41
Conservation and management of mangroves in India,
with special reference to the State of Goa and the
Middle Andaman Islands
Measures taken to conserve and
manage mangroves, the problems
that persist and some suggested
actions to overcome them.
Rajiv Kumar is a Divisional Forest
Officer in the Indian Forest Service,
Rangat, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, India.
Unasylva 203, Vol. 51, 2000
R. Kumar
I
n India, mangroves occur on the West
Coast, on the East Coast and on
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (see
Map and Table), but in many places
they are highly degraded. According
to the Government of India (1987),
India lost 40 percent of its mangrove
area in the last century. The National
Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) re-
corded a decline of 7 000 ha of man-
groves in India within the six-year
period from 1975 to 1981. In Andaman
and Nicobar Islands about 22 400 ha
of mangroves were lost between 1987
and 1997 (see Table).
Growing awareness of the protective,
productive and social functions of tropi-
cal mangrove ecosystems has highlighted
the need to conserve and manage them
sustainably (FAO, 1994). This article dis-
cusses the various measures taken by the
Government of India for the conserva-
tion and management of mangroves, the
problems that persist in spite of these
measures and some solutions to over-
come them.
The article is based in part on the field
experiences of the author since 1992 in
the State of Goa and the Middle Andaman
Islands.
Area distribution of mangroves in India (thousand ha)
State/Union territory Government of India, 1987
West Bengal (Sundarbans) 420
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 119
Maharashtra 33
Gujarat 26
Andhra Pradesh 20
Tamil Nadu 15
Orissa 15
Karnataka 6 0.3
Goa 20
Kerala Sparse
Total 674
NEED FOR MANGROVE
CONSERVATION AND
MANAGEMENT
Increasing human population in coastal
areas is resulting in increased pressure
on mangrove ecosystems in many coun-
tries, with the growing demand for tim-
ber, fuelwood, fodder and other non-
wood forest products (NWFPs) (Saenger,
Hegerl and Davie, 1983). To ensure the
conservation of mangroves for environ-
mental benefits, together with a sustain-
able supply of various forest and other
products to meet the day-to-day require-
ments of local people, appropriate man-
agement of mangrove ecosystems is
needed. Management can also open new
avenues for self-employment such as
ecotourism, fishing, beekeeping and
cottage industries based on mangrove
forest products, helping to improve the
socio-economic conditions of the local
communities.
MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVES IN
INDIA
India has a long tradition of mangrove
forest management. The Sundarbans
mangroves, located in the Bay of Ben-
gal (partly in India and partly in Bangla-
Government of India, 1997
212.3
96.6
12.4
99.1
38.3
2.1
21.1
0.5
Nil
482.7
 42

Mangrove sites
in India

ment. In its first meeting, the panel, which

consists of scientists, research scholars
and experts on the mangrove ecosystem,
emphasized the need to conduct a sur-
vey of the extent of existing mangrove
areas within the country. The govern-
ment subsequently introduced a scheme
for mangrove conservation and protec-
Mangroves tion, consisting of:
of Gujarat Sundarbans
mangroves • identification of selected mangrove
areas for conservation;
Mahanadi • preparation of a management plan;
mangroves
• promotion of research;
• adoption of a multidisciplinary ap-
Krishna Godavari proach involving state governments,
mangroves
Ratnagiri universities, research institutions and
mangroves
Goa local organizations.
mangroves In 1979, the National Mangrove Com-
Andaman and mittee recommended areas for research
Nicobar Islands and development and for management
Cauvery mangroves
deltaic of the mangroves, which included the
mangroves following:
• nationwide mapping of the mangrove
areas, preferably by remote sensing
techniques coupled with land sur-
veys, and time series to assess the
rate of degradation of the ecosys-
tems;
• quantitative surveys of area, climatic
regime, rate of growth of forest trees
desh), were the first mangroves in the shall be the duty of every citizen of India and seasonal variations of environ-
world to be put under scientific manage- to protect and improve the natural envi- mental parameters;
ment. The area’s first management plan ronment including forests, lakes, rivers • assessment of suitable sites for re-
was implemented in 1892 (Chaudhuri and and wildlife. serve forests;
Choudhury, 1994). Recognizing the importance of man- • conservation programmes;
More recently, the concern of the Gov- groves, the Government of India set up • afforestation of degraded mangrove
ernment of India for the conservation of the National Mangrove Committee in the areas;
forests and wildlife was clearly demon- Ministry of Environment and Forests in • study of management methods, the
strated by a 1976 amendment to the In- 1976 to advise the government about ecology of mangroves, their flora and
dian Constitution, which states that it mangrove conservation and develop- fauna, their microbiology and the

