MAPÙA UNIVERSITY

658 Muralla St., Intramuros, Manila, 1002 Metro Manila

School of Electrical, Electronics, Computer Engineering

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING DESIGN

PROJECT NO.3

ALVIENTO, Erick V.
EE116D / E06
3Q1920

March 28, 2020

Engr. Jesusito H. Sulit

Instructor
 Power Plant Operation & Control (Synchronization, Real power output

setting, reactive power output, minimum stable load, ramp rates, duty

cycle)

o Synchronization

Synchronization is the process of comparing the two source parameters like voltage,

frequency and phase angle and connecting them together to operate in parallel. I.e. it

is desired to assure that the two AC power sources are in synchronism before

connecting together. The device used to measure the degree of synchronization

between the two AC power systems is called synchronization unit which consists of

Dual voltage meter, Dual Frequency meter, Synchro-scope and Synchronization

check relay. Figure shows the basic arrangement of synchronization unit between the

two AC power sources. The existing power source is called running power source and

the power source to be connected is called incoming power source.

 Here the power system can be a single power source if only two power sources to be

operated in parallel or it is a group of running generators in case of incoming

generator has to be connected with grid power supply.

o Real Power Output Setting

Real power output of generator can be changed either

– manually

• Generator dialog

• Case information displays

• Generator fields

• System Scaling display

– automatically

• Participation factor AGC

• Economic dispatch

• Area slack bus control

• Injection group area slack control

• Optimal power flow (OPF)

o Reactive Power Output

Reactive power is a very complicated concept to understand technologically, but a

fairly simple one economically.

 If the voltage winds up out of phase with the current, this reduces the amount of

power that can be delivered (remember that power = voltage times current) and some

of those inductive loads may not work as well (and light bulbs may not be as bright,

and so forth). The difference in the phase between the voltage and current, or what

additional voltage would be needed to restore the system to being in phase, is known

as reactive power.

When the power grid needs more reactive power, this can be effectively produced at

the power plant. Remember that most power plants produce electricity through a coil

of wire that is rotating in a magnetic field. (How quickly does that coil rotate? 60

times per second, or 60 Hertz, which is the same frequency as the voltage and current

wave forms.) If the voltage and current waves are out of phase, that can be corrected

by adjusting the strength of the magnetic field, which a power plant operator can do

by moving the coil of wire ever so slightly. This is what we call the "production" of

reactive power. The word "production" here is kind of misleading since reactive

power is neither a thing (like a molecule of gas or drop of oil) nor a force (like

electricity). But we use the term as a kind of shorthand.

o Minimum Stable Load

Minimum Stable Load means the Project has achieved at least *** percent (***%) of

the nominal net plant capacity over a four (4) hour period during which each boiler

must have operated at *** percent (***%) steam flow (or such greater percentage), in

accordance with the terms of Part I, Section 8.2.7 of the Scope Book.
o Ramp Rates

Ramp rate is a termed used in power generation to express how quickly a power

plant's power output is changing, either ramping up (increasing) or ramping down

(decreasing). So, it is expressed in units of power over time (e.g. MW per minute).

o Duty Cycle

When the signal is high, we call this "on time". To describe the amount of "on time" ,

we use the concept of duty cycle. Duty cycle is measured in percentage. The

percentage duty cycle specifically describes the percentage of time a digital signal is

on over an interval or period of time. This period is the inverse of the frequency of the

waveform.

If a digital signal spends half of the time on and the other half off, we would say the

digital signal has a duty cycle of 50% and resembles an ideal square wave. If the

percentage is higher than 50%, the digital signal spends more time in the high state

than the low state and vice versa if the duty cycle is less than 50%.
 Power System Operations (frequency regulation, governor control,

automatic generation control, automatic load shedding, spinning reserves,

backup power, reliability criteria)

o Frequency Regulation

Frequency Regulation is the process by which the alternating currency in any

electrical grid is maintained within the right tolerance bounds by synchronizing

generation assets for electrical grid stability.

o Governor Control

A governor, or speed limiter or controller, is a device used to measure and regulate

the speed of a machine, such as an engine.

A classic example is the centrifugal governor, also known as the Watt or fly-ball

governor on a reciprocating steam engine, which uses the effect of inertial force on

rotating weights driven by the machine output shaft to regulate its speed by altering

the input flow of steam.

o Automatic Generation Control

In an electric power system, automatic generation control (AGC) is a system for

adjusting the power output of multiple generators at different power plants, in

response to changes in the load. Since a power grid requires that generation and load

closely balance moment by moment, frequent adjustments to the output of generators

are necessary. The balance can be judged by measuring the system frequency; if it is

increasing, more power is being generated than used, which causes all the machines

in the system to accelerate. If the system frequency is decreasing, more load is on the

system than the instantaneous generation can provide, which causes all generators to

slow down.

o Automatic Load Shedding

Load shedding is an emergency control action to ensure system stability, by curtailing

system load. The emergency LS would only be used if the frequency/voltage falls

below a specified frequency/voltage threshold. Typically, the LS protects against

excessive frequency or voltage decline by attempting to balance real and reactive

power supply and demand in the system. Most common LS schemes are the UFLS

schemes, which involve shedding predetermined amounts of load if the frequency

drops below specified frequency thresholds. The UVLS schemes, in a similar manner,

are used to protect against excessive voltage decline.

o Spinning Reserves
 Spinning reserve is the excess amount of online generation capacity over the amount

required to supply load and available to respond to sudden load changes or loss of a

generator.

o Backup Power

Backup power is a major cost and is needed to provide power during night and when

the skies are cloudy.

o Reliability Criteria

The probability that something will operate for its designed interval under a specific

condition (the ability to maximize uptime).

