LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Types of Unity..................................................................................................................9

Figure 2. The Sacred Symbol of the Hindus..................................................................................12
Figure 3. Lord Buddha's Statue.....................................................................................................13
Figure 4. The Sikh Symbol- Khanda.............................................................................................14
Figure 5. Ka'aba- The sacred Place for Muslims...........................................................................14
Figure 6. The Christian Cross and the Bible..................................................................................15
Figure 7. The Zoroastrian Faravahar.............................................................................................16
Figure 8. The Star of David...........................................................................................................16
Figure 9. The Jain Symbol of Non-Violence.................................................................................17
Figure 10. Democratic India..........................................................................................................18
Figure 11. Riots during the Reign of Aurangzeb...........................................................................20
Figure 12. Massacre during the Partition.......................................................................................22
Figure 13. The Wrecked Golden Temple after Operation Bluestar...............................................25
Figure 14. A group of the Sikh Community Protesting.................................................................25
Figure 15. The Babri Mosque Demolition.....................................................................................27
Figure 16. The 2002 Gujarat Riots................................................................................................29
Figure 17. Outbreak of Communal Violence................................................................................32
Figure 18. Rule of the British Raj..................................................................................................33
Figure 19. Turmoil during the Partition of Bengal........................................................................35
Figure 21. Upheaval due to Communal Violence.........................................................................36
Figure 22. Communal Insurgence in UP.......................................................................................37
Figure 23. A Picture Representing Hindu-Muslim Riots..............................................................41
Figure 24. The Partisan Behavior of Police...................................................................................42
Figure 25. A Hindu Procession......................................................................................................47
Figure 26. Juloos in Muharram......................................................................................................48
Figure 27. Emblem of the BJP and the Shiv Sena.........................................................................50
Figure 28. Emblem of Jamat-ul-Islam...........................................................................................50
Figure 29. Mughal Ruler Akbar and his Ministers........................................................................53
Figure 30. One Dollar Bill of the USA..........................................................................................57
Figure 31. The Shining Delta.........................................................................................................58
Figure 32. The International Buddhist Society Temple at the No. 5 Road...................................62
Figure 33. Ram Krishna Mandir & Hindu Culture........................................................................62
Figure 34. The Az-Zahraa Islamic Centre.....................................................................................63
Figure 34. House of Religions, Bern.............................................................................................65
Figure 35. Indian Religions...........................................................................................................67
Figure 36. Understanding Secularism in a Democratic Country...................................................68
Figure 37. Secularism....................................................................................................................75
Figure 38. Strength of a Secular India.....................................................................................80xpa
Figure 39. Social Cohesion............................................................................................................81
Figure 41. Plan of Buddhist Chaitya..............................................................................................91

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Figure 42. Architectural Elements of Sikh Temple Source:..........................................................92
Figure 43. Architectural Elements of a Mosque............................................................................93
Figure 44. Architectural Elements of a Church.............................................................................94
Figure 44. Typical Plan of Jain Temple.........................................................................................97
Figure 45. Elements of a Fire Temple...........................................................................................98

2
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

India is a land with myriad of diversity; i.e., is cultural, social, religious,

linguistic, religious, political, ideological and even psychological. Although India is
a secular state with no state religion, religious violence pretty much prevails here. The
many religions of India instigate a lot of strife and discord amongst people. The
contemporary time is also characterized by one in which there is a growing unrest for
different faiths. The main reason behind this is the ignorance and the great many
misconceptions that exist within them. The diminution of interaction has given rise to this
intolerance. There is an immediate need for bridging gaps between people of all religions
as working upon this domain would solve a lot of problems and contribute abundantly to
make India a peaceful, progressive and united nation.
Resorting to diminishing these faiths and religious practices would not only
deprive the country of its culture and diversity but also be a dead ended solution to this
problem. Hence, the idea is to design a place having places of worship of all religions; a
gurudwara, a mosque, a temple, a church, and a Buddhist sanctuary. Holding these places
together would be common profane spaces like a library, an auditorium, a place for
celebrating festivals together, a meeting hall for clerics of all religions, etc.
The space would become a symbol of unity in diversity where unity is brought
about whilst maintaining the diversity. It would bring about coexistence through social
cohesion, exhorting the notion of "agreeing to disagree". It will be the resolution of the
issue of religious conflict whereby all parties harbor tolerance towards each other even
though they might not accept others’ beliefs. They also remain on amicable terms while
continuing to disagree about the unresolved issues or differences. The dissertation seeks
to pursue a cordial space encompassing major religions followed in India that coexists
along with a profane space; highlighting how they agree to disagree amongst themselves
and yet do not let disparities disunite them.
By means of architectural intervention, this dissertation titled, ‘Bringing About
Social Cohesion: Consensing Differences Through Secular Spaces’ yearns to bring in a
social change in the community.
Religion, no matter how we practice it, should unite us rather than divide us.
It should instead unify and strive to make us a better nation. We all have different beliefs;
but that must not hinder the respect and tolerance that is supposed to be present within us
for a person or group of a different faith.

3
The Aim of the Research:

The aim of this research is to bring about consensus amidst different religions through
quintessential profane spaces to make them socially cohesive in the diversity that exists.

Objectives:
To achieve the above aim, certain objectives must be met. These objectives help to define
the pattern of the research. The way the research is carried forward and divided into
headings and subheadings is under:
 Analysis of the conflicts that arise in India due to religious disparity; how it forges
violence and discrimination.
 Studying principles of social cohesion, its need and its importance in creating
unity in the diversity of India.
 Studying how common profane spaces bridge religious differences and lead
to/influence social cohesion.

Methodology:

The resources and methods that have catered and led to a successful completion of this
research are what make up for the prime system of methods that are used in this particular
area of study.
 Assessing newspaper articles and statistical data of recorded violence due to
religious differences.
 Analyzing key features for bringing about social cohesion through articles/books
etc.
 Understanding the working and functioning of successful community spaces that
transcend religious realms.
 Referring case studies, conducting surveys, etc.

4
Further Scope of this Research:

 Promoting social cohesion with economic empowerment of weaker communities.

 Overcoming caste differences.
 Further growth of exhibit of diversity by establishment of other religions’ places
of worship.

Outcome:

The research culminates into a tangible architectural design that heralds unity in diversity
over the Indian landmass. It would be a secular place along with religious spaces that
calls attention to the fact that the aim of all religions is essentially the same and they all
are built around the same principles- forgiveness, honesty, love; all of which sums up
denoting the principle of humanity.
It would in turn make everyone realize that there is so much to connect at a
common ground and hardly any reason to dispute. Social cohesion would be brought
about whilst embracing the diversity, bridging gaps and consensing differences.

Limitations:

It ultimately depends upon the people to make this change a successful attempt in
consensing differences to bring about social cohesion. They must be willing to actively
partake in the combined activities in order to bridge differences. So, the limitation of
study is the nature of human beings that may or may not help bringing about social
cohesion.
The religious arrogance only diminishes the credibility of their religion and
spreads bigotry rather than the love and tolerance which all religions are supposed to
support and adhere to.

The purpose of conducting this research is to change the policy of governments:

to start to treat this issue of religious extremism as an issue that is about religion as well
as politics, to go to the roots of where a false view of religion is being promulgated, and

5
to make it a major item on the agenda of world leaders to combine effectively to combat
it.
Division of the Content
The research is carried out detailing the problem, questioning why it prevails and finally
proposing solutions for it. The chapters are explanatory and easily understandable. To
make it comprehendible and understandable, the background and context and clearly
given.
-The first two chapters of the research address the diversity that exists and the problems
that arise because of it.
-The third chapter defines the reasons and analyses them to get to an effective solution.
-Next, literature review is done, studying attempts made in the past to tackle the issue.
Having a universal faith, having no faith (erasing God completely) and syncretism have
been pondered upon.
-Furthermore, the cases where a similar concept of bringing religions together is adopted,
are also reviewed.
-The chapters also go through principles of social cohesion, studying how sense of place
can be brought about and tolerance be fostered.
-The research ends with effective architectural solutions for the underlying issue.
Architecture is used as a means of inhibiting communal violence and evincing unity
through secular spaces.

In today’s world, architecture can be defined in a lot of ways. Its advances in the
field of technology and construction have ensured progress. Architecture must be
meaningful and its chief concern should be to foster growth. It should instill peace and
influence progress. It should be used as a social connect and to be able to solve problems.

This research is an attempt to understand how social architecture influences social

change. By investigating the causes of social disparities, highlighting the lack of social
cohesion and reviewing the relationship between social relations and architecture, the
goal of social cohesion can be used as an instigator of an architectural design process that
consenses differences, brings about cultural awareness and ultimately benefit society.

6
7
 The research is an established method on which information on the topic should
be inquired by gaining in-depth understanding of the interaction, interchange and
integration within a diverse group in an urban environment; thereby investigating the
causalities of social disintegration.
This includes gathering of primary and secondary data required for information
needed in stating the problem.
An organized approach aimed at building up sufficient understanding of the
research problem was established.
This includes the study of social cohesion and architecture in other countries like
Canada and Switzerland. It also includes literature studies that are relevant to the topic.
Inferences are drawn out of each case and subsequently applied to the Indian context.

In general, social cohesion means the strength of social relations, interaction and
binding ties by reducing disparities and inequality. The binding ties are often seen as
desirable qualities in social relation and are a state of diverse context sharing
commonalities.
The meaning can be explored at any level of relationships from inter-personal to
macro level i.e. national and international, in as much as social cohesion is said to be the
sharing of common values and norms this however does not mean homogeneity. Social
cohesion does not depend on sameness or homogeneity of values and/or opinion.
A society with individuals conforming to the same values, beliefs and life style
can hinder or in extreme cases be indicators of lack of social cohesion in that society.
Research has indicated that it is the unity and sharing through diversity, the embracing
and acknowledgement of things that bond and tie people through a diversified context,
the building shared values, creating solidarity and enhancing connections that create a
cohesive neighborhood. That in turn shapes modernization and urbanization with
profound effects on the life of urban lifestyle.

We live in a world of diverse cultures, religions, backgrounds, age, race, class, as

different as we might be professionals such as urban designers and architects cannot sit
back and watch our differences turn cities into places of hate and disintegration.
Architecture has the power to facilitate these differences, this dissertation is not
ignorant to the fact that deeper problems lay in society, spaces and esthetics only will not
enhance social cohesion therefore the design of a Multi-faith center aims at bringing
consensus in the society. Providing places for cultural and social engagement, the
research provides a platform where people can enhance tolerance levels of what is
different.
8
 It has been indicated that the challenge of a multi-cultural architecture is finding
balance between the different cultures however the main aim is to find similarities
through spatial configurations, blurring boundaries and avoiding enhancing the
differences that exist. This is not to undermine cultural identities it is however to design
platform for cultural interchange ensuing the celebration and the uniqueness of the
cultures. The commonalities between diverse cultures is therefore set on the idea of
meaningful gain and experience as cultures learn and uplift each other. Thereby
answering the question of how social cohesion can influence the architectural design
process.

9
 CHAPTER 2

INDIA- A LAND OF DIVERSITY

UNITY AND UNIFORMITY

Unity is a feeling that elicits oneness. It is typically used to represent a bond between
non-analogous people, societies, communities or nations that is of amity and harmony. It
denotes integration and holds them together, connoting a sense of cooperation and
solidarity. Creating consensus, unity binds dissimilar subjects on amicable terms, in a
peaceful and warm affiliation. However, it is not to be confused with uniformity, how
some people interchangeably use it. Because for uniformity, similarity has to pre-exist or
prevail but unity may arise out of variance or difference. It presupposes sameness.
Uniformity does not embrace differences in beliefs, ideas, and thoughts. Instead, it seeks
to eradicate all differences and thus all individual identities to give rise to a common
denomination.

Unity may or may not be based on uniformity. A unity that arises out of
uniformity is called Mechanical Solidarity. We find this type of unity in traditional
societies that are benighted. But unity may as well be based on differences. It is that unity
which is described by Durkheim as organic solidarity. This organic solidarity is what
ensues ‘Unity in Diversity’ and it characterizes modern, educated societies.

Organic Solidarity acknowledges and embraces differences. It values different

beliefs, different ideas, different practices, different cultures and. It stands for the notion
that men may be different in their ways but they can all still live together peacefully in a
way that benefits them all. It exhorts attainment of consensus amongst them. Sincere
unity is based upon secular beliefs, democratic principles, open-mindedness, the concept
of multiculturalism and harmony. Unity is a nurturing environment where all live
collaboratively in consonance harboring the principles of equality and mutual respect.

It is our natural tendency to bond with people from similar backgrounds and to go
to them as the first consideration or point. We often confine ourselves to known
environments and known people. We are reluctant to associate or work with people that
have varying backgrounds than our own. This illiberal behavior often leads to a situation
where we become unaware of what is happening in other communities and regions.
Consequentially, we grow suspicious of these people or groups and foster
misunderstandings, hatred and conflict.

10
11
Figure 1. Types of Unity

Source: Self

12
 Unity cannot be achieved unless we discard our cliché proneness of seeking or
enforcing uniformity. This applies to family units, communities, organizations and the
nation as a whole. The point to note is that unity does not necessarily have to rely on
uniformity. Unity implies integration. Integration does not mean an absence of
differences. Instead, it stands for the string that ties and holds diverse groups together.

13
WHAT IS DIVERSITY?

Normally, diversity means variety. It refers to variances and differences. For this
research, however, it means something more than mere differences. It means collective
differences, that is, differences and traits which mark off one group of people from
another. These differences may be biological, linguistic, religious, regional etc.
Biological differences, for example, gives rise to racial diversity. Religious differences,
similarly, bring about religious diversity. The point to note is that diversity refers to
collective differences or variance. The term diversity is the exact opposite of uniformity.
Uniformity means similarity of some sort that becomes an identity for them or
characterizes them. ‘Uni’ refers to one, whilst ‘form’ refers to the regular ways. When
there is something common to all the folks, it is said that they show uniformity. When
school children, policemen or the army men wear the same type of dress, we say they are
in ‘uniform’. Thus uniformity also, like uniformity is a collective concept. When a group
of people share a similar characteristic, be it language or religion or anything else, it
shows uniformity in that respect. Whereas, groups of people hailing from different races,
religions, and cultures represent diversity.

D.N. Majumdar wrote a book with the title, Races, and Cultures of India. The
words in the plural are to be noted: it is ‘Races’ (not Race); and ‘Cultures’ (not Culture).
Thus, diversity means variety. It refers to a variety of groups and cultures. Such variety is
copious in India. We here have a variety of races, religions, of languages, of castes and
cultures. And it is for this very reason that India is known for its socio-cultural diversity.

RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

India is a land of multiple religions. Followers of various faiths are found here-namely, of
Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, among
others. Hinduism is the dominant religion of India. According to the 2011 census,
Hinduism is practiced by 79.80 percent of people. Next comes Islam, which is practiced
by 14.23 percent. This is followed by Christianity having a following of 2.30 percent,
Sikhism reported by 1.72 percent, Buddhism by 0.70 percent and Jainism by 0.37
percent. The religions with lesser pupils are Judaism, Bahaism, and Zoroastrianism.

Furthermore there are sects within each religion. Hinduism, for example, has
many sects including Shaiva, Shakta and Vaishnava and the sects born out of religious
reform movements like the Arya Samaj, the Ram Krishna Mission, the Brahmo Samaj,
etc. Of late, some new cults have also come up such as Radhaswami, Saibaba, etc.
14
Similarly, Muslims are divided into Shias and Sunnis; Sikhs into Namdhari and
Nirankari; Jains into Digambar and Shvetambar; and Buddhism into Hinayan and
Mahayana. While Hindu and Muslim are found in almost all parts of India, the other
religions exist in pockets of concentration. Christians have their strongholds in the three
southern states of India. They are found in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu as
well as in the north-eastern states like Nagaland and Meghalaya. Sikhs are concentrated
majorly in Punjab, Buddhists in Maharashtra, and Jains are mainly spread over
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Gujarat, but also found in most urban centers throughout the
country.

15
Hinduism

Hinduism is the major religion of people in India. It is a diverse religion

with monotheism, henotheism, polytheism, pantheism, pantheism, monism, atheism, agn
osticism, and Gnosticism. With around 966 million adherents (as of 2011) they comprise
79.80% of the population of India. The term Hindu was a geographical description for the
followers of this dharma, derived from the Sanskrit word- Sindhu, (the historical
appellation for the Indus River).

Figure 2. The Sacred Symbol of the Hindus

Source: https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-vector/hindu-om-symbol-icon-simple-style-vector-7776583

Buddhism

Buddhism is an Indian, trans theistic religion and philosophy. Around 8.5 million

Buddhists live in India, accounting for about 0.7% of the total population. Buddhism as a
religion is practiced mainly in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a significant religion
in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, the Ladakh district in Jammu and
Kashmir, Darjeeling in West Bengal and the Lahaul and Spiti districts of Himachal
Pradesh. Besides, a significant number of Buddhists (Neo-Buddhists or Navayana ) reside
in Maharashtra, who, under the influence of B. R. Ambedkar had embraced Buddhism to
escape the casteist practices within Hinduism. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, along with Anagarika
Dharmapala of Sri Lanka and Kripasaran Mahasthavira of Chittagong revived Buddhism

16
in India in the 19th and 20th centuries. The escape of the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzing
Gyatso to India fleeing Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959 and the setting up of
the Tibetan Government in Exile at Dharamshala in Mcleodganj in Himachal Pradesh has
also accelerated the resurgence of Buddhism in India. The effective religion in Sikkim,
which joined the Indian Union in 1975 (making it India's 22nd state) remains Vajrayana
Buddhism, and Padmasambhava or Guru Ugyen is a revered presence there.

Jainism is a philosophical system and a non-theistic Indian religion that sprang

in Iron Age India. Jains compose 0.4% (around 4.45 million) of India's population and
are concentrated in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

Figure 3. Lord Buddha's Statue

Source: https://ismbook.com/best-books-buddhism/

Sikhism

Sikhism began in North India in the 15th century with the teachings of Guru Nanak and
nine successive human gurus. The gurus further propagated the doctrines ensuing
approximately 20.8 million Sikhs in India (2011 census). The state of Punjab is
considered as the spiritual home of Sikhs and is the only state in India where they form a

17
majority. Significant populations of Sikhs are also found
in Chandigarh, Delhi, and Haryana, which once used to be a part of Punjab.

Figure 4. The Sikh Symbol- Khanda

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/hari_singh/3135999461

Islam

Islam is a monotheistic religion centered on following the example of Muhammad; it is

the largest minority religion in India. Approx. 200 million people here are identified as
adherents of Islam (2018 estimate) which makes India the country with the largest
Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries. Muslims are a majority in
states Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep and live in high concentrations in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala. Sources suggest the largest
denomination is Sunni Islam with a substantial minority of Shiite Muslims and Ahmadi
Muslims.

Figure 5. Ka'aba- The sacred Place for Muslims

18
Source www.ancient-origins.net/artifacts-other-artifacts/kaaba-black-stone-holy-stone-outer-space-003661

19
 Christianity

Christianity, the world’s largest religion is the third largest religion of India, making up
2.3% of the population. It is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings
of Jesus as prophesied in the Old Testament and presented in the New Testament. St.
Thomas introduced Christianity in India and converted several people, who are known
as Saint Thomas Christians or Mar Thoma Nazranis. He arrived on the Malabar Coast in
52 AD. Christians exist in a majority in Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram. They even
enjoy a significant majority in the states of Kerala and Goa. Christianity in India exists in
several sects like Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy, etc.

