type.
iv. Disintegration – Continued presence of moisture in brick may cause mechanical injury to the
wall. If there are cracks in the wall or porosity which may retain water; in freezing temperature,
the water will freeze, increase in volume and cause severe damage.
v. Efflorescence – It is produced by the entrance of moisture in the brickwork which usually
contains various soluble salts. These salts are dissolved by the water and issuing from the pores of
the bricks, they crystallise and cause disintegration of bricks.
vi. Furniture – They are damaged due to continuous damp environment.
vii. Decoration of timber, bamboo, wall papering, etc. get damaged.
viii. Warping and decay of timber.
ix. Plaster getting soft and subsequently crumbling.
x. Corrosion of metal.
xi. Damage to electrical installations and short circuiting.
xii. Deterioration of floor covering.
xiii. Infestation of termite.
xiv. Blistering, flaking and bleaching of paint.

Remedies to Damp Wall:

Remedies to damp wall may be temporary or permanent according to the exigency. Again,
treatment to remove dampness would be different for internal and external walls.
Temporary Remedies:

Temporary remedies for internal walls:

i. Application of bituminous painting:

The affected wall is to be cleaned, allowed to be dried and then a coat of hot bitumen applied
uniformly. However, if there be difficulty in applying hot bitumen, bituminous compound
emulsions are available in the market which may be applied cold with brush.

ii. Painting with water proofing solution:

Either commercially available such solutions or prepared solution as described later may be
applied as prescribed after cleaning the surface.

iii. Applying cement wash:

This is an easy method. Cement and water mixed in thin consistency with admixture of adhesive
gum may be applied one or more coats after cleaning the surface.

Temporary Remedies for External Walls:

i. Applying water proofing solutions as mentioned above.

ii. Coating with boiled linseed oil or commercially available linseed oil may be boiled and applied
hot with brush after cleaning the surface.

iii. Applying cement wash as mentioned above.

iv. Sylvester’s Process – Applying alternate coats of soap and alum solutions to the walls where
they will sink into the pores just below the surface. The first coat to be applied after cleaning the
surface. Subsequent coats to be applied after the previous coat have dried up.

v. Painting paraffin – Paraffin oil may be painted over the affected surface after cleaning.

vi. Applying bituminous paint as mentioned above. Application of bitumen or bituminous paint
on walls internal or external though may be effective, will render the wall surface look
unpleasant.

Permanent Remedies:

Before selecting a method for permanent remedy against dampness in walls, the cause of
dampness, shall have to be investigated. Once the cause is established, the action to be taken for
remedial measure would not be difficult. The main object would be to remove the cause. In most
of the cases, removal would not be difficult.

As for example:

i. Dampness due to leakage from the roof – Stop the roof leakage.

ii. Vegetation – Removal of the vegetation including uprooting and applying chemical solution so
that growth may not recur and sealing if there be any crack.
iii. Earth backing, bank, sloping ground, etc. – The space around the building need be dressed to
avoid splashing of water on the wall.

iv. Cavities, holes, etc. – Detect the exact spot, open the space and fill the cavity with concrete.

v. Defective window sills – These are to be corrected.

vi. Dampness in hollow walls – The main purpose of constructing hollow walls is defeated.
Utmost care must be taken during construction to avoid dropping of mortar. The outer leaf of the
wall which is a non-load bearing, may be opened partially for removing the dropped mortar and
cleaning. Further, weep holes may be provided below horizontal damp proof course and air bricks
may be provided at suitable places for ventilation.

vii. Salt in plaster – This is due to using bad quality sand during construction. In such case, there
is no other alternative than to remove the plaster and apply new rendering with salt free sand.

viii. Leaking pipes – The location need be traced correctly. These mainly happen in cases of soil
and waste water pipes, when the pipes from inside the building pass through the wall for coming
out. In most cases, there are joints at these locations.

ix. In cases of dampness due to use of porous bricks and bad materials, the solution would be to
demolish the portions and reconstruct those portions with better bricks and materials. If this is not
possible due to economic reasons, the remedy would be to remove the plaster from either side and
then re-plaster with new mortar of richer proportion with admixture of water-proofing compound.

The external plaster should be in two layers, the first layer should be laid over the brick surface
after cleaning and raking the joints. 20 mm thick cement sand plaster, 1: 4 over which the second
layer of plaster 10 mm thick, 1: 3 to be laid with admixture of water proofing compound. The
internal plaster should be single layer 20 mm thick cement and sand 1: 4.

x. In cases of mortar joints not laid properly – This is a construction defect. The plaster on both
the faces should be removed. The mortar joints should be opened up to 20 mm deep and raked
properly and then re-plastered.

xi. Damp proof course – Damp proofing of a building is achieved by using suitable damp
proofing material which should satisfy the condition to be impervious to the moisture.

Now, due to absence of damp proof course or due to bad construction if the damp proof course
provided does not satisfy the condition above and moisture rises through the damp proof course
and the walls get damp and consequently other ills appear, the commonest method in dealing with
the wet rising from the soil by capillary action is insertion of a new damp proof course or
replacing the old one.

The simple method is to remove two layers of bricks right through the thickness of the wall at the
damp proof course level. The bottom course is then replaced, after being reduced in thickness
equal to the thickness of the proposed damp proof course to provide room for insertion of the
damp proof course.

When the lower course has been replaced, it should be covered with a bed of cement mortar 12
mm thick so as to get a uniform bearing all over. Over this, the damp proof course made of
cement concrete 1: 1 ½ : 3 with admixture of water proofing compound is to be laid. Then the
remaining course of brick is replaced. They must be well buttered with cement mortar, and after
being pushed into the opening, they can be wedged down into intimate contact with the damp
proof course tightly into the top bed joint.