1 OPERATIONS OF POWER SYSTEMS

Power system Electricity operations generation, transmission, distribution and supply need to
consider that are heavily affected by the fact that production and consumption need to be always in
instantaneous balance. Whenever there is a mismatch between supply and demand in a large
system, the overall dynamic balance may become compromised with negative consequences for the
delivery of electricity across large areas. The operation of the power system ensures intends to
deliver the needed electricity is delivered to the consumers, while keeping the system stable and
protected, within all existing constraints. System The instability refers of the system manifests itself
withto voltage and frequency values outside allowable boundspredefined thresholds.

The management of a power system is a combination of planning, delivery, operation, and

maintenance. These processes have both a short term and a long term elementscomponent. Some of
these activities, when studied in detail, are very specific to power systems, while some others are
more general. In any case, aSinces the system consists of the generation, transmission, distribution
and supply segments, domains, those activities processes will exist across have their expression in
all of them; furthermore, there are some of them that need to be coordinated among all the domains.

There are two functions that can be considered transversal to all the grid management areas:
protection and control. They apply se two functions act into hierarchically organized systems that
have different vision levels of the whole power system. Operations depend on The operation itself is
a combination of automated or semi-automated control, and actions requiring direct human (system
operator) intervention. This operation is clearlyOperations are assisted by all the electromechanical
elements developed and installed during the life of the electrical grid, but clearlyand recently
enhanced through with the support of ICT’s:

 Protection. This e function of protection intends to ensure the general safety of the system and,
its elements and the people working in it. Protection schemes must act immediately (“real-
time”) whenever there is a condition that might cause personal injuries to general public, or
equipment damage. This The faulty condition is detected and located based on voltage and
current measurements, but also of on some other secondary parameters. A fundamental part of
the operation of a power system is to quickly detect and clear faults. Protection cannot avoid
disturbances in the system, but can minimize the consequences through rapid, secure and
selective disconnection of the faulty equipment, and automatic reclosing for supply recovering
recovery in case of transient failures.

 Control. Power system operators manage their grids from a control centersUCC’s. Many types
of different control centersUCC’s exist, and some of them specifically deal with different
domains of the grid. Most of The the routine operations of a well-designed system should not
require any human intervention. However, reality often departs from ideal conditions and a
certain degree number of manual operations are usually needed. In order to prepare for itSo, in
normal operating conditions, the collection of operating data is very useful to analyseanalyze
system performance for planning processes and contingency analysis. This is usually made done
automatically.
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The objective of supplying producing the quantity of power needed in the system is a task for the
generation segment domain of the system. In the traditional monopolistic environment of utilities
before the progressive liberalization deregulation of electricity related activitiesmarkets, vertically
integrated utilities controlled all the power system domains and knew when, where and how much
electricity was going to be needed. As Sthey controlled the bulk generation assets, the scheduling of
energy production was a relatively easy task. Even if the different generation sources have had
different constraints (different generation costs -different cost to keep them operational, different
costs of having them inactive, etc.-, speed of start upstartup and shut down, capacity factor,
etc.)different time-to-produce limitations –no source can be instantaneous-, etc.) the production
could be easily scheduled as all the data was available for the utility. The “unit commitment”
assigns a production rate and temporal slot some time in advance to of the real need; the “reserves”
-, i.e., the generation units that must remain available in case of contingencies- need also to be
planned too, and they have costs, as the must be ready to provide their electricity in a short period
of time.

After the market deregulationliberalization, matters operation becaome a bit more challenging as
since generation turns into an open enters a free-market situation,market where typically energy
producers are usually independent entities that offer their production capacity and get it awarded.
There is usually a wholesale bidding process for this wholesale energy, and a price assigned per
MW to the different generation sources.

The target of grid voltage and fFrequency stability is a fundamental concept for power system
operation that concerns starts at energy generation as well. The traditional conversion of energy
intoproduction of electricity (hydro, fuel, nuclear, etc.) involves mechanical elements, e.g. as with
steam, . Imagine the case of steam, water or gas flows in through a turbine. Thus, ; the control of the
mechanical power has an effect on the rotational speed of the turbine, and consequently in the
esactexact frequency of the 50 / 60 Hz electricity signal (as it may logically be assumed). If the
rotational speed is higher, the frequency is higher tooas well; and the other way around. However,
the effects on the frequency also do not only come from the “fuel” of the turbine, but ofcome from
the load connected to the system:; when load is heavy if the load is high, the turbine will tend to be
rotate more slowlyieer and the output frequency will be lower. This effect needs to be compensated
on the generator side with more “fuel” if the load is higher, or the contrary, to keep the frequency as
close as possible to the 50 or 60 Hz nominal valuewhere it needs to be.