Figure 6. The Christian Cross and the Bible

Source: https://christiansafeguardingservices.phasic-ltd.co.uk/biblical-perspective/bible-cross-and-light

Zoroastrianism

According to the 2001 census, Parsis (followers of Zoroastrianism in India) represent

approximately 0.006% of the total population of the country with relatively high
concentrations in and around the city of Mumbai, Pune and even Hyderabad.

20
 Figure 7. The Zoroastrian Faravahar

Source: https://zorostudies.weebly.com/symbols.html

Judaism

Judaism, a monotheistic religion from the Levant is also present in India. As of today,

there exists a very small community of Indian Jews. The Cochin Jews of Kerala, the Bene
Israel of Maharashtra, and the Baghdadi Jews near Mumbai were some communities that
thrived in olden times. However, since independence two primarily proselyte Indian
Jewish communities in India- the Bnei Menashe of Mizoram and Manipur, and the Bene
Ephraim, also called Telugu Jews have come into being. Of around 95,000 Jews of Indian
extraction, fewer than 20,000 remain in present times. Nevertheless, some parts of India
are still popular with Israelis and swell with local Jewish populations occasionally.

Figure 8. The Star of David

Source: https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/syncretism-and-judaism/2/

21
Jainism

Jainism existed even before Lord Mahavira was born; contrary to the notion that he
introduced this religion. He is the twenty-fourth (last) Tirthankara (an enlightened soul,
born as a human being who attains perfection through intense meditation). The two major
sects of the Jains are Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras; amidst several smaller sub-traditions
that came up in the 2nd millennium CE. The Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras have distinct
views on ascetic practices, gender, and canonical Jain texts. 

Figure 9. The Jain Symbol of Non-Violence

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_symbols

A Secular Constitution

The preamble to the Constitution of India defines the nation as a "sovereign socialist

secular democratic republic". The word secular was added to the Preamble by the forty-
second amendment to the constitution in 1976. The amendment makes equal treatment
and tolerance of all religions mandatory for every citizen as the country does not have
any official state religion. It preserves the right to practice, preach, and propagate any
religion. No religious instruction is imparted in government-supported schools.

22
The Supreme Court of India, in the S. R. Bommai vs. Union of India case held that
secularism is an imperative tenet of the Indian Constitution.

However, the Constitution suggests the adoption of a uniform civil code for its
citizens in its Directive Principles that will ensure a common set of governing rules for all
Indians, replacing personal laws (that are based on customs and religious scriptures).
These laws cover issues regarding marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption, and
maintenance. Since Directive Principles are constitutionally unenforceable, a uniform
civil code has not been adopted until now. Also, according to the Supreme Court, the
establishment of a uniform civil code may disrupt the unity of the nation so it suggests
that only a gradual progressive change should be brought about (the 1996 case of
Pannalal Bansilal v State of Andhra Pradesh). The Supreme Court dismissed a petition
seeking a writ of mandamus against the government for the introduction of a common
civil code, and thus laid the responsibility of its introduction on the legislature
(in Maharishi Avadesh v Union of India, 1994).
Many religions in India are governed by their personal religion’s laws- Muslims,
Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews, whilst Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs are
governed by a single personal law known as Hindu personal law.

Figure 10. Democratic India

Source: https://www.ritiriwaz.com/secularism-in-india/

23
 CHAPTER 3

STRIFE DUE TO THE DIVERSITY

Although the constitution of India vouches for a secular and religiously tolerant nation,
yet, serious acts of religious violence often tend to occur. Riots run deep in history. They
are not uncommon in religious activities and politics of India. Between the years 2005
and 2009, an average of 130 people died every year from communal violence. The state
of Maharashtra reported the highest total number of religious-violence related fatalities
over those five years, while Madhya Pradesh experienced the highest fatality rate each
year per 100,000 population between this period. The US Commission on International
Religious Freedom classified India as Tier-2 in persecuting religious minorities, the same
as that of Iraq and Egypt. Approximately one-third of the state governments enforced
anti-conversion and anti-cow slaughter laws against non-Hindus and had mobs resort to
violence against Muslims or Dalits for being engaged in professions like leather, dairy or
beef trades, and against Christians for proselytizing. There have also been several reports
on "Cow protecting" lynch mobs for killing civilians.

During Ancient India

The ancient text of Divyavadana is an anthology of Buddhist mythical tales on ethics and
morals which was written in the 2nd century AD. In Ashokavadana, which is a part of the
Divyavadana, there is a mention of a non-Buddhist of Pundravardhana drawing a picture
of the Buddha, bowing at the feet of Nirgrantha Jnatiputra (known as Mahavira- the 24th
Tirthankara of Jainism). On complaints from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka- the Mauryan
emperor, issued an order to arrest him and had all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana killed.
Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were put to death. His sectarian oppression
is known to have involved forceful and brutal ways. Sometime later, a Nirgrantha
follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka ordered him to be killed and burnt
his entire family alive. Ashoka also announced an award of one dinar (silver coin) for the
head of a Nirgrantha, as a result of which, his brother- Vitashoka, was also mistaken for a
heretic and was executed by a cowherd. Ashoka’s ministers claimed the incident to be an
example of the suffering that is being inflicted even on those who are free from desire.
They said that the emperor should guarantee the security of all beings.
In one of the narratives, the razing of viharas and stupas has been linked with the
reign of King Pushyamitra of the Shunga Empire centuries before Divyavadana was even
written. Archeological remnants of stupas have also been found in Deorkothar that
suggest deliberate destruction and are speculated to be the one mentioned in Divyavadana
about Pushyamitra. It is not very clear when the Deorkothar stupas were destroyed, and
by whom. The fictional tales of Divyavadana are not very much counted upon as
24
historical records. Moriz Winternitz, a Jewish scholar, stated, "These legends (in the
Divyāvadāna) scarcely contain anything of much historical value".

During Medieval India

The period of the Mughal rule is considered to be the Golden Age of India. Among the
Mughal emperors, where everyone is revered for his reign, Aurangzeb is known to have
reversed the wonderful policy of Akbar as he was determined to make India a strictly
Muslim empire. Several Hindu temples were destroyed under his orders. In 1669, officers
of the Mughal Empire were addressed to destroy the newly-built ones. Aurangzeb even
banned the celebrations of the important Hindu festivals, levied a tax (jizya) on non-
Muslims, and also persecuted the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur. Fundamentalism and
communal violence were sown and perpetrated during the years of Aurangzeb’s Mughal
ruling in India. Whereas, Akbar and the others stand out as the exceptional rulers who
integrated the Indian subcontinent into a unified whole.
Even before Akbar, Babar had advised Humayun to “shed religious prejudice,
protect temples, preserve cows, and administer justice properly in this tradition.” Jahangir
and Shahjahan, too, followed such a liberal tradition. Dara Shikoh, it is maintained,
studies Hindus philosophy and attempted to find common grounds between Hindus and
Muslims

Figure 11. Riots during the Reign of Aurangzeb

Source: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/parthian-shot/aurangzeb-vs-dara-shukoh-a-never-ending-war-of-
wrong-perceptions/

25
 During Colonial India

 
The first act of religious intolerance, during the British invasion in India, of which an
authentic version is available took place in the city of Ahmedabad in around 1730.
Reportedly, a Hindu gentleman lit a holy fire against the wishes of his Muslim neighbor
who on the following day, slaughtered a cow in honor of the Prophet. This inflamed
religious sentiments and lead to communal riots. The District Gazetteer of Banaras also
describes a riot in 1809 as “one of those convulsions which had frequently occurred in
the past owing to the religious antagonism between the Hindu and Muslim sections”.

The exploitation of the Moplahs (a farmer community in the Malabar region of

Kerala), led to many occurrences of communal violence between 1836 and 1921.
Throughout this period, whenever the Nair and the Namboodiri landlords tried to evict
their tenants, violence took place. The Mappila community of Kerala, in the year 1921,
conducted the anti –Hindu and anti-British rebellion. The people killed many Hindus
during the rebellion. During the later part of the Khilafat movement, the Moplahs had
become quite convinced that the rule of the Khalifa had been established in India. As a
result of which, they wreaked violence on the Hindu landlords and their men.

It is important to note that the differences between the Hindus and the Muslims
were instigated by the Britishers to maintain their dominion over the Indian state
according to what they called the ‘Divide and Rule’ policy. They exploited the masses by
sowing seeds of discord and supporting riots. After the revolt of 1857, which was the first
fight of freedom against the British by the consolidated Muslim and Hindu soldiers,
under the leadership of eminent leaders like Bahadur Shah Zafar, Rani Lakshmi Bai,
Mangal Pandey, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Liyaqat Ali, Nani Sahib, etc., the Britishers
further enforced their Divide and Rule approach.

The rising nationalism and the developing solidarity between the Hindus and the
Muslims were surfacing as a great threat to the British rule and that is believed to be the
sole reason for the annoyance of Britishers. Thus, to maintain supremacy and colonialism
in India, they established control over the Hindus and the Muslims by coaxing dissent
between them. Thereby, preventing them from uniting in opposition to the British rule.
The Indian Muslims were encouraged to forge an identity separate from that of the
Hindus- both in the cultural and political aspects. It eventually resulted in the Muslims
forming the Muslim League under the directorship of Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who kept
on asserting their rights and interests. Congress emerged as a dominant Hindu political
party under the leadership of Gandhi and Nehru. So, in the next years that led to several
protests against the British rule, the Quit India Movement, and finally the Indian
Independence, Mohammad Ali Jinnah became immensely concerned about the position
and the rights Muslims will be given by the constitution as minorities. The northern
26
regions of India witnessed a lot of incidents of communal violence. Such incidents were
concentrated in those districts of North India where socio-political activity on the part of
the organized groups like the Hindu Sangathan groups, Arya-Samaj, the Muslim League,
the Tabligh movement, etc., were prominent.

There is also known to have existed a positive association between periods of

intense communal conflicts (chiefly between the Hindus and the Muslim religions) and
the worsening relationships between the Indian National Congress and the All-India
Muslim League.

On August 16, 1946, The Direct Action Day or the Calcutta Killings took place. It
is marked as a day of extensive riots between Hindus and Muslims. According to reports,
around 3000 people died and 17000 were injured.

As the authoritative British Raj was crumbling, its hasty retreat and the newly
formed political bodies created an alarming situation-one of insecurity and apprehension.
To ensure well-being in the increasingly lawless and communal environment there were
hasty exchanges of the population across the newly-formed border. The newly formed
governments could not deal with migrations in that large magnitude, and that led to
massive incidents of violence on both sides of the border along communal lines.
According to estimates, the number of deaths was nearly around 500,000.                 

Figure 12. Massacre during the Partition

Source: https://www.hinduhumanrights.info/the-british-were-not-guilty-of-partition-somebody-else-was/

27
The partition plan that was apprehended as the only solution to the welfare of every
being, protecting the rights of minorities and the communal intolerance between the
Hindus and Muslims, however, proved to be fallacious.

Morton puts it as:

Against the rational claim of the nationalist elite and the outgoing colonial
administration that partition would resolve what it described as the problem of
communalism and work to unify the nation along religious lines, Menon and Bhasin
observe a contradiction between the secular rhetoric of citizenship and the religious
rhetoric of communalism that underpinned the discourse of national belonging in South
Asia.

In the proposed partition plan that was being considered, failed to notice the
delicate structure of the multiethnic fabric of the Indian subcontinent. It could not foresee
the influence that large population movements would cause if the partition took place.
The communal intolerance and frustration that would build up amongst masses in the
vexation of leaving their ancestral homelands were neglected. Riots, acts of violence and
massacres became widespread. Partition was marked by a high level of organized
communal violence, and hundreds of thousands were slaughtered whilst travelling
between West and East Punjab. Novels by eminent writers like Khushwant Singh, Amrita
Pritam, and Bapsi Sidhwa have portrayed the affective dimension of the pain of this
traumatic past which the historians have failed to capture. The creation of the Muslim
dominated Pakistan and that of the Hindu dominated India took place with nearly 15
million people crossing the border. This partition of India led to large scale killing and
looting, under the rising fury of religious fascism. Religious violence had become a very
common feature in India. Even after the partition, newly-formed secular India saw
occurrences of communal conflict. Muslims who stayed back in the secular, left-wing
India were inflicted with a lot of turmoil and tribulations. Although there were phases of
peace in India, wherein unity sprang up amongst the masses and discord was disparaged,
yet there used to be episodes of religious intolerance that gained moment. The religious
processions and festivals of either community were marked by such occurrences.

28
The Independent India

It is ironic that although the preamble of the Indian Constitution upholds and asserts India
as a sovereign, socialist and secular republic, communal violence in India has obtained
serious dimensions over the years. Despite the Nehru era being based largely on
principles of secularism, it too did witness communal strife and violence at times.
Nevertheless, it is believed to be the most peaceful phase of the Indian democracy.
According to the political scientist- Paul Brass, very few people know that Hindu-Muslim
riots and anti-Muslim massacres have been endemic in India since a long time and have
occurred and recurred in many cities and towns throughout the country. Immediately
after the Independence of India, Muslim conservatism and expression was pervaded
through Muslim organizations under the Prime Minister Nehru. That had developed
consensus amongst the Indian Muslims and brought in harmony and security.

Prime Minister Nehru’s death in 1964, was a turning point in the socio-political
setting of India. It led to the brimming of a feeling of insecurity amongst the Muslim
population. The Muslims were forced to believe that their troubles and problems could
only be handled adequately by the Muslim organizations. So, the steady and slow paced
integration of Muslims into the new, secular polity suffered a jolt. The entente that Nehru
had tried to muster within different religious communities was beginning to rupture. Thus
the Jammat-i-Islami in north India, the Muslim League in Kerela and the Itehadul-
Muslimeen in Hyderabad resuscitated. The violence is aided and abetted by the local
authorities and not limited to being just anti-minority.

It is believed that the Sikhs had always felt a bitter sense of alienation since the
partition of India. The Hindu domination in Punjab over the years was oppressive in
nature and was thought to be against the democratic principles. The Sikh leaders led to
armed militancy demanding for independent Khalsa state. The autonomy demanded by
the Akali Dal and the Khalsa was denied leading to militant uprising in Punjab.
So, in 1984, a military action named Operation Blue Star was launched inside the
Golden Temple to hurl and suppress the Sikhs. This horrifying insurgence of violence
unleashed against the Sikhs across the nation was a turning point in the history of
contemporary India. Sikhs from all over India were attacked in an orgy of violence and
vengeance. Many homes were destroyed and thousands of people died. More than three
thousand people were found to have been killed in the outlying suburbs of Delhi. Grave
violence was meted out to them. They were set on fire by after being soused in kerosene
alive.

29
 Figure 13. The Wrecked Golden Temple after Operation Bluestar

Source: https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~aschadwi/World%20Politics%20Website/page4.html

The 1984 anti-Sikh riots in Delhi forced the Indians all across the globe to look
back at the situation that transpired during the partition of India. People recollected that
they had been through a similar situation of turmoil before. ‘We didn’t think it could
happen to us in our own country’ the older people, who had come to Delhi as refugees in
1947 used to say. The condition felt to them like the partition they had witnessed.

Figure 14. A group of the Sikh Community Protesting

Source: http://www.millenniumpost.in/sundaypost/in-retrospect/revisiting-the-anti-sikh-riots-justice-vs-politics-
328830
30
 Amidst umpteen reasons for the outbreak of such communal violence, the
consequences and the implications in each case are found to remain almost the same. The
Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF, a terrorist organization) had launched an armed
struggle for independence from India. The first phase of displacement of the Kashmiri
Pandits took place from 1989. In late 1989, JKLF began the ethnic cleansing of Kashmiri
Pandits with the first brutal murder of Pandit Tika Lal Taploo (a noted lawyer, political
activist, and the Hindu community leader) of Srinagar.

Contemporary India 

In contemporary India, Anti-Muslim violence has increased over the recent decades
especially after the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Dec 1992. Grim murders, rapes,
damage to the property of Muslims, lynchings, are all widespread since then. The right-
wing nationalism has been caused to rise by political parties like the RSS and the
Bhartiya Janta Party. Seeds of religious animosity that were sown during the medieval
period still lie deeply rooted in the Indian psyche. Bitterness between the Hindu and the
Muslim sects that was originally promoted and institutionalized by the British colonizers
still forges a feeling of animosity between the groups. Even a slight provocation to
exploit this deep-seated sentiment of bitterness unleashes communal violence. 
Even after seventy-two years after Independence, the world is presented with
gruesome images of India; violent Hindu mobs descending from the old, five-hundred-
year-old mosque, in the religious town of the Hindus (Ayodhya) to destroy it. Members
of the Vishva Hindu Parishad and the Bajrang Dal sponsored by the Bhartiya Janta Party,
on 6th December 1992, destroyed the 16th-century mosque- the Babri Masjid, leading to
the outbreak of rampant violence against Muslims in different parts of India. Supreme
Court's verdict related to this Ram Janmabhumi- Babri Masjid dispute case still lies
impending and still forges a great deal of strife between the Hindus and the Muslims. 

 
Live telecasts of the grave religious intolerance were telecast on the BBC, CNN
and other international channels. According to Paul Brass, very few people outside India
knew that similar riots also took place in cities and towns in large parts of the country,
before the telecast. It resulted in Muslims having seen one of their mosques destroyed on
BBC television or having otherwise learned of it, being slaughtered allegedly because
they came out into the streets in shock and outrage and engaged in riotous behavior. 
Images of swords, the mosque’s demolition, and threatening stills of people being
lynched are still rampant.

31
 Figure 15. The Babri Mosque Demolition

Source: http://www.millenniumpost.in/sundaypost/in-retrospect/revisiting-the-anti-sikh-riots-justice-vs-politics-328830

Mumbai was also afflicted by the turbulence of communal violence; pictures of

the city were flashed around the world. It presented Mumbai in flames due to the riots
that followed after the destruction of the Babri Mosque. Extensive rioting there led to the
death of Muslims in large numbers. Their properties were also occupied. It is believed
that the 1993 Mumbai blasts by the underworld leaders Tiger Memon assisted by
Dawood Ibrahim were planned to avenge the killing of innocent Muslims. 

The Gujarat happenings of 2002 were one of the biggest genocides ever seen. The
western Indian state of Gujarat, governed by the then Hindu nationalist chief minister
Narendra Modi, witnessed one of the country's greatest pogroms. Reports that Muslims
had set fire to a train carriage that killed 58 Hindu pilgrims surfaced and mobs rampaged
across the state indulging in exploiting the Muslims. Riots were instigated– the killing,
raping and looting continued for several months. More than 2,000 Muslims were
murdered, and tens of thousands were rendered homeless in carefully planned and
coordinated attacks of unparalleled brutality. 

According to the 2011 Amicus report, the killers were found out to be in touch
with the police and politicians. Two cabinet ministers even sat in police control rooms. A
senior police officer and minister, murdered in 2003, claimed that the Chief Minister
explicitly instructed civil servants and police not to stand in the killers' way.