 Electricity Trading & Market Operation (Bids & Offers, market clearing

price, nodal prices, line rentals, congestion cost, gross pool, net settlement)

o Bids & Offers

In terms of bids and offers, wholesale transactions (bids and offers) in electricity are

typically cleared and settled by the market operator or a special-purpose independent

entity charged exclusively with that function. Market operators do not clear trades but

often require knowledge of the trade in order to maintain generation and load balance.

The commodities within an electric market generally consist of two types: power and

energy. Power is the metered net electrical transfer rate at any given moment and is

measured in megawatts (MW). Energy is electricity that flows through a metered

point for a given period and is measured in megawatt-hours (MWh).

o Market Clearing Price

The market clearing price on terms of demand and supply balance, the market is said

to “clear.” Therefore, a market clears at the market-clearing price. Although market-

clearing prices do not always exist, and there are some technical issues that have not

been included in this introduction, such as the cases where a range of market-clearing

prices exists or where transmission is limited, the above discussion shows that the

formation of a market-clearing price can facilitate the trading that results in the

greatest gains from trade.

o Nodal Prices

Nodal pricing considers all the transmission constraints in the day-ahead market.

Nodal prices could differ if congestion occurs in the transmission system. Each

producer is paid in accordance with the local price at the node where it is located. The

nodal market is cleared in a single stage. Currently, nodal pricing is not an option for

the integrated European electricity market. One reason is that switching to the nodal

pricing would require a fundamental change in the way European electricity markets

are structured (i.e. current arrangements for cross-border trading would need to be

redeveloped, implying significant IT and procedural changes) and the cost impact of

this would, in the short-term, likely out weight the benefits.

o Line Rentals
 The Line Rental refers to the economic rental arising from the use of a transmission

line. It exists when there is congestion in the transmission system and is already

embedded in the resulting nodal prices during the optimization process. The line

rental amount can be computed by getting the difference in trading amount (Price x

Quantity) between an injection node and an off-take node. From the settlement

formulations in the WESM Rules, Bilateral Contracts are being netted out of the ex-

ante and ex-post settlement amounts.

In this regard, a specific Line Rental amount shall be charged to bilateral contract

quantities to fully account for the line usage of these bilateral energy flows in the

market and allow the settlement accounts to balance. In so doing, the market prevents

any “free riding” on the system by the bilateral contract holders since they will have

to pay for the same, as required by the market to all market participants.

o Congestion Cost

Congestion cost shall reflect the restriction imposed on energy dispatches due to the

thermal limitations of affected transmission equipment. When a market trading node

is affected by one or more congestions in the system, specific congestion costs shall

be measured for such market trading node based on its sensitivity relative to the

constrained equipment multiplied by the price corresponding to the transmission

constraint. The sensitivity shall be measured based on power flow, wherein a market

trading node’s injection/withdrawal is evaluated if it affects the loading of the

 constrained equipment.

o Gross Pool

Gross pool, where each Scheduled Generation Company offers its maximum

available capacity, Non-Scheduled Generation Company submits a standing

nomination of loading levels, and Generation Company, with must dispatch

generating units and priority dispatch generating units, submits projected outputs, for

central scheduling and dispatch to ensure system security and a level playing field

among generators.

The WESM shall employ a gross pool dispatch model where all submitted generation

offers, reserve offers, projected outputs, nomination of loading levels, and demand

bids are scheduled based on the mathematical optimization algorithm of the market

dispatch optimization model.

 o Net Settlement

The net settlement is the difference between the collections from the customer and

the payments to the generators. In other cases, like loops flow, forecasting error

and the like, the payments to generators exceed collections from customers which

then results to a deficit in the net settlement.

REFERENCES

[1] ECE Tutorials, “Intrduction to Synchronization in Power plant”. [Online]. Available:

http://ecetutorials.com/power-plant/synchronization/

[2] PowerWorld, “Generator MW Control”. [Online]. Available:

https://www.powerworld.com/files/TrainingI08GeneratorAreaMWControl.pdf

[3] PennState “9.1.1 Reactive Power”. [Online]. Available: https://www.e-

education.psu.edu/ebf483/node/704

[4] LawInsider, “Definition of Minimum Stable Load”. [Online]. Available:

https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/minimum-stable-load

[5] Grey Cells Energy, “Ramp Rate”. [Online]. Available: https://greycellsenergy.com/glossary-

item/ramp-rate/

[6] Sparkfun, “Pulse Width Modulation”. [Online]. Available:

https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/pulse-width-modulation/duty-cycle

[7] Greencoast, “Frequency Regulation Definition”. [Online]. Available:

https://greencoast.org/terms/frequency-regulation/

[8] Wikipedia, “Governor (device)”. [Online]. Available:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_(device)
[9] Wikipedia, “Automatic Generation Control”. [Online]. Available:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_Generation_Control

[10] Hassen Bevrani, Masayuki Watanbe, Yasunori Mitani, “Power System Monitoring and

Control”. [eBook]. Available: Google Books

[11]ScienceDirect, “Spinning Reserve”. [Online]. Available:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/spinning-reserve

[12]ScienceDirect, “Back-up Power”. [Online]. Available:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/back-up-power

[13]csemag, “Power plant reliability”. [Online]. Available:

https://www.csemag.com/articles/power-plant-reliability/

[14]Wikpedia, “Electricity Market”. [Online]. Available:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_market

[15] Wikipedia, “Market Clearing”. [Online]. Available:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_clearing

[16]ScienceDirect, “Production efficiency of nodal and zonal pricing in imperfectly competitive

electricity markets”. [Online]. Available:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211467X19300203

[17]WESM, “Chapter 1”. [Online]. Available: www.wesm.ph