Unasylva 203, Vol. 51, 2000


biochemistry of organic matter and
sediments.
On the basis of the National Mangrove
Committee’s recommendation, 15 man-
grove areas were identified for conser-
vation. The Government of India has
provided guidance and financial assist-
ance to states and Union territories for
the preparation and implementation of
Management Action Plans for the con-
servation and development of these man-
grove ecosystems. Most of these plans
are now being implemented. The plans
broadly cover survey and demarcation,
natural regeneration in selected areas, af-
forestation, protection measures, fenc-
ing and awareness programmes.
The government also supports research
by academic institutions for development
of mangrove ecosystems on a sound
ecological basis. The National Forest
Policy, 1988 lists effective conservation
and management of natural forest eco-
systems (including the mangrove eco-
A stand of low Rhizophora
trees in the Sundarbans
mangrove forest
Unasylva 203, Vol. 51, 2000
43
system) as a priority area for forestry
research.
Legislative framework
In India, a legislative framework for the
conservation and management of man-
groves is already in place. The Indian
Forest Act, 1927 and the Wildlife (Pro-
tection) Act, 1972 provide protection to
flora and fauna. Although they do not
specifically mention mangroves, these
acts can also apply to the conservation
of the flora and fauna of mangrove eco-
systems. Since 1927, the Indian Forest
Act has been applied to the mangrove
forests of the Sundarbans, which have
been declared as a reserved area (Naskar
and Mandal, 1999).
The Forest Conservation Act, 1980
states that no forest area shall be diverted
for any non-forestry purpose without
prior approval of the Government of
India. This act has proved very effective
in preventing diversion of mangrove
forest areas for non-forestry purposes.
The Environment (Protection) Act,
1986 has had a crucial role in the conser-
vation and management of mangrove
ecosystems. It declares a Coastal Regu-
lation Zone in which industrial and other
activities such as discharge of untreated
water and effluents, dumping of waste,
land reclamation and bunding are re-
stricted in order to protect the coastal
environment. Coastal stretches are clas-
sified into four categories, and man-
groves are included in the most ecologi-
cally sensitive category (see Box on
p. 52, in the article by L. Hein).
Enforcement of the legislative mandates
is a prime need (Untawale, 1992).
SITUATION IN GOA
Of Goa’s total land area of 370 000 ha,
the mangrove area is 500 ha, having
declined sharply from a recorded
20 000 ha in 1987 (see Table).
Some 178 ha of the best mangrove area
FAO/19883/G. GREPIN