32
 Muslims were brutally killed, even young ones were not spared – the slayers of
Muslims were seen smashing the heads of children against rocks. The outbreak was so
disturbing that there was some unease even within the instigator’s parent outfit, the RSS
– whose most revered chief, Guru Golwalkar, had written in a 1939 book that Nazi
Germany had manifested "race pride at its highest" by purging itself of the "Semitic
races".

In 2007, a sting was carried out by Tehelka (a weekly magazine), wherein the
chief minister, businessmen, officials, politicians, and even the policemen were caught on
tape, delightedly recalling how they murdered and raped Muslims with the full assent of
their superiors. People’s homes were put on fire and their shops were destroyed. Since
then, Gujarat has seen a steep rise in extrajudicial killings.

  Ironical is the fact that the architects of this genocide, project themself as the face
of a democratic, economically vigorous and pro-west New India. Left behind by
economic growth, Muslims are more demoralized and depressed than ever; and the
country's extreme inequalities, often enforced with violence, express themselves in new
forms, ranging from suicides by tens of thousands of farmers, to militant insurgencies.

Riot Politics, an excellent new book based on the close ethnographic study of riot-
affected areas in Gujarat by the Dutch scholar Ward Berenschot, shows how it was the
state's integration into the global economy and the resulting extreme inequalities, that
made poor areas of the state so exposed to violence against the Muslims. Indeed, the
2002 killings may have been an early example of what the social anthropologist Arjun
Appadurai calls "a vast worldwide Malthusian correction, which works through the
idioms of mineralization and ethnicisation but is functionally geared to preparing the
world for the winners of globalization, minus the inconvenient noise of its losers".

The strongmen who supervise these bloody purges of economically depressed and
unproductive people are often elected by landslide majorities and tend to be audacious
free-marketeers rather than hopeless socialists. The start of the crony-capitalist regimes of
several leaders across the world like that of Putin in Chechnya and Thaksin’s in Thailand
coincided with vicious assaults on ethnic minorities. Hence, years after the 2002 anti-
Muslim pogrom in Gujarat, it too seems to have been a necessary blood rite – anointing
even the New India and not just Vibrant Gujarat.

  The media reports of communal violence have often presented them as the result
of too intense religiosity. In the aftermath of the Hindu-Muslim riots in Gujarat in 2002,
the Indian novelist Salman Rushdie claims that “The problem’s name is God,”.

33
 Figure 16. The 2002 Gujarat Riots

Source: https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/My-Voice/2018-12-19/Take-up-Gujarat-riots-also/461039

Religion is being used as a powerful tool to manipulate the masses by political as

well as the separatist groups. Ethnic and racial differences have been explored to
facilitate the political dynamics of these states alike by the militants and the
politicians. These regions have become the most sensitive regions as far as
communal violence and fundamentalist politics is concerned. Again, as in the rest of
the country, in Assam too, the militancy and Islam have been misused and exploited
for political gains by most political parties, and ironically each party blames the rest
of them for the sin.

Combating the Strife  

Sectarian violence needs multi-causal analysis and a deeper understanding. There is a

strong condemnation of the communal groups, anti-social elements are held responsible,
a sinister foreign hand is seen pulling the strings, pious statements are made in favor of
national integration, a commission of inquiry is appointed, and soon afterward everything
is forgotten until we are shocked by a fresh wave of violence. In private, people blame
one or the other community, but in public care is taken not to hurt any group’s
sensibilities. The villain is always located somewhere else — economic frustration, the
legacy of the British, political opportunism, etc. N.C. Saxena, after studying the role
played by regional parties in the communal riots in post-independent India classifies the
existing traditions of inquiry into ethnic conflict. He categorizes them into: 

(i) Essentialism

(ii) Instrumentalism

34
(iii) Constructivism

(iv) Institutionalism 

All these four traditions have a distinguished lineage, but none of them can account for
the local or regional concentrations of ethnic violence. India is not the only country to
have an internal variance in the occurrence of ethnic violence. Giving data on violent
happenings in India, it is found that half of the violence involving deaths is concentrated
in eight cities containing 5 percent of the population. Any multiethnic society can have
periods and issues of ethnic conflict: the key question is whether these give rise to
violence and deaths or are handled and resolved by the political and social system. The
vision of peace, therefore, should be the absence of violence and death, not the absence of
conflict. 

35
 CHAPTER 4

ANALYSISING THE CAUSES OF COMMUNAL VIOLENCE

 
It was thought that partition of the country would resolve the problem of communal
violence in India, and in the post-partition period, the people would be able to live
without facing the ill-effects of the communal violence. However, it was false hope and
except for the decade of fifty, people could not live without communal violence. In
communal violence, several causes and multiplicity of factors are involved which
contribute to the generation and aggravation of communal riots. Each of these factors,
individually and collectively, contributes to creating the communal passion in which even
the mildest of provocations erupts into irrational violence. Besides the communal
environment in most of the riots, there are precipitating factors, which engineer the fire of
communal violence in any area. It must be noted that in communal violence there are
micro as well as macro factors involved. The macro factors are often of ideological in
nature and have a nation-wide sweep. The micro factors may be non-ideological and of
local nature. Both are integrally connected with the process of socio-economic
development in the country. To combat communalism and stop religious violence, we
ought to know the causes that instigate communal violence. This chapter will deal with
these causes which are responsible for the eruption of communal violence in the nation.

Communal violence takes place because of various factors. The process of

communal violence is a very complex one. The reason for the break out of communal
violence, its continuance, ineffective policing and other efforts and delay in restoring
normalcy are varied and interrelated. Therefore, it is necessary, to know the general
causes behind the problem of communal violence. The general causes responsible for the
problem of communal violence in India may be discussed under the following heads: 

 
 
1. The Struggle for Identity
The theories of class conflict, viz., class stratification coinciding with religious cleavages
or the dominant property group trying to raise bogie of majority communalism in order to
mute or deflect the rising demands of the minority. In India, communal identity and
division have always pervaded Indian society but communalism is one of the by-products
of Colonial underdevelopment of the Indian economy. The rise of modern politics and
social classes occurred in the same period and the crises of the Colonial economy began

36
to be largely felt. Colonial economy, underdevelopment, and economic stagnation
produced conditions conducive to the growth of internal divisions and antagonism within
society. The internal divisions promoted communal violence and social tension at the
mass level. Some scholars argue that all classes in the society behave differently
according to their economic needs, which when triggered off by a religious issue, lead to
communal violence. They attribute class struggle as the root cause behind several
communal disturbances, not religion. Some scholars believe that after partition of the
country, Indian Muslims developed the psychology of being the deprived group. Thus, an
incident, which may be trivial in nature, leads to a chain reaction ending in violence.

2. Communal Conflicts and Conflicts of Interest  

Hindus and Muslims cannot be treated as entirely homogenous communities. There are
besides religious conflicts, conflicts of interest too. On occasion, these interests sharpen
religious conflict. Religion is often used to provide legitimacy to conflicts of interests and
thus what appears to be a religious conflict may, in fact, be a cover-up for a conflict of
interests. This is, of course, not to suggest that there has been no religious conflict
between the two communities. Communal conflicts are a means for communities to assert
their communal identities and to demand their share in economic, educational and job
opportunities. The simplistic explanation of communal conflict in the pre-independence
period was in terms of the imperialist conspiracy of ‘divide and rule’. At a more
sophisticated level, communal conflict is sought to be explained by Marxists as an
inevitable consequence of the contemporary capitalist order. 

Figure 17. Outbreak of Communal Violence

Source:https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-reason-behind-communal-violence-in-India

37
 Communal conflict/communal of interest does not seem to originate in the
ignorance of ‘true religion’ but in the struggle for autonomy on the part of one or more
groups and there is an inescapable conflict between their drive for autonomy and the
cohesion of the state in a multi-religious society. The politicization of religion, conditions
of extreme scarcity and a particularly divisive style of politics aggravate the problem,
which appears to be basic to heterogeneous societies. There remain casual continuity
between the pre and post-partition periods as far as super-structural causes of communal
conflicts like religion cultural prejudices, the memory of Muslim rule over India,
emotional commitment to the cause of Pakistan, etc., were concerned. However, now
there emerged a variety of local factors, which came to play an ever-greater role in
pushing communal conflict to the threshold of violence. It must be considered as a
significant development.

3. The Divide and Rule Policy of the Britishers

The history of Hindu-Muslim antagonism is the result of the ‘divide and rule’ policy
adopted by the British rulers, which left a wide impact on Hindu-Muslim relations. This
policy had sown seeds of discord between the Hindu-Muslim communities, and resulted
in them indulging in serious clashes, posing threat to the security and very existence of
the nation. After the revolt of 1857, the British rulers started to divide different
communities into communal lines, particularly Hindus and Muslims in India. It was one
of the main reasons that the British rulers undertook the first census in Colonial India in
the year 1872. The census of 1872 articulated the cleavages of minority and majority and
created communal consciousness in the early 20th century.

Figure 18. Rule of the British Raj

38
 Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/images-of-british-india-4122914

The census exercised during the colonial rule instilled a geographical and demographic
consciousness among the religious communities. The census data on religion also sparked
off a communal debate on the size and growth of different religious communities. The
division of Bengal in 1905, based on religion was the unique example of fomenting
communalism by the British policy of ‘divide and rule’. Communal perception was again
perpetrated through the political instrument of separate electorates, wherein religious
minorities were given separate seats in the legislative bodies according to their proportion
of population in the provinces. This widened the prevailing communal antagonism in the
country. Mahatma Gandhi struggled hard to bring back the spirit of brotherhood; apart
from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. However, every move to unite the two communities
failed miserably. Since then the relationship between Hindus and Muslims has become
bitterer than ever before; hatred between them has grown manifold. The Indian ruling
class continued the ‘divide and rule’ policy of the British rulers in the post-partition
period in relation to the masses of the two communities to keep them divided and always
fighting.

4. The Partition of Bengal and the Swadeshi Movement 

The British policy of ‘divide and rule’ succeeded. The Hindu-Muslim antagonism started
surfacing since the division of Bengal in 1905. The partition of Bengal and Swadeshi
movement was another factor of creating gulf between two communities by the British
rulers. The British Government wanted to cut the very source of Indian nationalism and
to divide the people of the region into two separate communities, i.e., Eastern and
Western Bengal. In Eastern Bengal, Muslims were in majority while in the Western
Bengal, Hindus were in majority. The Colonial rulers were very eager to enlist the
support of the majority community against the minority community. The majority
community undertook a hostile attitude towards the minority community and the
Swadeshi movement sponsored by them. Nawab Salimullah of the Eastern Bengal
actively helped the government in fighting the Swadeshi movement in the new province.
The attitude encouraged by the Nawab culminated in a series of outbreaks at Comilla
(now in Bangladesh) and Jamalpur in East Bengal and a growing alienation of relation
between the two communities. Gulf started appearing between Hindus and Muslims when
the opposition against partition of Bengal and Swadeshi movement were on the peak,
several riots took place in areas and places which later on became part of East Pakistan
and now Bangladesh. 

39
 Figure 19. Turmoil during the Partition of Bengal

Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/images-of-british-india-4122914

5. The Partition of the Country  

Partition of the country also created a great deal of bitterness and communalized political
processes in post-Independent India. The partition itself was a greater disaster for the
country. Before partition, all were Indians, but after partition, Muslims became a minority
in India while Hindus and Sikhs became a minority in Pakistan. Allegations of
persecution of minorities in both countries had been made from time to time. The seeds
of distrust and disharmony have gradually taken shape of big trees and communal termite
is slowly eating into the age-old roots of our peace.

6. The Administrative Slackness

Weak law and order is one of the causes of communal violence. After partition, most of
the communal violence took place because of the weak law and order. There was failure
of the police and administrative officers in gauging the intensity of the communal
situation in advance. This very cause is attributed to many serious communal riots
including Ahmedabad and Baroda (1969), Bhiwandi (1970), Hyderabad (1978 & 81),
Bihar Sharif (1981), Bhagalpur (1989), and several other major riots. N.S. Saxena argued
that if the administration had been strong and police force alert, the incidence of
communal violence would have been tiny. Citing Charan Singh’s administration he
pointed out that although there were no serious disturbances of any kind, riot figures went

40
up from 7,158 in 1969 to 8,570 in 1970 because even the smallest breach of orders
resulted in the registration of riot cases. He further adds that the administration is
responsible for all major communal riots. 

Figure 20. Upheaval due to Communal Violence

Source: https://www.dnaindia.com/ahmedabad/report-new-age-communal-violence-gains-ground-in-rural-gujarat-
2741131

The Madon Commission enquired into the riots of Bhiwandi and Jalgaon by recording
regarding the adequacy of the administrative measures that:

(1) The authorities had failed to take steps to check communal propaganda;

(2) The authorities had failed to judge correctly the objectives of the organizers of the
Shiv Jayanti procession; and

(3) The authorities had failed to take action against the misuse of temples. The
commission had further recorded several instances, which proved that the concerned
police officers and personnel did not prevent rioters from their acts of arson and rioting.
Due to the nexus among police and anti-social elements, the administration does not
remain effective in curbing communal violence. Communal violence is prolonged and
people’s faith in civic administration is adversely affected because of weak law and
41
 order. The Report of the Srikrishna Commission on Mumbai riots (1992-93), which was
submitted in 1998, points out that the failure of state administration was primarily
responsible for the extra-ordinary situations. The Srikrishna Commission Report indicts
that “four precious days were lost for the Chief Minister to consider and issue the orders
as to effective use of the army for controlling the riots.”

7. The Political Factor  

The communal politics cannot be let down without an attack on communal ideology and
the socio-economic structure of the society which sustains it. In most cases, communal
violence is politically motivated. There is a growing tendency to maximize political gains
by adopting short cuts in terms of usage of ancient identities, money and muscle power,
communal slogans, doctrinaire issue, etc. The major cause of communal conflict before
partition was the struggle between the Hindu and the Muslim elite for political power as
well as control of economic resources at the national level. Zenab Bano believes that “the
outcome of communalism in the form of group prejudices, communal contradictions,
tensions, and communal violence is due to the struggle for control over the resources of
power. Communalism’s roots are deep in economic power and domination.”

Figure 21. Communal Insurgence in UP

Source: https://newscentral24x7.com/india-may-see-communal-violence-before-ls-polls-bjp-hindu-nationalist-themes-dan-coats/

 
The 1980s decade witnessed the highest degree of communalization of politics.
The ‘Minakshipuram conversion’ episode was alleged to have been exploited by the then
Prime Minister to mobilize the upper and middle caste Hindu support for retaining
political power. Due to the political issues communal riots occurred in Hyderabad (1983),
Bombay (now renamed Mumbai)-Bhiwandi (1984) and Aurangabad (1988). In the late
42
80s, communal riots that broke out in Meerut (1987) and the Bhagalpur (1989) were
directly the results of the ‘Ayodhya dispute’, the dispute was essentially political in
nature. There is a violent political competition among the leaders of both the
communities to obtain favor of one community against another for political gain.

As a result, communal groups are gaining support from political parties. Both
religious, as well as secular leaderships, try to take advantage of this situation for their
political and non-political ends. There are many other factors also which contribute to the
building up of communal tension. The increased prosperity of a group challenges the
traditional political leadership of the town. This political rivalry leads to communally
dangerous situations. Political rivalries assume a dangerous extent in areas marked by a
high level of political instability and social violence. Politicians have no interest in
bridging the gap between communities, but have, in fact, a positive stake in ensuring that
it remains as wide as possible. They succeed in misguiding their ignorant co-religionists
in the wrong direction and towards the wrong goals, which are against the interests of the
people themselves. 

8. The Socio-Political Issues 

Among the other disputes that exist in Indian society, the socio-political issues also
engineer communal violence. The main reason or the primal cause that surfaced was
‘cow protection’ and ‘Urdu-Devanagari’ controversy. The demand for the use of the
Devanagari script, first made by some Banaras (now renamed Varanasi) Hindus in 1868
and granted by Lt. Governor MacDonnell in 1900 was connected with the tension
between old and new elites of UP. The local Gorakshini Sabhas began springing up in
many parts of Northern India from the late 1880s, and became more militant and brought
acute social tension. On the other hand, Muslim revivalist trends were simultaneously
insisting on the necessity of the ‘Baqrid’ sacrifices. Thus, the ground was prepared for
communal violence in 1893. In 1967, the attempt to make ‘Urdu’, the second official
language in Bihar, was the cause behind communal violence in Ranchi. In 1994, the
introduction of a short ‘Urdu News Bulletin’ from the Bangalore Doordarshan (DD) had
sparked off communal violence in Bangalore. However, it was clear that apart from
‘linguistic sentiments’ there was certainly a political motive to the entire events. .

43
 9. The Economic Factor

The economic factors behind communal violence are avidly researched. Various theories
of development processes state that causes economic competition among Hindus and
Muslims to play their part in this. Economic competition is what leads to social tensions
that tend to turn into communal violence. A major cause of communalism and communal
violence due to it has been unstable and exploitative economic relations in Indian society.
In 1929, Mumbai riots were explained at the time as the outcome of an economic conflict
between Hindu strikers and Muslim strikebreakers, mixed in with Hindu antipathy
towards Muslim moneylenders in the city. Several accounts of the partition riots in
Punjab have also focused on the role of land shortages and conflicts between indebted
Muslim farmers and mainly Hindu money lenders in the countryside and between
Muslim and Hindu business interests in the cities. 

After independence, however, as riots have become much more urban in nature, most
economic explanations of riots have focused on either: 

(i) Economic competition due to Muslim craftsmen moving up in the economic division
of labor and beginning to compete with Hindu merchants; or 

(ii) Riots stocked by urban land mafias in an attempt to displace one community from
increasingly valuable urban real estate. 

The inter-dependence between the Hindus and the Muslims in trade and
commerce in places like Varanasi, Moradabad, Aligarh and other places have given rise
to pressure groups among the artisans and weavers who put pressure on the fanatical
members of their respective communities to call off the projection of any communal
issue, as in the process the communities stand to lose economically. Due to the economic
factors communal violence occurred in Udaipur (1965 & 1966); Godhra (1980-81); Bihar
Sharif (1981); Meerut and Baroda (1982) and in the industrial belt of Bhiwandi-Thane-
Mumbai (1984). During 1980, either electoral politics or economic competition played a
great role in engineering some major riots.

Various case studies disclose that in the period before Ayodhya issue violence
took place in cities where Muslim artisans and weavers took over the trading of their
products from Hindus. The intense economic competition led to conflicts and riots. The
Gopal Singh Committee in its Report (1983) also testifies to the economic factors, local
rivalry, acquiring control over and sharing of the gains of economic ventures. It is
asserted that most of the employers, industrialists, etc., are Hindus, whereas most of the
44
workers and artisans are Muslims. Therefore, communal violence is a distorted form of
class conflict. Communal clashes encourage in ensuring that people do not begin
identifying themselves with the economic class to which they belong. The economic
factors played a significant role at those industrial places where Hindus and Muslims
both were engaged in the same industry. The problem becomes complex, where Muslims
occur to be wage-earning artisans. The bigger wealth among the Muslims leads to
increase majority’s bigotry. Economic competition results in social tensions. It was an
underlying cause of communal riots being frequently mentioned in some recent writing
on the subject. The riots of Aligarh, Moradabad, Bihar Sharif, Udaipur, etc., are the
example. Mushirul Hasan explains that the riots in Moradabad, Khurja, Aligarh,
Bhagalpur, Ahmedabad, Baroda, and Surat were especially targeted because in these
towns Muslim craftsmen, artisans, foundry owners, and weavers reap the reward of
favorable economic climate and trading relations with oil-rich Gulf countries. 