The other effect to be controlled is the one related with vVoltage levels need to be controlled too.
Loads in the system exhibit a reactive behaviourbehavior, so if the Loads are not only active (real,
that was the cause of the effect on frequency), but also reactive as a consequence of the nature of
some of the load types. If thetotal consumption of reactive power is high, the generator output
power will not be efficiently useddecrease. Keeping reactive consumption low maximizes the real
power flowing in the system. However, if tThe grid (transmission and distribution) takes care of
compensating loads,loads; otherwise does not compensate this situation, the generators needs to
increase reactive power outputcompensate it with the current in the rotor.

Once the generation produces energy, the electricity needs to be carried to consumption end-points.
From an operational perspective, Tthe transmission grid must ensure is instrumental in this process
connecting this production capacity with the different consumption areas. The power lines must
support the electricity transported. This means dynamically adapting to , and must achieve this
considering the physical limitations and tolerances of the transmission power lines (e.g. thermal)
and stability constraints, dynamic over time), that need to be matched with the plant from where the
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electricity needs to be carried, with the aim to maximisemaximize . The availability and
minimiseminimize system losses of the line, the tolerances in their transmission capacity, and the
losses they add to the system are factors to consider. This grid segment also has a role in the
cControl of the reactive part of the load is done , as it can help to compensate it with Voltage/VAR
optimization components elements (inductors, capacitors and semiconductor switches) deployed
and activated in the grid. Market deregulation adds further challenges to transmission grid
operations since The challenge of transmission grid segment is enlarged with the market
liberalization, as the network capacity expansion must be coordinated with new actors that may
build new generation plants to be connected hat eventually will need to get connected to the grid
with a proper infrastructure.

Distribution grid has a challenging role as well, possibly due to the fact that is the most extended
component of the power system, and because every electrical distribution system is unique.
Distribution systems have a fundamental duty to , closer to the customers are the first ones to
control the power quality (ei.ge. the voltage and frequency parameters) close to the end customer.
we mentioned). Key aspects of distribution operations are They need to engage with the control of
voltage regulation (e.g. to keep LV levels between certain thresholds both in the the percentage
change in secondary voltage from the unloaded to and full-load conditions), power factor (i.e. tothe
control of the reactive component part of the load), frequency and harmonics (the quality of the
electricity signal measured as the number of harmonics of the 50 / 60 Hz fundamental frequency,
due to the growing presence of solid-state switching devices in the loadsgrid), and voltage
unbalance among phases in multi-phase systems (caused by the different loads and consumption in
the different phases of the transformers).

Maintenance of pPower systems is not conceptually different to the practices of other businesses.
maintenance is aligned with the need to keep the grid operational now (reactive maintenance) and
tomorrow (preventive maintenance). This discipline is not conceptually different to its instantiation
in other businesses. There is a need for reactive maintenance when an unplanned failure occurs, and
also for preventive (proactive) maintenance to minimize future system failures. The uUse of ICT’s
is relevant as a way to collect information and perform O&M this maintenance more effectively -by
analyzing thousands of complex parameters controlling parameters of the different elements of the
system that may give early indication s of latent problems or early problems due to any
degradation-.

The last process that should be mentioned is system planning. System planning is also part of
operations. It tries to understand and forecast starts with the understanding of the load needs (during
the times of the day, the days of the year and the projections in the coming years), and their location
identification of the geography where they are located to adapt the grid consequently. But not only
this: s

System planning affects all system components, and usually considers has a short and a long-range
term visionscope. Long-term vision requires a system model, and considers the load requirements
evolution and mentioned, the associated changes they will involveneeded in the existing system
(e.g. new power lines or, substations,; enlargements refurbishment of the existing infrastructure –-
feeders, transmission capacity, etc.-), along with relevant nd all the constraints (e.g. economic and
others), to develop different scenarios and adapt to them. Short-term planning implies vision is
more aligned with the detailed analysis of the infrastructure. ; iIn the distribution grid segment this
is translated into different studies to analyseanalyze the grid itself: voltage drops (to identify the
weak points of in the grid), sectionalizing study (with the objective ofto minimizeing outages,
sectionalizing device locations are studied), conductor analysis (to see determine if the existing ones

Authors
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are adequate from the voltage drop perspectiveor not) and power factor correction (e.g. by installing
compensating elements in the grid) among others.

The fact that the power system is the “largest and most complex machine” on earth becomes evident
if one considers its different, complex components along with its extension and capillarity.
Notwithstanding this complexity, the power system delivers an “always-on” service.