at Chorao, Goa has been declared as
Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest
Act, 1927 to protect and conserve the
mangrove forests. Subsequently, in
1988, this area was declared a bird sanc-
tuary under the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972.
Afforestation work to restore degraded
mangrove areas started in Goa in 1985-
1986; by the end of 1996-1997 the pro-
gramme had covered 876 ha (Forest
Department of Goa statistics).
In 1988, the Government of Goa
formed a State Level Steering Commit-
tee to oversee the development of the
mangrove forest. In 1990, the state gov-
ernment set up a Multidisciplinary
Project Formulation Team to facilitate
the preparation of a Comprehensive
Action Plan for the development of the
mangrove ecosystem. The same year, the
government decided that no construction
or development would be allowed in the
area earmarked by the Forest Department
for mangrove conservation, and declared
that 15 mangrove species should not be
felled for a period of ten years.
A five-year Mangrove Management
Plan for Goa was prepared in 1991-1992
and implemented with financial assist-
ance from the Government of India, and
100 ha of mangroves were planted each
year as planned. A second five-year
Management Plan is currently under
implementation.
SITUATION IN ANDAMAN AND
NICOBAR ISLANDS
Andaman and Nicobar Islands comprise
572 islands in the Bay of Bengal, with a
total area of about 825 000 ha. The coast-
line is about 1 962 km. The area under
mangroves is 96 600 ha (Government of
India, 1997). The Middle Andaman Is-
lands comprise an area of 99 800 ha, of
which 23 400 ha or 23.4 percent are
covered with mangroves (Environment
and Forest Department records).
44
In the past, fuelwood and poles were
extracted from mangroves on a small
scale to meet local demand including, in
addition to household use, the fuelling
of a power station at Port Blair, three
major plywood industries and the gov-
ernment’s steam vessels. Limited extrac-
tion did not cause any damage to the
government mangrove forests, but in the
revenue areas (areas managed in such a
way as to allow local people to benefit
from extraction of forest products) the
destruction of mangroves is conspicu-
ous. Some areas have been reclaimed for
agriculture and settlements (Andaman
and Nicobar Islands Environment and
Forest Department, 1997).
Since 1987, as a result of growing
awareness regarding the conservation of
mangroves, the Andaman and Nicobar
Administration has banned extraction of
mangrove wood. The plywood indus-
tries, power station and government
steam vessels have since switched over
to diesel.
The strategy adopted in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands for the conservation and
management of mangrove forests is as
follows:
• full protection of the mangrove flora
and fauna by banning the extraction
of mangrove wood from government
forests;
• identification of potential mangrove
areas for declaration as national parks
and sanctuaries;
• restoration of degraded and critical
mangrove areas by planting of suit-
able species;
• identification of endangered man-
grove species and full protection for
their rehabilitation;
• checking encroachment, destruction
and reclamation of mangrove areas;
• monitoring changes in mangrove
area, floristic and faunal composi-
tion and physiography;
• raising awareness among the public
on the importance of mangroves and
the need for their preservation;
• protection measures to keep vigil on
possible destruction of mangroves.
MANGROVE CONSERVATION AND
MANAGEMENT ISSUES
Most of the challenges to mangrove for-
ests observed in Goa and the Middle
Andamans are also relevant to other parts
of India. These include both natural haz-
ards and destructive human activities.
However, the gravity of the problems
varies from area to area.
Natural hazards
The natural threats to mangroves ob-
served in Goa and the Middle Andaman
islands include the following:
• cyclones, typhoons and strong wave
action (Naskar and Mandal, 1999),
especially in the geographically vul-
nerable Andaman and Nicobar Is-
lands;
• browsing and trampling by wildlife
(e.g. deer, which are numerous in the
Middle Andamans) and livestock
(goats, buffaloes and cows), which
are often left to graze freely, espe-
cially in areas close to human habi-
tation;
• infestation by barnacles which attach
to young seedlings, interfering with
respiration and photosynthesis and
delaying seedling growth (Hong,
1996);
• damage by oysters to the young
leaves and plumules of Rhizophora
and Ceriops plants;
• crabs, which attack young seedlings,
girdle the root collars and eat the
fleshy tissues of the propagules – a
serious problem in the Middle
Andamans, although not noticed in
Goa;
• gastropods that eat young leaves and
flowers of mangroves, a big prob-
lem in the Middle Andamans;
Unasylva 203, Vol. 51, 2000