Suranjan Das argues that the 1992 riots were actually ‘land-grabbing riots under a
criminal garb’. The real estate developer—‘anti-social’ nexus sought to exploit the post-
Ayodhya communal uneasiness in seizing stretches of land occupied by particular slums.
Often, communal forces exploit the economic backwardness of their community to
mobilize it against other communities. The economic crisis in our society leads not only
to communal violence but also to atrocities over women, Scheduled Castes (SC) and
members of weaker sections of society. The present inflation and worrying economic
condition are also responsible for communal violence.

10. Business Rivalry within the Sects 

Business rivalries are also considered as a reason behind the communal disturbances. The
Indian society is interdependent in its business activities and that makes it difficult to
foresee a situation where give and take among the various sections does not exist. Hindu
and Muslim entrepreneurs and artisans cannot flourish without each other’s support and
alliance. Discord in their relationship affects the whole industry gruesomely. Upon
studying the causes of certain communal riots, we find that business rivalry between the
traders forms a major cause for communal violence. The comparative economic
prosperity among the Muslims leads to greater political aspirations among them. This
results in a communally dangerous situation. During the last few decades, a perceptible
qualitative difference is being felt in many towns. Communal forces have identified
certain contradictions in their relationships to create situations in which further
communal clashes are encouraged.

45
 Figure 22. A Picture Representing Hindu-Muslim Riots

Source: https://static.india.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/communal-riot.jpg

The contribution of land mafias in communal violence is visible in Ahmedabad and

Mumbai. In Hyderabad riots (1990-91), it was found that the role of land mafias in
collaboration with their political mentors was derisive in engineering and sustaining these
riots for long periods. The riot of Bhiwandi (1970) is a clear example of business rivalries
among traders resulting in planned and organized attacks on the looms working for rival
traders. Similar tendencies are visible in some other riots also. The economic targeting of
Muslims in the Gujarat riots (2002) is unprecedented. Muslim businesses have been
systematically destroyed. The Tribunal recorded extensive evidence of the divesting loss
of property of the Muslim community in the state. Due to business rivalry, the anti-social
elements are encouraged to attack the opposite business establishments.

11. The Partisan Behavior of Police

The partisan role of state machinery particularly police goes in sustenance of communal
violence and reactive motivation by the group feeling. The partisan attitude of police
allows petty clashes to turn into a major communal violence. The Madon Commission on
Bhiwandi riots (1970) has recorded that the concerned police officers and personnel
showed communal bias and actively assisted the Hindu rioters in burning and looting
Muslim properties and the communal discrimination was practiced in making arrests. The
police turned a blind eye to what the Hindu rioters were doing.

46
 Figure 23. The Partisan Behavior of Police

Source: http://www.teluguone.com/tmdbuserfiles/communal%20riots.jpg

The Moradabad riots (1982) and the Maliana and Hashimpura episode in Meerut (1987)
are the glaring examples of one-sided action of the Uttar Pradesh (UP)-Provincial Armed
Constabulary (PAC). Harish Sharma quoted the statement of the then State Minister,
Abdul Rahman Nashtar, regarding Meerut riots, “after Moradabad riots, Meerut became
the second instance when the PAC was blamed along with the local administration for the
riots. In both cases, a minor issue was given the color.” N.C. Saxena's inquiry into the
Meerut riots of 1982 summarizes the orders of senior police officers in one phrase:
‘Muslims must be taught a lesson’. The police and PAC faithfully implemented this
policy. Looting and arson in this context were considered legitimate and necessary and
was therefore ignored. The other examples of PAC being responsible for communal
violence are Aligarh, Badaun, Bulandshahar, Bijnor, and Kanpur. V.N. Rai, an ex-police
officer of UP held the police partisan as the cause of communal violence. He feels that it
is already imprinted in the police mind that Muslims initiate the communal riots and
hence as precautionary measures, the police arrests particularly Muslims and searches
their homes. He describes that in all the major riots including Ahmedabad (1969),
Bhiwandi-Jalgaon (1970), Tellicherry (1970), Meerut (1982 & 87) and Bhagalpur (1989),
role of the police has been highly anti-Muslims. The Srikrishna Commission Report
indicates that the police personnel was found actively participating in riots, communal
incidents or incidents of looting arson and so on. The partisan role of the police in
47
Mumbai riots (1992- 93), Gujarat killings and Orissa riots (2008) has been equally
shameful. The partisan role of the police in Mumbai riots is well documented in a
compilation from the Times of India. The Srikrishna Commission accuses the Mumbai
Police of ‘built-in biases’ against Muslims, which became more pronounced after attacks
on the force.

12. Insecurity and Fear 

Communal violence takes place, as members of one community perceive the threat,
harassment, fear and danger from the members of the other community. The response to
the threat is either fight or departure. The latter generates fear and terror and the former
causes hatred and anger-phobia. There is a lack of interpersonal trust and mutual
understanding resulting in subsequent fear and worry among the communities. During
communal violence, neighbors and acquaintances become enemies to one another.
Though they are staying nearby, some persons from the same locality participate in
communal violence. Thus, the people known to each other over a period become
assailants. During communal violence, there is a lack of rapport between the people and
the police. People do not report many communal incidents to police, as they are afraid of
personal assaults by the criminals in the absence of adequate protection by police.

13. The Spread of Rumors

False and exaggerated rumors pave an easy way to communal violence. In almost all riots
the role of rumors in rousing communal zeal is quite famous. Rumor plays a mischievous
role in fanning the flames in a surcharged atmosphere. It is always a key in the hands of
communal elements to engineer communal violence. The most effective to incite the
mass is the rumor of the women or girl of one community being molested, raped or
kidnapped by the members of another community; or the killing of a cow by a Muslim;
etc. In 1950, rumors about the alleged ill-treatment of Hindus in certain districts of East
Bengal, reports of alleged forcible mass conversion to Islam, desecration of images of
Hindu Gods, etc., invoked communal violence in several districts of West Bengal. In
1961, rumors played a vital role in Jabalpur riots. The communal violence was provoked
by rumors about a Hindu girl being assaulted by two Muslims. The main cause of Nellie,
Assam riot (1983) was a rumor that the Bengali Muslim had cut off the breasts of Hindu
women and displayed them in the Hindu areas to show their power. In Bhagalpur riots
(1989) too, the role of rumors was significant. In December 1990, during the second
phase of kar seva in Ayodhya, violence broke out in Aligarh, among other towns on
December 7. On December 8, rumors gripped the town that Muslim doctors at the J.N.
48
Medical College, A.M.U., Aligarh, deliberately killed some Hindu patients. Such
rumours and propaganda did maximum damage. During Gujarat killings (2002), the
Gujarati press became the agent provocateur. Sandesh published false reports, rumours
and biased reports, which aggravated the flames of communal violence. The story starts
with the Godhra incident. On February 28, Sandesh published a front-page story that “10
to 15 Hindu women were dragged away by a ‘religious fanatic’ mob from the railway
compartment.” The story was entirely false. The next day, Sandesh carried a follow up to
this false story with the heading “Out of kidnapped young ladies from Sabarmati Express,
dead bodies of two women recovered— breasts of women were cut off.” This false story
has spread like wildfire across Gujarat and was compounded by extreme sexual violence
and bestiality against Muslim women 

14. The Communication Gap

During communal violence, there is no free exchange of views and opinions between the
two communities and both the communities perceive as inimical. Such an absence of
inter-group communication is favorable for communal violence. During communal
violence, both communities paste and distribute posters and pamphlets thereby increasing
communal tensions and continuation of communal violence. Such communication
preaches communal hatred and prejudice to incite communal violence. Isolated individual
instances of injustices and loss, rightly or wrongly are published and communicated in
the newspapers and consequently communal groups get support for continuing communal
violence, as one community perceives that the other community committed violent acts
against it. An individual personal attack is sometimes misconstrued as an attack against
the entire community. As a result, people become scared and frustrated and thereby more
violence takes place.

49
The Sentimental Causes 

Many scholars have discussed the problem of communal violence through different
angles but they have perhaps forgotten the violative point of religion as the perpetrator
behind communal violence. However, it has been observed by various studies that
religion was not the sole factor responsible for the origin or growth of communal
violence before and after partition. However, religion acts more as an agent determining
the attitude of its followers than the motivation or mainspring of communal violence.
Religion has become a cat’s paw in the hands of unscrupulous elements. 

Religious fanaticism among the people also has its source in the constant
preaching and actions of communal organizations. Since they are interested in sharpening
the differences between religious groups, it is in their interest to make their followers
hard-boiled, unreasonable and passionate followers of a manipulated form of the religion
concerned, a form which is, in fact, farthest from the actual tenets of the faith. That is
why it is a common feature, observed in every religious/communal group, to unite
whenever the ‘religion in danger’ slogan is raised. Politicians and priests mobilize people
around this slogan, and they preserve in keeping the slogan alive all the time. This
fostering of fanaticism is, of course, facilitated by the ignorance and the lack of
awareness amongst the people. That is why vested interests have a stake in keeping
ignorant as many people as possible and as long as possible.

Religious Conflicts Religious conflicts are the expressions of beliefs on the

ground of superiority. The man is influenced by instinctive impulse and remains on the
brute plane and due to ignorance, fear, and fancy; deceit becomes dominant with cruelty,
jealousy, and violence. There is a general religious revival among the different
communities in our country. The newfound faith in religion by the communities has,
however, given rising to several problems. Every religion teaches its followers that its
understanding and interpretation of God, Prophet, etc., is the best and the ultimate. The
tremendous faith in one’s religious beliefs and a feeling that nonbelievers in these are
misguided people who derive to be told regarding the correct path, lead to conflicts,
which may be termed as religious conflicts. Normally, the destruction of places of
worship of other communities and forced or voluntary conversions were supposed to be
part of religious duty. Thus, communal violence breaks out because of ‘Jehads’,
‘Crusades’, etc., the religious dogmas, division and worship lead to open conflict, threats
to social order and integration.

Examining causes to understand the problem of communal violence from the sentimental
aspect, they can be put as:

50
 1. Exploitation on Grounds of Religious Sentiments 

Very often, provocation due to the hurting of religious sentiments resulted in communal
violence. For instance, communal violence in Srinagar in 1967 broke out when some torn
pieces of the Holy Quran were found in college latrine. In 1968, at Tinsukia in Assam,
communal violence took place due to the killing of a cow by a Muslim. In December
1986, communal riots broke out in Bangalore and Mysore, because of a defamatory
article against the last Prophet Mohammad (PBUH). The Moradabad riot (1980) was due
to the intrusion of a pig into the Idgah during ‘Eid’ prayer. The incident had its
repercussions in many other towns of the state and in Delhi, MP, and Kashmir. In 1982,
communal violence broke out in Amritsar and Patiala, due to the demand for a total ban
on smoking and cigarette sale in Amritsar, a holy city. The demand was mainly because
of religion as the use of tobacco was forbidden to Sikhs. Both politicians and priests of
their religion succeed in stoking the flames of communal hatred, bias, and prejudice and
in triggering communal clashes whenever convenient to them.

2. Certain Religious Practices

Seeds of distrust are planted by exploiting deep religious traditions of both communities;
the difference in their different religious practices and rituals is highlighted and often, it
is shown that one is out to destroy the other. Religiosity imparts passion and intensity to
communalism. The extent of religiosity is very high. Even minor variations in the public
performance of religious rituals evoke violent reactions. These reactions are the outcome
of the constant reinforcement of the religious group’s identities through the propagation
of communal ideology.

3.     Proselytization/Conversion

Proselytization is a source of communal conflict and communal violence. Frequent

conversions caused a great resentment among people. Assimilation is peaceful co-
existence in a heterogeneous system, which presupposed passivity on the part of the
assimilated. During the continuous phases of communal violence in Bengal from 1905 to
1947, and pre-partition communal riots in several parts of the country, the conversion
was one of the main causes of communal violence. After, partition, the fundamentalist
also did not give up the idea of conversion. The conversion of Dalits to Islam at
Meenakshipuram in Tamil Nadu communalized the Hindu mind in India. The outbursts
of communal conflicts after the ‘conversion’ episode indicate that caste and communal
problems have become intertwined in Indian politics. The conversion issue intensified
communal discord in the country and resulted in communal violence in many parts of the
51
 country. The communal violence in Ahmedabad, Pune, and Sholapur in 1982 had been
the direct result of the Meenakshipuram conversions. The recent communal violence
against the Christian community in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh (MP) and Uttrakhand and
particularly in Orissa in 2008 was due to the conversion of Adivasis and Gorkhas to
Christianity.

  

4. The Religious Processions

The manipulation of religious processions by political leaders is an old phenomenon.

Processions became significant vehicles of violence when local power politics was at
stake. Communalists use religiosity for boundary definitions in political and other
spheres. Their emphasis remains on religious festivals, processions, etc. They try to
promote solidarity by exaggerating incidents when such processions have been infringed
upon. The revisionism as a weapon was pressed into service by political leaders to
develop base after 1920. The communalists are also behind the increase of religious
ceremonies and processions like Bhagwati Jagran, Durga Pooja, Ganesh Utsav, Rath
Yatras, Shiv Jayanti, Ramnavmi Utsav, Laxmi Puja, Sarasvati Pujan, Ganesh Pujan, Ram
Lila, Tazia, etc. 

Figure 24. A Hindu Procession

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/grandeur-marks-golden-chariot-procession/article26879259.ece

52
 Figure 25. Juloos in Muharram

Source: https://new-img.patrika.com/upload/2018/09/13/muharram_3407030_835x547-
m.jpg

These religious processions have increased in number and the scale of

participation over the years. Planned and organized efforts are made for the public
performance of religious rituals. Even the scale of organizing the public performance of
religious rituals becomes an issue for competition among rival communalists. Show of
strength at the time of religious festivals has also become a new behavioral pattern. When
a procession of a particular community passes through the area of the other community,
attempts are made to shout slogans or tease them. This often creates a communal clash.
Sometimes religious celebrations and processions sparked off communal violence. This
happened in Silhat (1782), in Pilibhit (1871), in Prabhashtam (1882), in Bareilly (1871,
1887 & 1962), in Etawah and Delhi (1886), in Ayodhya (1912), in Patna (1916), in Gaya
and Shahbad (1921), in Allahabad (1924 & 1968), in Hazaribagh (1935, 1957 & 1983), in
Cawnpore (now renamed Kanpur) (1939) in Bhopal (1953 & 1956), in Lucknow (1959),
in Firozabad and Saharanpur (1960), in Vidisha (1961), in Ratnagiri (1962), in Islampur
(1963), in Ranchi (1967), in Meerut (1968 & 1987), in Hubli (1969), in Chaibasa (1970),
in Varanasi (1977), in Jamshedpur (1979), in Moradabad (1980), in Hyderabad (1981), in
Hazaribagh (1983), in Ahmedabad (1713, 1953, 1985, 1986 & 1992), in Calcutta (now
renamed Kolkata) (1924, 1939, 1941, 1969 & 1996), etc.  
Recently, due to religious celebrations and processions, communal disturbances
have been reported from Baroda, Sewari, Moradabad, Jabalpur, Titwala, Ahmednagar,
Ujjain, Nandurbar, Lucknow, Bareilly, Hyderabad, Dhule, Malerkotla, Varanasi,
Kolhapur, and Azamgarh. Thus, religious processions become an irritant for causing
communal violence. Further, other religious processions, on occasions of both Hindu and
Muslim festivals are primary factors responsible for communal violence. 

53
5. The Re-Establishment of Fundamentalism 

The last three decades witnessed the emergence of fundamentalism in all sections of our
society. Prominent display of the religious signs and slogans on vehicle and public places
has caught up rapidly. The increasing participation of people of different communities
into religious places is an indicator of the rise of religious fundamentalism even amongst
educated persons. Almost all the communities have been insisting on talking out new
processions and that too through non-conventional and disputed routes leading to
violence. Later, stress is also being laid on the construction of new buildings and the
renovation of old, dilapidated and abandoned religious places, which have been resented
to by the opposite community at many places on several occasions.

Ever-increasing use of loudspeakers on religious places create disharmony at

many times. Attempts to restrict such activities are termed as anti-religious. Another
feature is exploiting the sentiments of the respective communities in furtherance of their
agenda by undertaking mass mobilization programs such as ‘Rath Yatra’. All such
programs add to the hardening of attitude, mutual bitterness, intolerance and aggression
towards each other. These are really unwelcome signs for any civilized and harmonious
society.

 In the beginning, both communities were mixed with each other but soon the
relations between the two started straining, doubt and hate started creeping in among the
members of both the communities. Hindu fundamentalism began in the latter part of the
19th century. The establishment of Arya Samaj gave rise to Hindu nationalism based on
religion. The cow slaughter and stoppage of music before the mosque became areas of
conflict between the two communities. Hindu communalists put breaks into the efforts of
unity by the Hindu nationalists while the British openly patronized Muslim
communalists. The Muslim fundamentalists often brand the Indian State as ‘Hindu’;
Hindu fundamentalists accept this and start prescribing a code of conduct for all
‘Muslims’, and they charge ‘Muslim’ with being strongly organized and blind supporters
of their own co-religionists. Muslims accept this allegation and claim that if they do not
defend their religion the ‘Hindus’ will stamp out Islam. Thus, Hindu fundamentalists
view minorities as enemies of the nation and communal violence as deliberate acts
intended to humiliate and injure the Hindus. While Muslim fundamentalists view
communal violence as well organized and pre-planned and designed to terrorize the
Muslims—to depress them, to drive them out of their own areas and to reduce them into
second-class citizens. Fundamentalists in either community use their influence in creating
certain biases. They have taken all possible opportunities to incite the minds of the people
and at times even resorted to the use of foul language.

However, it cannot be ignored that Hindus and Muslims have deep-rooted

prejudices against each other, which are taken advantage of by the fundamentalists. For
54
 instance, by mobilizing the masses on communally sensitive issues, the communalists
succeeded in inflaming the already existing prejudices. The fundamentalists exploit the
discrepancy between the self-perception of one religious group and perception of it by the
antagonistic communal group to spread fear, suspicions, mistrust, and insecurity among
their co-religionists. Thus, fundamentalists of one group, instead of emasculating the
communalism of another group, feed and fatten it through violence or communal
propaganda.

6. The Religious Organizations 

 

Figure 26. Emblem of the BJP and the Shiv Sena

Source: https://dbpost.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Shivsena-BJP.jpg

Figure 27. Emblem of Jamat-ul-Islam

Source: https://www.dawn.com/news/1407537

55
Before partition, the communal organizations were able to convince their co-religionists
that their problems were because of the other religionists and the solution to these non-
religious issues was available in religion. 

This was the basic cause of widespread communal violence between the two
communities. Later, both Hindus and Muslims have established various organizations
such as Bajrang Dal, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Shiv Sena, VHP, Jamate-Islami,
etc., to protect their interests and as a result, communal tensions and violence have
increased. Similarly, people have become conscious of religion and religious fanaticism
has increased among Hindus and Muslims. These organizations have vast resources and
command workers to protect their interests due to the alleged injustice done to them.
These organizations have enormous capital formation, buildings, workers and land and
regular massive income from their patrons.

The issues rose by these organizations and large-scale mobilization of the people
to achieve communal objectives helped such organizations in gaining legitimacy by
posing themselves as the real representatives of their community. These organizations
have been promoted as the prestigious forums of a particular community and they take a
lead to create all types of communal disturbances. Various inquiry commissions have
established the role of the communal organization in fomenting communal trouble.

The Madon Commission (1970) held branches of communal organizations like

the Shiv Sena, Bhartiya Jan Sangh, Hindu Mahasabha and Tamir-e-Millat responsible for
fomenting communal tension. However, religious/communal groups in free India
continue to exploit the situation; the tug of war between them has intensified the
communal divide; their leaders thrive on spreading hatred. One believes in the
extermination of the other group the other in retaliation. The communal violence is thus
organized by a vested powerful semi and quasi-politically affiliated groups. It is,
therefore, necessary that such organizations should not be allowed to ransack the lives
and properties of innocent people.

56
 CHAPTER 5

CONSENSING DIFFERENCES THROUGH SYNCRETISM

Syncretism is the amalgamation or attempted amalgamation of different religions,

cultures, or schools of thought. Attempts have been made to curb religious conflicts and
bring people together to a universally accepted faith, both in India and in other countries
of the world. Some theories and people suggest that if we all have the same values,
culture, and ethnic background there will be no dispute.

LITERATURE STUDIES
Syncretism was prevalent in the world since the Hellenistic period. Gnosticism was a
religious dualistic system that incorporated elements from the oriental mystery religions-
Judaism, Christianity, and Greek religious philosophical concepts was greatly
widespread. The conquest of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, his successors,
and the Roman Empire had affected the fusion of cultures to a large extent. So, attempts
were made by them to bring the varying religious and philosophical views together.
Another syncretistic movement known as Manichaeism was started by the 3rd-
century-CE Iranian prophet Mani, by combining elements of Christianity,
Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism.
In the 17th century a movement led by the German Protestant theologian George
Calixtus also aimed at reconciling the differences between the Protestants in Germany,
but his efforts were disparaged by orthodox Christian leaders.
Sikhism, founded by Guru Nānak was also an attempt at syncretism. He combined
elements of Islam and Hinduism. But the result met with resistance from both Hindus and
Muslims. Instead of homogenizing the differences, it gave rise to a totally new religion.

Dīn-I Ilāhī:

To curb the violence, feeling of animosity, to bring about homogeneity, and to evolve
India into a peaceful nation an effort was made in history by the Mughal emperor Akbar.
He introduced a new religion in India- the Dīn-i Ilāhī. It was an elite eclectic religious
movement, which never numbered more than 19 adherents, formulated by the Mughal
emperor Akbar in the late 16th century AD. The Dīn-i Ilāhī was essentially an ethical
system, prohibiting such sins as lust, sensuality, slander, and pride and enjoining the
virtues of piety, prudence, abstinence, and kindness.

57
 Figure 28. Mughal Ruler Akbar and his Ministers

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/558446422516681297/

The soul was encouraged to purify itself through the yearning for God (a tenet of
Ṣūfism, Islāmic mysticism), celibacy was condoned (as in Catholicism), and the slaughter
of animals was forbidden (as in Jainism). There were no sacred scriptures or priestly
hierarchy in Dīn-i Ilāhī. In its ritual, it borrowed heavily from Zoroastrianism, making
light (Sun and fire) an object of divine worship and reciting, as in Hinduism, the 1,000
Sanskrit names of the Sun.
Dīn-i Ilāhī has been described as a combination of all moral principles of various
religions which would satisfy all. In fact, Akbar wanted to introduce a national religion.
In any case, Dīn-i Ilāhī was not a proselytizing religion. It was confined to a selected few.
It said that there is one God and that Akbar is his prophet, and preaches high ethical
values which can be enumerated by Jain classification as nonviolence, truthfulness,
honesty, chastity, and asceticism. Akbar did not preach it, nor did he institute preachers,
but he established the Ibadat Khana (House of Piety) where people of all religions were
invited to discuss religious topics and peaceful debates was encouraged.
Dīn-i Ilāhī being close to Islam in the theology of God’s existence can at most
accept the Sufi notion of monism, like exists also in the Dvaidadvaita, Shuddhadvaita,
58
Vishishtadvaita, and Gaudiya Vedanta, but not the monism of the Advaita Vedanta which
is entirely mystical, and is a very unique feature of that tradition. Dini Ilahi being deistic,
it is the closest to the Nyaya tradition of Hinduism. Consequently, it became evident to
wise men, that salvation is to be obtained only by the knowledge of truth conformably
with the precepts of the perfect prophet, the perfect lord of fame, Akbar, the Wise.
The practices enjoined by him were: renouncing and abandoning the world;
refraining from lust, sensuality, entertainment, slaughter of what possesses life; and from
appropriating to one’s self the riches of other men; abstaining from women, deceit, false
accusation, oppression, intimidation, foolishness, and giving to others opprobrious titles.
The harmless animals were called the beasts of peace and abhorrence was shown to their
slaughter. Akbar believed that it is tyranny to kill harmless animals, and that a tyrant is an
enemy of God, the Almighty.

Principles of Dīn-i Ilāhī:

1. Good behavior to others.
2. Generosity and Liberal-mindedness.
3. Forgiveness of bad deeds and repulsion of anger with mildness.
4. Abstinence from worldly desires.
5. Non-attachment to the materialistic and transient world.
6. Careful weighing and reckoning of pros and cons of actions to be undertaken.
7. Performance of noble deeds with courage.
8. Softness in voice and gentleness in speech.
9. No connection with bad people or evil-doers.
10. Total dedication to God.
The religion had no script or written documents or prayers of its own but attempted to
create an equal platform for many believers and therefore unity.
The influence and appeal of the Dīn-i Ilāhī was limited. It eventually triggered a strong
orthodox reaction from people. Akbar wanted to crush reasons for discord and tie the
citizens of India into a common denomination. Although there was sincerity behind this
concept, it did not work out and resulted in failure.

59
Illuminati and the New World Order:

The New World Order is believed to be an emerging clandestine totalitarian world

government. An authoritarian rule formed by secretive elites is known to take over the
world. Several conspiracy theories suggest that one of its primal tasks or global agenda is
the removal of religion and the entire concept of God. It will replace sovereign nation-
states.
There is an all-encompassing propaganda whose ideology hails the establishment
of the New World Order as the culmination of history's progress.
Since the beginning of history, a deep rift has existed between science and
religion. Ignorant and irrational Godly men- religious people find science to be their
enemy. Outspoken scientists like Copernicus were murdered by the church for revealing
scientific truths. Religion has always persecuted science. But in the 1500s, a group of
men in Rome fought back against the church. Some of Italy’s most enlightened men—
physicists, mathematicians, astronomers—began meeting secretly to share their concerns
about the church’s inaccurate teachings. They feared that the church’s monopoly on
‘truth’ threatened academic enlightenment around the world. They founded the world’s
first scientific think tank, calling themselves ‘the enlightened ones’. The Illuminati.

Europe’s most learned minds were dedicated to the quest for scientific truth.
Although the Illuminati wanted to combat the church’s tyranny with acts of violence,
their most revered member persuaded them against it. He was a pacifist, as well as one of
history’s most famous scientists- Galileo. He was also a devout Catholic. He tried to
soften the church’s position on science by proclaiming that science did not undermine the
existence of God, but rather reinforced it. He wrote once that when he looked through his
telescope at the spinning planets, he could hear God’s voice in the music of the spheres.
He held that science and religion were not enemies, but rather allies—two different
languages telling the same story, a story of symmetry and balance, heaven and hell, night
and day, hot and cold, God and Satan. Both science and religion rejoiced in God’s
symmetry- the endless contest of light and dark.
But, unfortunately, the unification of science and religion was not what the church
wanted, because the union would have nullified the church’s claim as the sole vessel
through which man could understand God. So the church tried Galileo as a heretic, found
him guilty, and put him under permanent house arrest. Galileo’s arrest threw the
Illuminati into upheaval. Mistakes were made, and the church discovered the identities of
four illuminati members, whom they captured and interrogated. But the four scientists
revealed nothing.

60
 Over the years, the Illuminati began absorbing new members. This gave rise to a
new Illuminati. They emerged as the dark-illuminati- a deeply anti-Christian Illuminati.
They grew very powerful, employing mysterious rites, deadly secrecy, vowing someday
to rise again and take revenge on the Catholic Church. Their power grew to the point
where the church considered them the single most dangerous anti-Christian force on
earth. The Vatican denounced the brotherhood as Satanic. The Illuminati were satanic but
not in the modern sense.
Most people pictured satanic cults as devil-worshiping fiends, yet Satanists
historically were educated men who stood as adversaries to the church. The rumors of
satanic black-magic animal sacrifices and the pentagram ritual were nothing but lies
spread by the church as a smear campaign against their adversaries. Over time, opponents
of the church, wanting to emulate the Illuminati, began believing the lies and acting them
out. Thus, modern Satanism was born.
The Illuminati were survivors; when they fled Rome, they travelled across Europe
looking for a safe place to regroup. They were taken in by another secret society- a
brotherhood of wealthy Bavarian stone craftsmen called the Freemasons. The Masons are
not satanic but they fell victim to their own benevolence. After harboring the fleeing
scientists in the 1700s, the Masons unknowingly became a front for the Illuminati. The
Illuminati grew within their ranks, gradually taking over positions of power within the
lodges. They quietly reestablished their scientific brotherhood deep within the Masons—
a kind of secret society within a secret society. Then the fled Illuminati used the
worldwide connection of Masonic lodges to spread their influence. Obliteration of
Catholicism was the Illuminati’s central covenant. The brotherhood held that the
superstitious dogma spewed forth by the church was mankind’s greatest enemy.
The Illuminati were hunted ruthlessly by the Catholic Church but only through
rites of extreme secrecy did the scientists remain safe. Word spread through the academic
underground, and the Illuminati brotherhood grew to include academics from all over
Europe. The scientists met regularly in Rome at an ultra-secret lair they called the Church
of Illumination.
As the Illuminati grew more powerful in Europe and set their sights on America, a
government fledged, many of whose leaders were Masons—George Washington, Ben
Franklin—honest, God-fearing men who were unaware of the Illuminati stronghold on
the Masons. The Illuminati took advantage of the infiltration and helped found banks,
universities, and industry to finance their ultimate quest.”
Their goal was “The creation of a single unified world state—a kind of secular
New World Order.” Based on scientific enlightenment, they called it their Luciferian
Doctrine. Lucifer is a reference to the devil, but the brotherhood claimed to intend in its
literal Latin meaning—bringer of light. Or Illuminator.

61
U.S. currency is covered with Illuminati symbology. That is why the one-dollar bill
represents a pyramid as the Great Seal.

Figure 29. One Dollar Bill of the USA

Source: https://de.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:United_States_one_dollar_bill,_reverse.jpg

The pyramid is an occult symbol representing a convergence upward, toward the

ultimate source of Illumination. They called it their ‘shining delta’, a call for enlightened
change. The eye signifies the Illuminati’s ability to infiltrate and watch all things. The
shining triangle represents enlightenment. The triangle is also the Greek letter delta,
which is the mathematical symbol for— change or transition.
The point to be noted here is that this New World Order- a concept that seeks to
erase religion is seen as destructive has never been considered welcoming. Its advent is
prophesied and warned as catastrophic and ruinous. Its consequences have been alerted.
And because it is not seen as something pleasant, one becomes forced to infer that the
idea of removing God is satanic, evil, secretive, conspired and thus calamitous. It is same
as having a government-less country, where having nothing stated- the good or the bad,
the people would be free to do whatever they wish. No ruling, legislating or judiciary
body would be responsible for making things even and people will become barbaric.
If we take away God from people’s lives, it leads people to commit crimes,
behave how they please, engage in gluttony, lust, greed, exploitation, corruption because
there will be no God to whom they would be accountable.
The New World Order will shove God into non-existence so that they can act
however they want. But sadly, their desire to “be free” and to act however they want
backfires into a world of carnal bondage and hopelessness unlike they ever could have
imagined.
62
Writer Matthew Osmund states that:
“If we continue to allow ourselves to be divided, by the time we come to understand the
end game for spirituality in a new world order, it may be too late.”
The Illuminati grew in order to take revenge from the Church, but they badly
failed to realize that the Church’s concept of considering science as its enemy was
ignorant and stupid. Actual Christianity does not condemn science.
Albert Einstein puts it as:
“Science without religion is lame, and Religion without science is blind.”

Figure 30. The Shining Delta

Source: https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/article/conspiracy-theories-twin-towers-jfk-rendlesham-ronaldo

The writing under the pyramid says “Novus Ordo Seculorum,” meaning New Secular
Order. The phrase not only clearly states the Illuminati objective, but it also blatantly
contradicts the phrase beside it “annuit coeptis”- In God We Trust.”

63
Inferences Drawn

Ignoring the diversity of India would mean crushing history, civilizations, beliefs, and
identities. Even the prevalence of a single religion as the state religion of India would
steal away the glory of the country. The Golden Temple, the Taj Mahal, the Santa
Cruz Basilica, the Ghats of Varanasi, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Bodh Gaya, the
Udvada Atash Behram- all unanimously make India outshine as a country.
We descended from various races and ethnic groups and follow different
religions; this becomes a feature or characteristic of India and distinguishes us from other
nations. It bestows us with vibrant colors and unique culture. Amalgamating religions
would dissolve identities and give rise to a monotonous society. Dr. B R Ambedkar, the
father of the Indian Constitution talked about universal brotherhood and emphasized
promoting fraternity among countrymen. He also talked about ensuring the dignity of
individuals and the integrity of the nation.

Unity in Diversity

Source: https://sanjaydalmia.in/sanjay-dalmia-enumerates-postulate-indian-culture-unity-diversity/

To enjoy peace, prosperity, and democracy, we must first acknowledge that we

are not all the same. We can then strive to develop unity through mutual respect and
tolerance for our differences. One way to achieve unity is through interacting with people
of different backgrounds from our own. Through this, we can understand and respect
each other’s cultures. Gradually, we will begin to understand the joys, hardships, and
grievances of others.

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 One world religion refers to the idea of the establishment of a single religion,
formed by a merger of all existing religions. Some see this prospect positively, seeing all
religions as ultimately one, and envisioning their peaceful union as they all come to
realize their essential oneness. This idea is at times associated with New Age thought.
Others see this prospect negatively—they believe that one world religion will be
based on Satanism and the occult and associate it with one world government. Contrary
to New Age views which see this as a peaceful development, they believe that the one
world government will impose the one world religion by force, and that those who refuse
to accept it will be persecuted, tortured and/or executed. They generally
see ecumenical policy as a step toward this world religion.
Those with a basic grasp of global politics view the establishment of one world
religion as extremely unlikely. They see the religions of the world as too fundamentally
different for a peaceful union between them to ever be attainable, and doubt that there
would ever exist any government with sufficient power to forcibly unite all the world's
major religions into one. Ironically, in fundamentalist circles the desire for religious
supremacy actually reflects this very concept.

The idea of ‘One Religion, One Language, and One Culture’ is damaging Indian
Secularism
“In spite of our great difficulty, however, India has done something. She has tried to
make an adjustment of races, to acknowledge the real differences between them where
these exist, and yet seek for some basis of unity.” — Rabindranath Tagore (Nationalism in
India)
‘Unity in diversity’, ‘cultural, religious and linguistic plurality’ all sum up to the tentative
patronage of the illustrious secularism.

65
 CHAPTER 5
CONSENSING DIFFERENCES THROUGH ARCHITECTURE
 
Religion is like a language or a dress. We gravitate toward the practices with which we
were raised. In the end, though, we are all proclaiming the same thing- that life has
meaning and that we are grateful for the power that created us.

The need of the hour is to promote social cohesion and bridge the gaps that exist
within communities, to promote interaction and to develop cordial relations. Being
derived from principles of freedom and human rights, secularism does not entail
restrictions on freedom of speech beyond those envisaged in the treaties nor does it
require bans on religious clothing unless for good reason, related, for example, to safety
or efficiency, to a reasonable requirement for a uniform, or where there is a risk of a role
(especially an authority role as a public official or a representative of an employer) being
appropriated to make a private statement, which might be about religion or belief or
perhaps about politics.
Hence, the idea is to design a place having places of worship of all religions; a
gurudwara, a mosque, a temple, a church, and a Buddhist sanctuary. The space would
become a symbol of unity in diversity where unity is brought about whilst maintaining
the diversity

LITERATURE STUDIES:

Religious Harmony as Seen in Canada on the Highway to Heaven 

Canada’s Number Five Road has adopted the name “Highway to Heaven”, as this stretch
of road is home to many religious sites. The city’s large multicultural population is
reflected here, through the diversity of exotic temples and places of worship which all
encourage peaceful coexistence. Visitors will be fascinated by the cultures, history, and
architecture that mark the colorful houses of worship and are welcome to share in the
spiritual grace and experience the compassion and beauty found within each of these
faiths. The road is considered to a gift from the gods. It exhorts everyone to maintain
peaceful and harmonious relationships. Richmond, an “ethnoburg” of Vancouver, is a
city of approximately 207,500 people, 65 per cent of whom are of Asian heritage. It is
also home to more than 60 mosques, temples, churches and religious schools of all
denominations.

66
67
 Figure 31. The International Buddhist Society Temple at the No. 5 Road

Source: https://www.visitrichmondbc.com/listing/international-buddhist-society/44/

Figure 32. Ram Krishna Mandir & Hindu Culture

Source: http://www.rhht.ca/

Figure 33. The Az-Zahraa Islamic Centre

Source: https://vancouversun.com/news/staff-blogs/richmond-mosque-opens-doors-saturday-to-counter-misconceptions

The unpredicted diversity of religious institutions has been shaped in part by the
rapid growth of Richmond as a multi-ethnic, and increasingly Chinese, ethnoburb.

68
However the ‘Assembly District’ policy has also precipitated location by faith
communities unable to find accommodation elsewhere in Vancouver.
Interviews with city planners suggested that a key unanticipated consequence of
the zoning was the location of ‘regional’ religious centers rather than those serving
primarily ‘local’ congregations as expected. While no fixed definition of a ‘regional’
religious center was provided, the planners questioned whether facilities on No. 5 Road
served residents of Richmond or attracted visitors from a wider area.
The designation of facilities as ‘regional’ religious hubs provoked traditional
planning questions such as car parking provision, but also raised wider questions about
the overall ‘benefit’ to Richmond. Such concerns were expressed by a local residents’
group that opposed further development of the No. 5 Road corridor, arguing that new
religious facilities were increasing in height and scale and attracting more worshippers
from a greater distance, necessitating larger parking lots.
This agglomeration of religious buildings is a particularly concentrated, and
celebrated, example of a more widespread phenomenon in North America and Europe as
ethnically diverse populations suburbanize and consolidate their presence in the built
landscape. Despite some critical attention from geographers on the emergence of the
‘ethnoburb’ as a distinctive suburban formation, the role of religious buildings in such
ethnically diverse or multicultural suburban landscapes remains largely. The Number 5
Road is greatly observed as a site of cultural and religious diversity to explore all the
intersections of planning, multiculturalism, immigrant religion and suburban space.