• insect pests such as wood borers,
caterpillars (which eat the mangrove
foliage and damage the wood as
well) (Naskar and Mandal, 1999) and
beetles;
• weeds such as Acrostichum aureum
and Acanthus species, which often
occupy deforested mangrove areas
and restrict the regrowth of economic
mangrove tree species;
• drying and mortality of mangrove
trees (e.g. approximately 1 ha of
Bruguiera trees at Shoal Bay in the
South Andamans; 50 ha of Avicennia
trees at Tarmugli Island; big patches
of mangroves at Baludera in the
Middle Andaman Islands).
To reduce infestation by barnacles, tall
nursery-grown seedlings should be used
for planting, as the leading shoot of tall
seedlings remains above the water level.
More mature seedlings are also less vul-
nerable to attack by oysters, crabs and
gastropods.
Intensity of insect infestation is higher
under monocropping but can be control-
led by raising mixed plantations (Siddiqi
et al., 1992).
Problems caused by humans
The following are some of the human
activities that have resulted in damage to
mangroves in Goa and the Middle
Andaman Islands:
• indiscriminate tree felling and lop-
ping, mainly for fuelwood, fodder
and timber, especially in areas close
to human habitation;
• indiscriminate conversion of man-
groves on public lands for
aquaculture (e.g. for prawn culture
at Chorao, Goa) (editor’s note: see
the article by L. Hein on the effects
of shrimp culture on mangroves in
eastern India), agriculture, mining
(e.g. along the Mapusa estuary in
Goa), human habitation and indus-
trial purposes;
Unasylva 203, Vol. 51, 2000
45
• encroachment on publicly owned
mangrove forest lands, e.g. cultiva-
tion of paddy observed on govern-
ment land along estuaries in Goa,
which involved uprooting of natural
and planted seedlings;
• lack of interest of private landown-
ers (village communities and indi-
viduals) in conserving and develop-
ing the mangroves on their lands;
• illegal large-scale collection of man-
grove fruits (Xylocarpus granatum,
Xylocarpus moluecensis, Nypa
fruticans and Heritiera littoralis),
which hinders their natural regenera-
tion (collection is organized by local
agents in the Middle Andamans for
export to the mainland, where the
fruits are probably used in produc-
tion of medicine);
• discharge of industrial pollutants into
creeks, rivers and estuaries, which is
a major problem in some regions of
the world but is relatively less severe
in Goa and the Middle Andamans;
• the traditional use of dragnets in fish-
ing, which often hampers regenera-
tion of mangroves because young
seedlings get entangled in the nets
and are uprooted;
• movement of barges (used in Goa
for carrying iron ore) which give rise
to strong waves that sometimes dam-
age the young mangrove seedlings;
• obstruction and diversion of water
for culvert construction, e.g. at
Shyamkund in the Middle
Andamans, where it resulted in the
drying and death of about 0.5 ha of
mangroves (personal observation).
The government of Goa has already
banned felling of 15 species of man-
groves for a period of ten years under the
Goa, Daman and Diu Preservation of
Trees Act, 1984. This protection is de-
sirable for all mangrove species, but the
need for a total ban on mangrove felling
or lopping may be periodically reviewed.
For Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a
suitable enactment is necessary to stop
felling of mangroves in revenue and pri-
vate areas (Andaman and Nicobar Is-
lands Environment and Forest Depart-
ment, 1997).
Other measures that can help to reverse
some of these problems include vigilance
in the field, jetties and harbours during
the fruiting period to control the illegal
collection of mangrove fruits; strict im-
plementation of antipollution laws; a ban
on dragnet fishing in areas where there
are seedlings less than five years of age;
and the establishment of a speed limit for
barges in areas with young mangrove
seedlings.
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Many of the problems observed during
the field study in Goa and the Middle
Andamans, particularly those caused by
humans, can be traced to the following
root causes, which need to be addressed
if mangroves are to be sustainably con-
served:
• the poverty of the local inhabitants,
which forces them to depend on man-
groves for their fuelwood, timber and
fodder requirements even if collec-
tion is illegal;
• increasing population, resulting in
more pressure on mangroves;
• lack of education and awareness re-
garding the importance of man-
groves, and ignorance of rules and
regulations regarding conservation
of mangroves;
• improper planning of development
activities such as aquaculture, agri-
culture, construction for human
habitation, mining and industrial-
ization;
• short supply of fuelwood, timber and
fodder at affordable prices;
• absence of a systematic survey of the
area and the ownership of the land