69
Bringing Faiths Together Under One Roof in Switzerland

Since the Paris attacks and anti-Islam Pegida marches in Germany had caused division
and fear among followers of different faiths in Europe, efforts to unite religions was
being made.
A revolutionary project in Bern, Switzerland came up with the idea of uniting
eight ajor religions under one roof known as ‘The Haus der Religionen’ (House of
Religions). It has a Hindu temple, a mosque, a Christian church, an Alevi cemevi and
even a Buddhist place. Baha'i, Jewish and Sikh representatives are also part of the Haus,
which started as a small group’s dream a decade ago and opened in a purpose-built
building in December.
The plan to establish a cultural institution of Jewish, Christian, Islamic, Buddhist
and Hindu faith traditions had started in the 2000s. In 2002, the association "Haus der
Religionen – Dialog der Kulturen" (House of religions, dialogue of cultures) was
established. Four years later, a foundation was founded that raised the required funds by
the name of "Stiftung Europaplatz".
Besides the house of religions, the building contains 88 apartments, shops,
catering services and offices on a floor area of approximately 30,000 square meters. The
planning permission for the project was granted in April 2007 with a cost of
approximately 50 million Swiss Francs, of which about 15 million Swiss Francs were
related to the Haus der Religionen. The construction, after being delayed many times,
began in June 2012. The building was inaugurated and opened for the public use seven
years later on 14 December 2014.
The place is a beautiful dialogue of cultures. It has access to the knowledge and
spirituality of other cultures and religions. The Haus der Religionen provides a center for
exploration of the diverse faiths. The basic idea behind this is the inviolable dignity of the
human being, the idea of tolerance and the concept of mutual respect. It is built to
encourage a common dialogue and understanding of other religions.
The architecture of the building is such that it allows the various communities to
engage with each other. There is transparency and proximity.
The five private religious spaces open into a shared “dialogue room” where
members of different faiths eat, meet and hold events for the community. The sacred
spaces are arranged on two floors and are accessible to everyone. The common dialogue
room is in the center and is connected to them. A restaurant (Vanakam) is made the
central meeting place, where different delicacies are prepared daily. Alevis, Christians
and Buddhists claim space with a size of 160 square metres. The common spaces like
cafeteria, exhibition hall, and event spaces comprises of about 1,300 square metres.
70
 The chief concern of the Alevites is the comfort that the place emits. For them,
people must feel comfortable, and the ritual small fire pit is a symbol of purity. In
addition to the meeting and prayer room with seating for about 70 people, a children's
corner. a library and a room for religious instruction and a kitchenette are also present.
The Buddhist room in the common building holds a tiny temple at the entrance,
along with a small information room. There is also a provision for a room with kitchen.
The main room is kept simple: oiled oak floors, yellow walls and a 1.2 meter (4 ft.)-high
sculpture of the Buddha from Thailand.
The interior rooms of the Hindu temple of the Saivanerikoodam association are
shaped after the 'typical' South Indian temple architecture. There are also rooms for
seminars, yoga, meditation, and for cultural and language training for children and
adolescents. Of central importance is the vegetarian cuisine, which does not come into
contact with either meat or animal products.
The Muslim community is represented by a Mosque located on two floors where
there are prayer rooms for men and women are interconnected. The two largest facilities
are the mosque of about 500 square meters and the Hindu temple of approximately 800
square meters.

Figure 34. House of Religions, Bern

Source https://archpaper.com/2018/11/dialogue-of-surfaces-house-of-religions-bern-switzerland-sponsored/

71
INFERENCES
Making an attempt to diminish the faiths and religious practices, in order to end the
violence and massacres is a dead ended solution to the problem of sectarian violence.
This would deprive the country of its extremely rich culture. The diversity would be
killed. There would be monotony and uniformity. Nevertheless, there is no surety that the
violence would be put to an end through this.
We all reckon that the many religions of India instigate a lot of strife and discord
amongst people. The contemporary time is particularly characterized by one in which
there is a growing unrest for different faiths. The main reason behind this is the ignorance
and the great many misconceptions that exist within them. The diminution of interaction
has given rise to this intolerance. There is little or no engagement with people of different
beliefs.
Usually, localities and colonies are inhabited by a particular group of people that
have similar faiths. This leads little room for our interaction with different communities.
Often, we get offended by other religions’ beliefs and that becomes a reason for our
repulsion from them. In some families, an ancestral belief or hatred against a particular
religion gets carried onto the next generations. The influence of negative people also
hampers our though process. It leads to ill speculations about other faiths. Such brewed
concepts develop into staunch feelings.
Therefore there is an immediate need for bridging gaps between people of all
religions as working upon this domain would solve a lot of problems and contribute
abundantly to make India a peaceful, progressive and united nation- one that we have
dreamt of.

This dissertation comes up with a concept of designing a multi-faith and a multi-

cultural space. A place having places of worship of all religions so that there
develops a consensus amongst them. Holding these places together would be
common and secular spaces like a library, an auditorium, a place for celebrating
festivals together, a meeting hall for clerics of all religions, etc.
The space would become a symbol of unity in diversity where unity is brought
about whilst maintaining the diversity. It would bring about coexistence through social
cohesion, exhorting the notion of "agreeing to disagree". It will be the resolution of the
issue of religious conflict whereby all parties harbor tolerance towards each other even
though they might not accept others’ beliefs. They also remain on amicable terms while
continuing to disagree about the unresolved issues or differences. The dissertation seeks
to pursue a cordial space encompassing major religions followed in India that coexists
along with a profane space; highlighting how they agree to disagree amongst themselves
and yet do not let disparities disunite them.
72
 Figure 35. Indian Religions

Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/6122912/

73
Understanding Secularism for Consensing Differences:

Secularism as a word means multiplicity; an open embracing of identities. “All Indians

are my brothers and sisters”; to be Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh should never seem to
conflict with the “Indian” in us; just like how brothers and sisters differ and quarrel yet
find the greatest comfort in each other.

This should not simply be because we just happen to find ourselves in the same
landmass governed by the same state. Instead, secularism should refer to embracing the
differences, without patronizing but appreciatively understanding each as rightfully
holding their stance in a country whose democratic constitution gives them full legal
charge. It is the collective marvel of monuments, temples, mosques, gurudwaras, and
cathedrals that should be made our chests swell in pride when we think of beauty and
culture and patriotism. This ironically has turned into fuel for the raging extremist.

Figure 36. Understanding Secularism in a Democratic Country

Source: https://qrius.com/going-beyond-discourse-indian-secularism/

A dictionary definition that calls secularism a “belief that religion should not play a role
in government, education, or other public parts of society,” very much conflicts with the
ideal notion of secularism that should prevail in India.

The Western Model of Secularism

The western model of secularism can briefly be described as one wherein there is
complete segregation between religious and state activities. Such an insulated treatment
meted out to religion in such states arose primarily because of the long conflict between
74
the nobility and the ecclesiastical classes to monopolize political power. When the
nobility succeeded in its quest for power, it thought it best to segregate religion from
political life of a nation. Western model of secularism is generally associated with the
American model of secularism and it envisages mutual exclusivity of religion and state
i.e., the state will not intervene in the affairs of religion and, in the same manner, religion
will not interfere in the affairs of the state.

State policies cannot have an exclusively religious rationale and no religious

classification can be the basis of any public policy. Anything to the contrary will be
deemed to be an ‘illegitimate intrusion of religion in the state’. Similarly, the state can
neither patronize, sponsor nor aid any religious institution nor can it give financial
support to educational institutions run by them.

The segregation is so complete that state intervention is not permissible even on

grounds of social reformation. Western secularism has a rather individualistic orientation
and religion continues to be a private matter, not a matter of state policy or law.

The Indian Model of Secularism

Indian secularism isn’t an exact replica of western model of secularism; rather it is a

variant of western secularism. Indian secularism has western and non- western origins.
Unlike the underlying rationale of the Church - state separation in the west, in India, ‘the
ideas of peaceful co-existence of different religious communities’ have been the central
idea behind adoption of secularism as a goal.

Indian secularism is subject to variegated interpretations and its complexity

cannot be captured by the phrase “equal respect for all religions”. Secularism is much
more than mere peaceful coexistence or toleration. Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru’s concept of
Secular State was one that “protects all religions, but does not favor one at the expense of
others and does not itself adopt any religion as the State religion”.

Secularism for him didn’t mean hostility to religion. Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru was
not in favor of a complete separation between religion and state. Pundit Jawaharlal
Nehru’s idea of secularism was that all religious groups shall enjoy the same
constitutional protection without any favor or discrimination.

The Supreme Court elaborating the secular character of the Indian Constitution
said that Indian “secularism is neither anti God nor pro-God, it treats alike the devout, the
antagonistic and the atheist. It eliminates God from the matters of the State and ensures
that no one shall be discriminated against on the ground of religion and it emphasizes the
ancient doctrine in India that the State shall protect all religion but interfere with none”.

75
 Indian constitutional secularism is not supportive of religion at all but has adopted
what may be termed as permissive attitude towards religion out of respect for individual
conscience and dignity. There, even while recognizing the right to profess and practice
religion etc., it has excluded all secular activities from the purview of religion and also of
practices which are repugnant to public order, morality and health and are abhorrent to
human rights and dignity, as embodied in the other fundamental rights guaranteed by the
Constitution”. Superficially Indian secularism may appear as an imitation of Western
secularism and hence an Occidental value. A careful reading of our Constitution however
would show that it is not so in entirety. Indian secularism is fundamentally different from
Western secularism as regards a few things.

Difference in Indian Secularism and Western Secularism

Firstly, Indian secularism does not focus only on Church- state separation and the idea of
inter-religious equality is crucial to the Indian conception of secularism. The advent of
Western education in India highlighted hitherto ‘neglected and marginalized notions of
equality in Indian thought’. Western education brought into focus intra- community
equality and also ushered in the ideas of inter-community equality to replace the notion of
caste and religious hierarchy.

The Indian Constitution does not envisage an irreligious or non-religious state. It

only tells that all religions shall be treated equally and there shall be no discrimination
among the citizens 'only' on the basis of their religion in any form or manner (article 15).
The difference lies, therefore, in the fact that whereas in the case of western states the
discrimination by state is absolutely banned, the Constitution of India permits
discrimination on condition that the religious ground is accompanied by another
reasonable ground. By virtue of this, the State is empowered to legislate different laws
applicable to different communities. This further means that the State can accord legal
recognition to its people not only as citizens but also as members of different
communities i.e., as Hindus, Muslims, etc.

Secondly, Indian secularism deals with both religious freedom of individuals and
also with religious freedom of minority communities.

Thirdly, Indian secularism has made room for and is compatible with the idea of
State-supported religious reform. The secular character of the Indian state is established
by virtue of the fact that it is neither theocratic nor has it established any one or multiple
religions. Indian model of secularism is in fact a manifestation of a very sophisticated
policy in pursuit of religious equality, which allows the State to either disengage with
religion in American style, or engage with it when required. Indian secularism permits
‘principled State intervention in all religions’. Such intervention may come at the cost of
76
‘disrespect to some aspects of every religion’. The secular state of India treats all
religions alike and at the same time “displays benevolence towards them is in a way more
suited to the Indian environment and climate than that of a truly secular State

Western dictionaries, thus define secularism as absence of religion but Indian

secularism does not mean irreligiousness.

Adoption of s Uniform Civil Code (UCC)

The debate surrounding personal religious laws and the need for a UCC constitute a key
concern in any discussion regarding the concept of secularism and religious freedom in
India.

Though few domains of social life are now governed by secular laws based on the
principles of ‘justice, equity and good conscience’, personal religious laws continue to
operate without any significant changes. The colonial masters feared antagonism and
local backlash and hence thought it fit to not interfere in the ‘religious matters of the
natives’. They did, however, bring about certain enactments in the name of ‘reform’ to
bring an end to certain reprehensible practices like sati.

Certain personal laws, especially of the Hindus, have been codified accompanied
by certain amendments in light of the compulsions of modern times, while others
continue to apply to the respective religious groups in their long-established, traditional
forms. As result of the wary approach adopted by the successive governments too, India
has a complex system of personal laws governing inter-personal relationships despite a
constitutional directive to the legislature to enact a uniform civil code applicable to all
religious groups which should govern all family relationships such as marriage and
divorce, maintenance, custody of children, guardianship of children, inheritance and
succession, adoption and the like.

This constitutional directive has not been acted upon since independence. The
term ‘Uniform Civil Code’ means the same set of secular civil laws shall govern all
persons residing in a country irrespective of their religion, caste and tribe. The main areas
covered under the ambit of UCC are the laws related to marriage, divorce, adoption, and
Inheritance and acquisition and administration of property.

The concept of UCC is thus confined to having uniform family code for members
of all communities living in India, not merely for the sake of uniformity but also for
securing social justice for weaker sections in different communities in the spheres of
marriage, divorce, inheritance, maintenance and adoption. In the Indian context, UCC is a
mandate upon the State under article of the Constitution and should be conceived as part
of secularization of personal laws without shedding religious identities.
77
 In the beginning strident efforts were made to put the provision for a Uniform
Civil Code in the Fundamental Rights. However, in view of the conflicting opinions of
the various members of the Constituent Assembly and with a view to assuage the
insecurity of the religious minorities, provision for UCC was incorporated in chapter IV
pertaining to directive principles of state policy, which are not justiciable but still
fundamental in the governance of India.

Other Forms of Secularism

A rather unique form of secularism was practiced in Turkey in the first half of the
twentieth century. This secularism was in stark contrast to the general nature of
secularism which adopts a principled distance from organized religion. It involved active
intervention in and suppression of religion.

This version of secularism was propounded and practiced by Mustafa Kemal

Ataturk, who had come to power after the First World War. Ataturk was convinced that
only a clear break with traditional thinking and expressions could elevate Turkey and was
hence determined to put an end to the institution of Khalifa in the public life. He set out
in an aggressive manner to modernize and secularize Turkey. Ataturk changed his own
name from Mustafa Kemal Pasha to Kemal Ataturk. The Fez, a traditional cap worn by
Muslims, was banned. Western clothing was encouraged for men and women.

Such reactionary form of secularism has been practiced in a few other countries as
well, which have tried to break free of parochialism of their religious tenets. In practicing
such form of secularism, the wall segregating state and religion often crumbles down and
the State adopting an activist stance transcends into the religious sphere.

An insightful discourse on faith, calls out the myth-centric connotation of the

word ‘belief’ which is placed in the feeling of having faith in something. So, by this
definition, ‘secularism’ would mean putting faith in institutions that are supposedly
outside the realm of ‘faith’, although it is impossible to imagine how ‘education’ and
‘public’ parts of society can be separated from the philosophies of religion or spirituality
and related schools of thought.

It is important to draw attention to these loopholes in the intellectual sources of

secularism as understood by certain people who don’t share the same socio-cultural
contexts as we experience in India. While expounders of this separatist model of
secularism are most certainly entitled to their opinion, we couldn’t settle for its
universalism when we as Indians, or people from a specific part of India, or for that
matter people from any geography in the world, don’t recognize it in our own societal
experiences.
78
 Given the validity of our lived differences, should we limit our understanding and
force ourselves to work within the premise that components of faith are indeed separable
from the public life of state and government? Or could one argue that the application is
purely practical and comes handy while making decisions of societal development where
superstitions could hamper the well-being of citizens?

The Indian economist and philosopher Amartya Sen, has deconstructed what
would otherwise be an abstract notion by explaining that “a person’s citizenship,
residence, geographic origin, gender, class, politics, profession, employment, food habits,
sports interests, tastes in music, social commitments, religion, etc. makes us members of
a variety of groups. Each of these collectives, to all of which this person belongs, gives
the person a particular identity. None of them can be taken to be the person’s
[only] identity or singular membership category.”

He further validities that these identifies could be accentuated at different spaces

and times: “The freedom to determine our loyalties and priorities between the different
groups to all of which we may belong is peculiarly important liberty which we have
reason to recognize, value, and defend.”

Now is it likely that we board up our ‘religious’ self somewhere in the dark attics
of our minds while putting on our governance-related ‘public’ and education-centric
hats? Even if we still believe the practical applications make it possible, it is absurd to
think that our decisions are independent of these multiple associations and mental
models. All along, it is the entirety of our perspectives that form whatever practical, non-
superstitious public lives we want to perpetuate. The sooner we acknowledge the holistic
nature of the human activity as interlinked between politics, economics, religion and
governance, the more chances we have of building less extremist systems in the state.

Living unreal definitions of ‘citizenship’ and ‘secularism’ creates illusions that

fester into harmful fundamental forces. We may be shocked at some of the extremist
groups rampaging across our country today, but we must remember that we
are complicit by virtue of either remaining silent or not speaking out – being politically,
spiritually and culturally complacent that puts up no resistance, or, subscribing to cold
definitions of how human beings should live that creates the inertia perpetuating the
explosion of fundamental forces.

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Being ‘Secular’ Whilst Being a Person of Faith

A secularist state or government should be one that is comfortable with the aggregation
of different religions, rather than a sharp separation of religion and state even by
definition.

A (Non-Hindu), secularist citizen was once accompanied by two friends to

Tirumala, a famous Hindu pilgrim spot. In keeping with their vows, she walked the entire
distance barefoot across seven hills right up to the temple’s inner sanctuary. All the
while, she was filled with a mystical ecstasy by observing the expressions of devotion
around her, and somehow it filled her with the thought of Jesus’s long walk of pain and
loving sacrifice up the hill of Calvary. It was no less a pilgrimage for her as she trudged
up with the conviction that her own God would be waiting for her atop the hill.

There are so many other similar experiences when the piety of a person from
another religion has kindled and strengthened the faith of another religion’s follower.
Some people may justify the apparent “dangers” of such free-flowing spirituality and
theology.

Professor Abshar Abdalla, an Indonesian Muslim scholar, at a conference held by

the World Council of Churches, when asked about what irked him most while engaging
in inter-religious dialogue, he said it was when one section began with a conviction that
their beliefs are the ultimate truth to which other faiths must be argued into seeing. The
arguments are complex if faith is made a point- when everything conflicting within an
individual finally converges to make real and complete sense. It is this convergence of
meaning and motives that I believe our Secular India should start working towards, quite
different from dilution or dismissal of faith discourses which form a large part of our
politics and cultures.

M.K. Gandhi puts it as, “our innermost prayer should be that a Hindu should
become a better Hindu, a Muslim a better Muslim, and a Christian a better
Christian.” Secularism is when a person from another faith makes another person (of a
different faith) better in his/her respective faith.

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 Figure 37. Secularism

Source: https://morning.pk/amp/story/12959

Religious toleration and freedom of worship was seen prevailing during the reign
of Akbar. He had a number of Hindus as his ministers, forbade forcible conversions and
abolished Jiziya. Even his promulgation of ‘Din-i-Ilahi’ or the Divine Faith, which had
elements of both Hindu and Muslim faith was not imposed upon the subjects. Along with
this he emphasized the concept of ‘sul-h-kul’ or peace and harmony among religions. He
even sponsored a series of religious debates which were held in the ‘Ibadat Khana’ of the
Hall of Worship, and the participants in these debates included theologians from amongst
Brahmins, Jains and Zoroastrians. The most important characteristic of the new Indian
nation which Akbar brought into being was that it was based not on the community of
religion but on the citizenship of the same state. It was observed that against the
background of the fundamental policy, that the state recognized the sanctity of individual
liberty and the equality before law of all its citizens without any discrimination of class or
creed.

Difference between Secularism and Secularization

Secularism is a value whereas secularization is a means to achieve the objective of having

a secular nation. Secularization is the transformation of a society from close identification
with religious values and institutions toward nonreligious (or irreligious) values and
secular institutions.

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 As societies progress, particularly through modernization and rationalization,
religion loses its authority in all aspects of social life and governance. Secularization
refers to the historical process in which religion loses social and cultural significance. As
a result of secularization the role of religion in modern societies becomes restricted. In
secularized societies, faith lacks cultural authority; religious organizations have little
social power. There is a decline in levels of religiosity. The dream of a secular India
necessarily rests on the process of secularization, which has to go along simultaneously
and continuously.

Societal perception towards religious has to change; there has to be a

differentiation in various aspects of social, economic, political and legal life, as each of
them becomes more and more specialized. Secularization can also denote the
transformation of a religious into a secular institution. Secularization can also manifest
itself in another form where there is a transfer of activities from religious to secular
institutions, such as a shift in provision of social services from temples, mosques and
Churches to the government.

Secularization also requires a change in mentalities of the people inhabiting a

State. Individuals should focus on ‘moderating their behavior in response to more
immediately applicable consequences rather than out of concern for post-mortem
consequences’, as is usually seen in societies which are preponderantly religious.

There is still a long way to go if India’s tryst with secular ethos has to be a fruitful
and happy one. It should also be realized that we need to appreciate the secular ethos in a
proper and wholesome manner. A piecemeal approach would not suffice. Indian
Republic’s secularism should be characterized by genuine religious freedom; celebratory
neutrality and reformatory justice. Having thus discussed the idea of secularism and how
it’s related to the process of secularization, it is time we discussed the arguments
advanced in favor of Uniform Civil Code and also the grounds for assailing the same.

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 CHAPTER 6
INHIBITING COMMUNAL VIOLENCE AND ESTABLISHING SOCIAL
COHESION

The existing traditions of inquiry into ethnic conflict can be classified into four
categories: essentialism, instrumentalism, constructivism, and institutionalism. All four
traditions have a distinguished lineage, but none can account for the local or regional
concentrations of ethnic violence. Were India the only country to have such internal
variance in the incidence of ethnic violence, we could save the theories by calling India
an outlier. Giving data on violent incidents over time, Varshney shows that half of the
violence involving deaths is concentrated in eight cities containing 5 percent of the
population. He argues that any multiethnic society will have periods and issues of ethnic
conflict: the key question is whether these give rise to violence and deaths or are handled
and resolved by the political and social system. His vision of peace, therefore, is the
absence of violence and death, not the absence of conflict. His book explores why and
how some conflict is contained and some are not. He sees the answer in what he calls
"civic life," more particularly, whether there are inter-communal associations, such as
business organizations, trade unions, political parties, and professional societies.
Integrated communities and day-to-day interaction help but are not as important as
associational life, whether in the formal or informal sectors of the economy. Inter-
communal networks of civic engagement or the lack thereof, Varshney says, are socially
constructed under the impact of master narratives such as secular nationalism, religious
nationalism, and regional movements on the basis of caste, class, or sectarian divisions.
These interact locally with the economic context and political system. A check on
‘Communalization of The State’ and of the ‘Political Elite’ in power has to be kept
because it leads to inaction against communal violence, and covert or overt political and
ideological support to communalism by the state apparatuses, including the media under
state control.
Communication of civil society also needs to be checked because it leads to more
communal riots and other forms of communal violence. People with communal ideas and
ideologies pressurize the government to act in a manner which is always against the
principle of secularism. The secular state, the secular party in power and the secular
power elite many a time succumb to the pressures of these communal people. It is here
that intellectuals, political parties, and voluntary organizations can be most effective.
The role of education, particularly emphasizing value-oriented education both in
schools and colleges/universities, is important in preventing communal feelings.
Education-based on new cultural ideologies can protect young people against philoso-
phies and ideologies of hate. Particularly harmful in the Indian context has been the role
of teaching of history. Communal interpretation of history, especially of the medieval
83
period, forms the bedrock of communal ideology in India. Teaching of history along
scientific lines in educational institutions has to be a basic element in any ideological
struggle against communalism. The media can also prove to be significantly useful in
preventing communal feelings. Communal press can be banned and legal action can be
taken against communal writers.
The ideology that economic development, industrialization, growth of capitalism
and the growth of the working class would automatically weaken and ultimately
eliminate communalism should not be overplayed. This economic reductionist approach
of the left parties and organizations like Naxalites only increases communal poison.
It is not being suggested that modern economic development is not needed in our
society. What is being pointed out is that economic development alone cannot contain
communalism. It is not a class struggle that increases communalism but communalism
surely hampers class unity. Communal violence is more prevalent in developed states like
Maharashtra, Punjab, and Gujarat and in developed cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad,
Jamshedpur, and Kanpur.

Imperative Measure for Containing Communalism and Communal Riots:

Firstly, Peace Committees can be set up in which individuals belonging to different
religious communities can work together to spread goodwill and fellow-feeling and
remove feelings of fear and hatred in the riot-affected areas. This will be effective not
only in diffusing communal tensions but also in preventing riots from breaking out.
Secondly, the state has to plan and use new strategies in dealing with communal
violence. India’s experience in recent years confirms the utility of this step. Whenever
strong and secular administrators have used or threatened the use of strong steps, riots
either did not occur or were of short duration. For example, strong police and army
intervention prevented the repetition of riots in Calcutta in November 1984 and in
Mumbai in January 1994. When the anti-social elements and religious fanatics and
people with vested interests realize that the government is impartial and the police is
serious in putting down communal violence with all the force at its command, they
immediately cease spreading communal frenzy. This also calls for non-communalising
law-enforcement agencies. Experience of riots in Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, and
Meerut, and violence in Amritsar, Jullundar, and Ludhiana in Punjab shows that
communalized officials invariably make the communal situation worse.
Thirdly, the role of media is immensely heightened during the course of
communal violence. Newspapers can pour oil over the troubled waters or extinguish the
raging fire. The fear and hatred can be checked if the press, radio and TV report events in
a way conducive to soothing the frayed nerves of people instead of inflaming the temper
further. The media can contradict rumours in a sober manner. A careful restraint has to be
84
exercised in reporting the number of persons of different religious communities killed or
injured.
Lastly, the government in power has to treat the extremist communal outfits as its
immediate targets and cripple their capacity to disrupt law and order. The secessionists in
Kashmir, the militants in Punjab, the ISS (now banned) in Kerala and other extremist
organizations of Hindu, Muslim and Sikh communalism have to be dealt with by the state
through its law and order machinery.

The small insecure communities always look to government or move towards,

communal parties for protection. The Pandits in Kashmir, the innocent victims of
communal riots in Mumbai, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and other states, and the sufferers of
violence by extremists in Bihar, Assam, etc., look towards the secular state of India for
the security of life and property.
The communalism of the 1980s and of the nine years of the 1990s has placed a
clear responsibility at the doors of the secular state squarely to confront the communal
elements who have emerged as merchants of death. Today, communalism is on the march
and secularism is on the retreat, and the state is on the defensive. The state was on the
defensive in the post-Blue Star Operation phase, on the retreat on Shah Bano case, and
under siege on Mandir-Masjid issue in Ayodhya in 1992 and Hazratbal siege in
November 1993 and in Charar-e-Sharief shrine siege in May 1995 in Kashmir.
In all these situations, Sikh, Muslim and Hindu communalists were on the
offensive. The challenge of Hindu, Muslim and Sikh communalism has to be met by the
Indian State at political and ideological levels both with short-term and long-term
strategies.
If the surging tide of communalism is not reversed, it will swamp the country.
Before independence, it was easy to argue that communal violence was the result of the
British policy of divide and rule. Now the reality is more complex. Religion has come to
be politicized and politics has come to be criminalized. Unless all communities consider
themselves a part of one nation, the containing of communal disharmony will remain
difficult.

A country that prides itself on the secular character of its policies has to be wary
of politicians who speak only for their own religious community. It has to expose and
alienate the bureaucrats who consider secularism only as a theoretical possibility. The
police can no longer afford to allow the communal issue to foster in the manner that it
has.

85
 Stopping communally-minded politicians and debarring them from contesting
elections, giving deterrent punishment to religious fanatics for arousing anti-religious
feelings, adopting corrective measures like keeping the police department free from the
politicians’ control, strengthening the police intelligence section, restructuring the police
force, gearing the police administration to be more sensitive, and reworking the training
programme of police officials and enabling them to acquire a secular outlook and making
them responsible for their failures could prove to be effective measures in tackling the
problem of communal riots. An efficient police organization, enlightened policemen, well
equipped and specially trained police wings are bound to yield positive results.

Figure 38. Strength of a Secular India

Source https://morning.pk/amp/story/12959

Agreeing to Disagree

Bringing about coexistence through social cohesion and propagating the concept of
"agreeing to disagree" will effectively resolve the issue of religious conflict whereby all
parties harbor tolerance towards each other even though they might not accept others’
beliefs. They also remain on amicable terms while continuing to disagree about the
unresolved issues or differences. The key is to embrace the differences and not let
disparities disunite us.

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 Figure 39. Social Cohesion

Source: https://www.123rf.com/photo_16603389_abstract-word-cloud-for-social-cohesion-with-related-tags-and-
terms.html

Architecture’s Role

By instilling cohesion among diverse religious groups, promoting interaction amongst

them and creating a network of co-working and coexisting spaces and public facilities we
can effectively combat communal hatred and thus communal violence. 

This intervention encourages people to bring the cooperative and collaborative

culture back to the nation, by promoting local dynamic of interaction and consensus. To
re-establish harmony in the diverse environment by making the community socially
cohesive, we could look up to architecture to solve the issue.

Since architecture guides our motion and defines spaces, it influences our
functioning and thus our beliefs as human beings.

Two aspects of the design, the facilities and circulation spaces, stimulate two
types of social interactions: long and spontaneous on one hand, short and not spontaneous
on the other hand. Spaces with facilities seemed to enhance more focused activities as
compared to the spaces without a facility. Circulation spaces do not seem to exhibit a
87
higher frequency of focused activities than in non-circulation spaces. All the spaces
exhibit more focused interactions than non-social interactions but were not used to the
same extent.

What architecture needs the most today is the ability to heal and invigorate.
Contemporary architecture lacks such places that enable occupants to connect and
communicate with what is within and what is without. A number of studies have proven
that universally sacred (a majority of which are religious in function) places are charged
with energies that could contribute towards this process. The energies also referred to as
“patterns,” are the energies unique to a place that makes it special and sacred (not just in
the religious context but also in the secular context).

Scholars of architecture and architectural theory tend to focus on subjects related

to abstract concepts around the process of design, aesthetics, and form or the relation of
the built environment to socio-cultural phenomena and philosophical streams.
Meanwhile, user experience in terms of the ordinary built environment is rarely the
subject of architectural education. Our perception of space, the elements in our
environment that we find restorative or tiring, helpful or strenuous, the tangible and
intangible values of our daily physical realities, change during our lives. This happens
together with changes in our bodies. The effect of these changes in perception and
physiology on our spatial understanding and interaction should be a major influence on
human-centered architecture.

Socio-Spatial Segregation

Socio-spatial segregation is the projection of a social structure onto space. Socio-spatial

segregation is connected to general societal exclusion mechanisms since it causes spatial
separateness between different kinds of groups. These cleavages between groups of
people have to do with for example socioeconomic position, education, housing and
political representation. Spatial segregation is the result of processes in society. But living
in a certain geographical place reinforces spatial inequality even more; it is a dialectic
relation.

“Space should rather be conceived as socio-spatial reproduction processes in which the

spatiality of exclusion mechanisms in itself act as a motor that drives social inequality’’.

88
Maintaining Inclusion; Avoiding Exclusion

Public spaces like market places, parks, community centers are a common feature almost
in every city. They are places that allow exposure to different people and groups. They
bring people of different beliefs and values together, at an almost common platform.
Thus, engagement is created. However, we see that in sacred places or places that we
popularly observe as religious places there is hardly any inter-faith engagement.

In order to educate people about the role and possibilities for public spaces and its
importance to democracy, central and local government need to increase public
awareness of the issues by giving a higher profile to how public space is transformed and
the ways in which people can become involved in promoting secularism.
Towns need to establish places where activities can take place and people of all faiths can
thrive in security and freedom.

The vibrancy of towns, just as much as cities, depends on stimulation and

challenge. While regeneration can provide pristine public spaces, it is the people that
make the places. This research suggests that effective regeneration requires a
sophisticated understanding of and engagement with users and potential users,
particularly those living locally, who will be most involved in place-making.

Public Places as Part of Everyday Life:

Public spaces are places for the mundane, the expected and the banal. This important
function should not be overlooked, especially in the rush to develop innovative, dynamic
looking places that can often come at a cost to the local memories of particular places
The central story of this research is the importance people attach to their religions.
The interaction of ‘time’, ‘space’ and ‘season’ is central to this picture, leading to
patterns of segregation and integration as people seek engagement, activity,
communality, tranquility and privacy within the public domain. The idea being put
forward is the creation of common spaces that bring people together. Such engaging
spaces can be brought up by seeing to the needs of the people.
In India, people are largely driven by faiths, celebrations of festivals and the observations
of rituals. Their traditions can be catered to in the process of providing them large
grounds, halls, or areas for celebrating festivals. In this way, they will hold up to the
legacy of secularism. People will be brought close to one another as well as to people of
different religions. There will be discussions, interactions, clarifications of
misconceptions that one holds against another religions and an environment of unity and
amity. It must be noted that while providing common spaces and promoting social
cohesion, due respect is given to all the religious customs and beliefs of each faith.
89
Creating a Sense of Place

While bridging gaps, and creating a whole new territory for people- one that has never
been done before, requires it to be accepted and used by the people. It should be created
as a place that people relate to. If we fail to create a sense of place in the territory that is
multi-cultural and multi-religious, people will abandon it. Thus, it is imperative to make
it amicable and accessible for everyone by studying peopleccepted and us This means
that people should feel a longing of belonging towards thatmplace. It should evoke a
sense of place which is about the relationship between human beings and spatial settings.

A space is a place when it has meaning. That meaning of the space is created by its users,
the inhabitants in the process of using and living in it and definitely the architecture of the
space. The spatial design of the place directs thehdesign esign plant and how the humans
flow within those spaces.

Sense of place is also brought about by place identity, place dependence and place
attachment. This has been backed by scientific discoveries that specialized cells in the
hippocampal region of our brains are attuned to the geometry and arrangement of the
spaces we inhabit.

As the architectural design of the religious places takes its form, it should also keep the
idea of “direction” in mind. This involves factors like time, identity, style, community
and culture. It must communicate.
Place-identity is related to self-identification in relation to onet.716302480" d accessib.
The many religions that we strive to muster in a common territory should not further
fragment people. Instead, the architectural design must make them all connect. It must
forge a sense of belongingness to the people with the place and with one another.

The dependence on place measures the extent to which it serves the needs of its users.
The religious chambers of the mosque, the temple, the gurudwara, etc. should reminisce a
typical form. It must serve the emotional needs of the people. It should seem similar to
the places of worship people are attuned with seeing and going to. Attachment with a
place is an emotional bond between people and their environment. To make people
endow a newly religious site with value, it must serve their aesthetic, psychological and
physiological needs. People should not feel theyy religious site with value, it must serve
their aesthetic, psychological and physiological needs.eing and going to. Ahe people. It
sh defined by experience but the quality and characteristics of place also contribute to
sense of place. A positive sense of place is considered a dimension of social cohesion
because it contributes to peoplebs enjoyment.
Modern planning theory needs to be adopted whilst planning the space as it pays a lot of
attention to the social impact of the urban environment, in line with the making places
tradition. Modernism strives to advance planning and architecture as a solution to the
social crises. The physical design of the place acts as a contribution to solving social
problems in addition to physical problems.
90
Connectedness to the Indian Culture

People have different usage patterns of any place and so the connection they feel with
specific places vary. In addition these connections are never univocal. It mostly consists
of multiple dimensions, a combination of multiple ways of feeling connected.

Historical Connectedness

The narrative of a place is embedded in its history and also linked to the history of other
places. Preservation of history of a culture or a faith is important for people to stay
connected to a place. The past experiences are very important in shaping people’s
connection to a place. It will not make people feel out of place.

Social Connectedness

Because the built environment of the multi-religious center is meant to be encountered by

people on a daily basis, it should consist of places where people meet and interact. The
place and specific places within it, like a common library, halls, a ground for celebrating
festivals can thus have a social meaning to the users. People can feel connected to a place
because it has a social significance. This meaning is constructed by experience. In order
for a social connection in a place to exist, social events need to take place there. The
more social events that take place, the more likely is the place to evoke harmonious
feelings. By engaging in activities together, social cohesion can be brought about amidst
different religious groups. The experiences strengthen the social connection that people
feel with that place.

It’s these kinds of buildings that are required in today’s times when communal unrest has
so strongly taken over humanitarian values. Such common secular places that exhibit
diversity yet establish a unity with locally organized activities really will really make the
place special.

To hold the communities together, clergies, priest, and heads of religious communities
must hold programs, exhibitions, lectures to spread the message of love, unity and
empathy. They must also head festivals that bring all people together with celebrations.
Places where social activities take place, make people feel more connected to that
specific place. The importance of these places for people to fulfil their social needs
indicates an extent of place dependence. In addition to the place encouraging people to
meet new people- those of different faiths, beliefs, practices, these places are also used
for people to meet and interact with friends and family from their existing network.

Natural Connectedness

91
The natural connection that people have with a place, is directed by the value people
attach to the green areas in and around the place. These green areas are often shaped like
triangles in public spaces as they ensure a natural space within the place or between
spaces. These spaces are often equipped with benches, sit outs, trees, to spent time there.

A sufficiency of green areas contributes to the natural quality of the place which connects
people to an area. The presence of the natural air and ambience, for peoples’
connectedness to the place is important because it turns out to be a reason for some to
consider a ‘cleaner’ environment for their livelihood. People enjoy spending their time
jogging, cycling, walking their dogs or reading a book in such places. People even
depend on such spaces for their outdoor activity and entertainment.

Aesthetical Connectedness

High windows, having a view over the pitched rooftops of a building are likely to make a
feel place homely. This is actually experience driven. What we associate ourselves with
is what is responsible for making us feel how we feel in that environment. This
aesthetical opinion or evaluation of the place attributes to how people experience places,
how they feel within them.

The relationship between the aesthetics of architecture and the way people feel in a place
is relative. Also, buildings that are designed with the use of the golden ratio are pleasant
for the eye. Such buildings contain more round-like shapes instead of being a
symmetrical square like many modern buildings. People are more likely to feel connected
to aesthetically pleasing buildings. This environment fabricates a guaranteed connected
with that place and a context that people relate to.

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 CHAPTER 8
ARCHITECTURE FOR SOCIAL COHESION: EVINCING DIVERSITY
THROUGH RELIGIOUS SPACES

Social cohesion is described as an interaction and connectedness. The concept of social

cohesion incorporates two societal goals:
1. Reduction of disparities, inequality and social exclusion, and
2. Strengthening social interaction, relation and ties.

Thus a reviewing of the use of the theory of perception and sense of place in promoting
interaction, integration and interchange through spatial solidarity and physical attributes
is required.

Perception Shaping Interaction in Social Cohesive Environment

The relationship between physical attributes and social interaction has been a topic of
great research. The physical environment affects social interaction, in turn affecting
individuals, groups, quality of life and wider society. This gave rise to interactive places,
places where people from many parts of the community with and/or diverse backgrounds
meet naturally and interact comfortably. These are places perceived through sensory
perception, evoking spiritual interaction of body, mind and the environment generating
movement and attractive elements such as light, space, and color- engaging user’s
curiosity of spaces as an instrument of spontaneous interplay within the projects material
and atmospheric relationship forced into colliding experience.

How does spatial design promote positive experience?

Considering the economic dynamics, the range of contemporary means of
communication, and the scale of modern systems of power, it has been reckoned that it is
space that highlights the dimensions stimulating personal experience. And thus we can
conclude that the creation of a cohesive environment focus on promotion of social
interaction within a geographical setting. It involves positive experience in a place
resulting from positive beliefs and feelings that one gets from interacting with place.
Furthermore, interaction within a place occurs in spatial signifier that creates experiential
values, symbolic correlation between spatial organization and features of aesthetic place
making as well as providing superstructure for multiple ambient initiatives, emotional
engagement while mediating social relations.
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Interactive Places
Social interaction is a meaningful intervention as it initiates contact between people. It
springs a streak of attachment within people. A spatial layout generated by spatial
configuration also plays an essential role as it generates a unique communication pattern.
The use of space and direction of movement is also defined by it. Therefore, to achieve
interaction through spatial configuration there needs to be spatial solidarity. A huge role
is also played by characteristics like visibility, accessibility, openness and connectivity.
Introduction of elements like transparency and connectivity through spaces help to create
visual connectedness. While exposing people’s peripheral vision, it even allows a
perceptual exploration of spaces.
The promotion of interactive spaces depends on social interaction and interaction
with spaces, that enhance the user’s experience and also adds meaning. Therefore, the
primary focus here should be kept on perceptual elements that enhance and formulate
experiences and memories of diverse groups which ultimately leads to social interaction
and thus social cohesion.

Building Design Strategies

The aim of the multicultural center is to create a new place that resonates with all the old
places, traditions, cultures and people. The vision is to create an open space that connects
all religious as well as secular activities into one realm. It is meant to have spaces for the
public to enhance sense of belonging and assurance in the people.
Design of the center has to be a bottom-up approach designed to adapt to the
people’s needs. The building’s spatial configuration must be set on the overreaching
concept of transparency between the different religious groups.
Along with that, to ignite a spark of enigma in the complex, levels of the site can be
played with. Connectivity and vision can thus, in the process be widened. To give the
place an old and traditional look, the style of architecture must be chosen carefully. The
idea is that, by creating carefully-styled living environments through architecture and
design, people’s lives are positively influenced.

Nature also needs to be highlighted that exhibits one’s connection with the
Almighty. Architectural features like oculus and other such elements that exist in
antiquity must be selected.
With a simple structural design of the prayer halls of all religions, assembled in
close proximity, the place would seem independent yet constrained. Each prayer hall

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must have a clear and rational layout providing usability as well as maximizing
flexibility. There should be simplicity a rational order and a common space outside.
All units must be organized on an open floor area with mezzanine as it would
create spatial solidarity for all departments. Furthermore the mezzanine creates a spatial
buffer and allows for expansion of the space, therefore allowing the department to grow
within its envelope. The main building that will be the “secular tower” will house the
office headed by the clergy of all faiths unanimously. It will be visible from the worship
places and be accessed by the people in the prayer halls with large windows facing the
tower. This is to serve as a symbolic connection to the secularism and unity which is the
fundamental necessity in the country. The place will aim to maximize sensory perception.
It will allow maximum possible connectivity within the spaces inside the center.

Architectural Style
The architectural symbolism of ancient religious architecture reflects a close relationship
between the universe and the earth. The influence of cosmology on architecture is based
on the belief in a relation between microcosm and macrocosm, the human world and the
universe, and between the terrestrial manifestations on one hand and the constellations on
the other.
Throughout history, architecture has been used as a creative, functional outlet that often
heralds the cultural depth of society. In fact, a scroll through important empires,
kingdoms, eras and architectural movements are a window into art and culture.
Architectural styles are characterized by the features that make buildings or other
structures notable, distinctly recognizable and historically identifiable. A style may
include elements like form, method of construction, building materials, and vernacular
character. The prevalence of an architectural trend should not been overlooked. It must be
considered for new practices. It helps people to relate to the structure. It triggers
memories and reminisces a past experience. Thus, for planning a multi-faith center, all
architectural styles must be studies and a suitable one must be carefully chosen for the
structure. It has a lot of impact upon the people and influences the value they attach to it.
The factor of social cohesion does also consequently come into the picture.

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Hindu Temple:
The Hindu temple developed over two thousand years and its architectural evolution took
place within the boundaries of strict models derived solely from religious considerations.
The basic ancient proportions and rigid forms remain unaltered over many centuries.
Architectural elements and decorative details, that originated long before in early
timber and thatch buildings persisted for centuries in one form or another throughout the
era of stone construction. Building techniques like post and beam and corbelled vaulting
were preferred because of religious necessity and tradition.
The architect and sculptor were allowed a great deal of freedom in the
embellishment and decoration of the prescribed underlying principles and formulae. The
result was an overwhelming wealth of architectural elements, sculptural forms and
decorative exuberance that is so characteristic of Indian temple architecture and which
has few parallels in the artistic expression of the entire world.
It is not surprising that the broad geographical, climatic, cultural, racial, historical
and linguistic differences between the northern plains and the southern peninsula of India
resulted, from early on, in distinct architectural styles. The Shastras, the ancient texts on
architecture, classify temples into three different orders; the Nagara or ‘northern’ style,
the Dravida or ‘southern ‘ style, and the Vesara or hybrid style which is seen in the
Deccan between the other two. There are also dinsinct styles in peripheral areas such as
Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan valleys. But by far the most numerous buildings are in
either the Nagara or the Dravida styles and the earliest surviving structural temples can
already be seen as falling into the broad classifications of either one or the other.

Figure 40. Elements of a Hindu Temple

Source: https://samsthan.com/f/an-abstract-on-indian-temple-architecture%E2%80%A6

Buddhist Temple
Buddhists focused their worship upon stone or brick mounds known as stupas. They
contained the relics of Buddha. They were large, open air complexes that were the nodes
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of pilgrimage for Buddhists. Chaityas were prayer halls used by them. Rock-cut
architecture was practiced in their construction. They are apsidal plans and have vaulted
structures on columns, with finely polished interior walls.
Architecturally, chaityas show similarities to ancient Roman architectural concepts of
column and arch. Opposite one entrance stands a stupa. All the pillars have capitals on
them, with carvings of a kneeling elephant mounted on bell-shaped bases.

The pillars have three parts: prop, shaft and the capital. The prop is the base which is
buried into the ground whereas the shaft or the main body of the pillar which lies on the
ground is polished and chiseled. The capital or the head of the pillar is the place where
figures of animals are carved. The Stupa at the end of the Chaitya Hall has an umbrella at
the top which suggests association with Buddhism.

Figure 41. Plan of Buddhist Chaitya

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/480970435178645721

Sikh Temple

The Sikh Architectural style is linked with development. It resonates the values
of progressiveness. We also find exquisite intricacy in their elements. The gurudwaras are
a symbol of austere beauty. It is also defined by cascading and flowy designs. Owing to
its progressive style, the Sikh architecture is known to constantly evolve into many newly
developing branches. It exhibits new and contemporary styles. The architectural style is
distinguished because of its many curves and straight lines.

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Sikh Architecture is heavily influenced by Mughal and Rajput styles. The onion
dome, frescoes, in-lay work, and multi-foil arches, are Mughal influences, more specially
from Shah Jahan's period, whereas chattris, oriel windows, bracket supported eaves at the
string-course, and ornamented friezes are derived from elements of Rajput architecture.
Sikh gurdwaras are generally commemorative buildings connected with the ten gurus in
some way, or with places and events of historical significance. In temples we see a
repeated use of Chhatris, cusped arches and domes. Kiosks and balconied windows are
also found to be ubiquitous. For ornamentation, pilaster, embellishment of parapets,
corners, angles and other permanent projections are used. We also see a symmetry in the
building plan and elevation as characteristics of the Sikh architectural style.

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 Figure 42. Architectural Elements of Sikh Temple Source:

archistudentportal/sikh-architecture-golden-temple

Mosque
A mosque is a quintessential Islamic building which is a gathering place for prayer, a
place to interact, rest and one for reflection.
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The most basic requirement of a congregational mosque’s architecture is that it be able to
hold the population of that locality. So, congregational mosques must have a large prayer
hall which is often adjoined to an open courtyard, called a sahn. Within the courtyard one
often finds a fountain, its waters both a welcome respite in hot lands, and important for
the ablution (ritual cleansing) done before prayer.
Another essential element of a mosque’s architecture is a mihrab—a niche in the wall that
indicates the direction of Mecca, towards which all Muslims pray. The direction of
Mecca is called the qibla, and so the wall in which the mihrab is set is called
the qibla wall. Minaret (tower) - One of the most visible aspects of mosque architecture is
the minaret, a tower adjacent or attached to a mosque, from which the call to prayer is
announced. The architectural style can be either of a hypostyle mosque, of a four-iwan
mosque or of a centrally-planned mosque.

Figure 43. Architectural Elements of a Mosque

Source: http://www.keralawindow.net/Mosque%20Arch.html

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Church
A church is a religious place that has witnessed great multifariousness in its
design. Early Christian, Romanesque, Byzantine, Gothic, Gothic Revival, Renaissance,
Medieval, Perpendicular Gothic, French, Norman, Russian, Polish, Naryshkin Baroque,
Carolingiann, are all architectural styles of churches marked by periods in history.
One of the most recognizable features of a church from its outward appearance would be
the steeple. The steeple is a tall, pointed tower that sits atop a church, often crowned with
a spire. Traditionally, steeples functioned as signal of strength on top of the church, with
defined architectural lines pointing upward as if reaching to the heavens in its symbolism.
This feature also functioned to give more visual appeal to churches that would otherwise
be quite square and short. Steeples, while adding an element of beauty, also served their
towns as a reference point and a place marker of sorts.
Another iconic element of Christian churches was the addition of church bells. Church
bells are located inside the steeple, oftentimes within a part of the steeple called
the belfry. The belfry sits on top of the tower (the bottommost part), and houses the bells
in a semi-enclosed space. On top of the belfry would be the lantern, a small section that
houses light. Atop that is the spire.

Figure 44. Architectural Elements of a Church

Source: https://www.britannica.com/topic/church-architecture

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Jain Temple
Jain temples are built with combining several architectural styles. The early Jain temples
are believed to be constructed using the Indian rock-cut architecture tradition. Thus they
bear similarity with Hindu and Buddhist temples. The rock-cut Jain temples and
monasteries also share a site with those of the other religions, as at Udayagiri, Bava
Pyara, Ellora, Aihole, Badami, and Kalugumalai. Although there is considerable
similarity between the styles of the different religions, but often the Jains placed large
figures of one or more of the 24 tirthankaras in the open air rather than inside the shrine.
These statues later began to be very large, normally standing nude figures in
the kayotsarga meditation position (which is similar to standing at attention). Examples
include the Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments and the Siddhachal Caves.
The use of idols, in contemporary times have become controversial within Jainism. In
sects which largely disapprove of images, the religious buildings are far simpler.
Following the regional styles in Hindu temples, Jain temples in North India generally use
the north Indian nagara style, while those in South India use the dravida style, although
the north Indian Māru-Gurjara style or Solanki style has made some inroads in the south
over the last century or so. For example, the Mel Sithamur Jain Math in Tamil Nadu has a
large gopuram tower, similar to those of local Hindu temples.
The external walls of the temples are structured by increasing numbers of projections and
recesses, accommodating sharply carved statues in niches. These are normally positioned
in superimposed registers, above the lower bands of mouldings. Continuous lines of horse
riders, elephants, and kīrttimukhas are carved with no segment of the surface left
unadorned. The main shikhara  has many urushringas or the subsidiary spirelets on it.
In later temples, we see devakulikā shrines surrounding the main temple with a curtain.
These are fairly plain on the outer walls, and often raised on a very high platform, so that
the outside of larger temples can resemble a fortress with high walls. The entrance is
made high with wide steps.
Inside the temple, the Māru-Gurjara style features extremely lavish carving, especially on
columns, large and intricately carved rosettes on the ceilings of mandapas, and a
characteristic form of "flying arch" between columns, which has no structural role, and is
purely decorative. Most early temples in the style are in various local shades of pink, buff
or brown sandstone, but the Dilwara temples are in a very pure white marble which
lightens the style and is considered very desirable.

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 Figure 45. Typical Plan of Jain Temple

Source: jain-architecture-70097629

Fire Temple
The Zoroastrians do not attempt to make the place of the deity boastful, through showy
buildings. In all of the inscriptions they leave, they described that their need was for
the patronage of Ahura Mazda. They have open air altars for the people to be able to
see from afar. People gather in front of this and offer their votive offerings. In old fire
temples, the building material is generally stone. Whereas, in places where transport
and workmanship were difficult, adobe and brick also seen.
In order for the brick material to be stable, baked bricks were applied on the
outside and adobe on the inside. In the foundation system one encounters examples in
which adobe was used, in the columns, marble/stone and in the ceiling, wood. On top
of the roof covering, a thick earth layer is found. One finds buildings on which dome
and vault coverings have been used.
The effects that the temple has on the spirit and eye are not neglected. The
tombs and reliefs carved between earth and sky depicted this. The influence of the
antique period extended from Central Asia to the Aegean Sea and remained bounded.
Architectural buildings were mostly in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf and in Upper
Mesopotamia. The squinch dome that the Sassanians applied was used in Roman and
Byzantine architecture and the vaulted structure was used in Europe too.
The characteristic feature of the Sassanid fire temple is its domed sanctuary where
the fire-altar stands. This sanctuary always has a square ground plan with a pillar in
each corner that then supports the dome.
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 Figure 46. Elements of a Fire Temple

Source: http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/241/2410982/image014.jpg

With the concept of social cohesion amidst all religious groups as the main concept of the
dissertation, there is a need for integration and reflection upon the diversity and the need
to bring in solidarity. The center must have common spaces that display secularism and
harmony despite the difference in beliefs. It will help in transforming the area into a place
of diverse cultural, social and religion related activities.
Given the context of modernization, of bridging gaps, bringing in consensus, the
vision is to design a platform that allows for expansion of acceptance, harmony,
unity into the whole country in order to embrace the diversity. The design celebrates
existing religious buildings while celebrating cultures and promoting exchange of
both social and religious beliefs.

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SECULAR SPACES:
A Common Room for the Clergy
To curb the misconceptions one group of people has about the other group or groups,
there is primarily a need of heads, who represent each faith. They can be chosen by the
people of that particular religion. They would sit in a large common room, together and
take upon themselves to clear doubts or misconceptions of people. The reason why all the
leaders or heads need to be placed in the same room is because it would depict the united
nature of their belief in God. It would denote that they are there for the same cause, that
they encourage the same deeds and that they abandon the same evils.
Lessons of flexibility, perception and transparency can be drawn from such a
place as the architecture will draw inspiration from existing, social, history and
contextual network to design the building exhibiting social exchange and experience.
Furthermore, this idea of having a common room for priests, pundits, etc., reflects the
role architecture plays in contributing to one’s sense of place and identity. While the units
will be designed to independently represent religious beliefs, through spatial solidarity
they will be represented as a complete entity. Therefore, the center adapts a design
approach that represents transparency, individuality and exchange.
Ultimately in an aim to promote cultural awareness, we will end up with a
common space for exchange of dialogue between people of different beliefs. It will
establish a new democratic place for all people. Should there arise a case or incident of a
brawl, the heads must come forward to resolve it collaboratively. A point is to be noted
here, and that is regarding the credibility of an opinion, or a belief of a religious nature. It
must be acknowledged that NO two people are alike in all respects. Hence we must not
expect any two people two have common beliefs. And together with that, we must agree
to disagree and not engage in quarrels or fights. However they must foster interaction
with the acceptance of others’ beliefs by engaging in dialogues.

A Common Library
The next in line, for profane and secular spaces comes a common library. A library is a
symbol of knowledge. It exhorts us to break the shackles of ignorance. In this context, of
a multi-religious place, a library would serve as a metaphor, pushing the people to
transcend barriers and be knowledgeable humans first; this is the bottom-line that every
religion preaches. However we become so communal that we fail to fathom it.
Every faith preaches principles of empathy, help, kindness, politeness, honesty,
loyalty and condemns falsehood, exploitation, greed, violence, lust etc. It is books that
give us knowledge and make us better people.

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 This will be in line with every religion’s desire to create facilities that assist
strengthening the prudence and pragmatism of every person. The library will house
religious books, its translations and even books for children. This concept of a library will
aim at restoring the lost practice of reading and making the mind healthy. The
architectural design of the place and the placement of books must make people’s paths
cross and engage them in dialogue.

An Auditorium
To contribute to positive community spirit, places and events should be thought of that
amass people. Congregations are a great way to know people, interact with them and
befriend them. An auditorium in a multi-faith center would be the most vibrant place,
attracting people into it. It will regularly host interesting and entrtaining events. Plays,
lectures, bhajans, qawwalis, etc will be a common feature of the space. It will help to set
up one-on-one discussions between people. It will bring different viewpoints to be
discussed by people. Addressing people and telling them stories is a great way to connect
with people. This place would therefore be one fostering social cohesion.
An auditorium is a place that channels people to gather for performances,
sermons, lectures etc. These audio visual activities happen with the audience seated in
chars arranged on a sloping floor. The seats are arranged, in order to give the seated
person a clear view of the stage. The entire room is designed to function well-making
provisions for light and sound systems. It is ensured that the sound does not reflect. The
light beams are not kept streamlined to cause a strain on the eye. The aisle width, the
balconies, angular rotation of the chairs- everything must be kept apt according to the
standards.

Exhibition Hall
As an arts center, an exhibition hall will aim to use different means of communication to
enhance the understanding of the different religions, practices, cultures and traditions.
Arts like photography, paintings, communicate to the soul. They need no verbal
transmission to happen. Such art forms, out on the display convey a lot and are therefore
very important to bridge gaps.
Bringing arts and crafts closer to communities through contemporary art forms,
builds an understanding of an otherwise underrepresented or misrepresented religion.

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Celebration Area
Festivals are a lovely societal connect. They bring together people for various faiths into
the realm of the happy vibes they come with. Festivals like Diwali, Eid, Gurupurab,
Christmas, Holi, etc. must be celebrated by all the communities together on a combined
basis.
Enrolled members should have people who look after the preparations for such
events. An organizing committee with equal representation of all faiths is a good
approach for this. Celebrating differences, happy times, bad times make us feel united. If
it were not for this diversity in religions in our country, we would be left exposed with a
monotonous schedule. Becoming part of others’ celebrations connects everyone on
amicable terms. One may not necessarily be accepting or believing of the other faith; but
he or she strikes to build consensus.
It is these secular spaces in the center that bring about social cohesion in the
diverse society. This architectural paradigm makes up for the loss of tolerance in today’s
world where one is not very accepting of the other’s faith.

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