under mangroves, facilitating en-
croachment on this land;
• difficulties of protection because of
the scattered geographic distribution
of mangroves;
• acute shortage of government staff
and other infrastructure.
Mangrove conservation and develop-
ment efforts undertaken by the Govern-
ment of India, the Government of Goa
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Administration have so far been success-
ful in reducing the degree of problems,
but there is scope for further improve-
ment.
Some suggested actions include the
following:
• people’s involvement in mangrove
management on public lands and
related benefits;
• programmes to raise people’s aware-
ness of the importance of mangroves,
e.g. through films, exhibitions,
newspapers, magazines, posters,
stickers, brochures, banners, semi-
nars, nature camps, birdwatching,
study tours in the mangrove forests,
establishment of mangrove parks in
the mangrove areas close to towns,
and the celebration of Mangrove
Conservation Day, with essay com-
petitions, debates and drawing com-
petitions;
• incentives for sustainable manage-
ment of mangroves on private and
village community land;
• enforcement of environmental pro-
tection laws;
• research on problems related to pests
and diseases and on appropriate
management of the mangrove eco-
system;
• restoration and rehabilitation of de-
graded mangrove areas.
Large-scale mangrove restoration and
rehabilitation programmes have been
taken up in Goa along the Mandovi,
Zuari, Chapora estuaries and the
46
Cumbarjua canal. However, in the Witzig & Company Pty Ltd, Mullumbimby,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands no large- NSW 2482, Australia.
scale mangrove restoration works have Naskar, K.R. & Mandal, R.N. 1999.
been taken up in the last three years. Ecology and biodiversity of Indian
Mangrove conservation and reforestation mangroves, 1: 3-348. Dehradun, India,
programmes along the central west coast Milton Book Company.
of India have resulted in increased pub- Saenger, P., Hegerl, E.J. & Davie, J.D.S.
lic awareness regarding the importance 1983. Global status of mangrove
of mangroves; control of intertidal ecosystems, Commission on Ecology Papers
mudbanks; opening of new avenues for No. 3. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN. 88 pp.
forestry and social forestry activities; Siddiqi, N.A., Khan, M.A.S., Islam, M.R.
increased biomass along the estuaries, & Hoque, A.K.F. 1992. Underplanting –
which has influenced biological produc- a means to ensure sustainable mangrove
tivity; and increased bird and other ani- plantations in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J.
mal life (Untawale, 1996). ◆ Forest Science, 21: 1-6.
Untawale, A.G. 1992. Rehabilitation of
coastal wetlands of India. In M. K. Wali,
ed. Ecosystem rehabilitation, ecosystem
analysis and synthesis, 2: 333-348. The
Hague, the Netherlands, Academic
Publishing.
Untawale, A.G. 1996. Restoration of
mangroves along the Central West Coast of
Bibliography India. In Restoration of mangrove
ecosystems, p. 111-112. Japan, ISME. ◆
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Environment and Forest Department.
1997. Management Plan for Conservation
of Mangrove in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, p. 1-6.
Chaudhuri, A.B. & Choudhury, A. 1994.
Mangroves of the Sundarbans. Vol. 1.
India. The IUCN Wetlands Programme.
Bangkok, Thailand, IUCN.
FAO. 1994. Mangrove forests management
guidelines, p. 46, 169-191.
Government of India. 1987. Mangroves in
India – Status report, p. 52-55. New Delhi,
Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Government of India. 1997. The State of
Forest Report. Forest Survey of India, p. 5-
6, 38. New Delhi, Ministry of Environment
and Forests.
Hong, P.N. 1996. Restoration of mangrove
ecosystems in Vietnam: a case study of Can
Gio District, Ho Chi Minh City, p. 82-95.
The International Society for Mangrove
Ecosystems. Produced for ISME by John
Unasylva 203, Vol. 51, 2000

Worldwide distribution of mangroves
Mangroves are found along many of the
coasts in the tropics and subtropics, but the
total area of mangroves in the world is not
well known. Recent estimates range from
16.5 million hectares (FAO, 1994, based on
figures from the early and mid-1980s) to
16.9 million hectares (IUCN, 1983), 18.1
million hectares (Spalding, Blasco and Field,
1997) and 19.9 million hectares (Fisher and
Spalding, 1993, cited in Spalding, Blasco
and Field, 1997). In many of these studies,
countries with small areas of mangroves
have been excluded.
A new study launched by FAO seeks to
provide updated, reliable and comprehen-
sive information on the worldwide distri-
bution of mangroves.
As part of the Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000), spearheaded
by FAO in collaboration with member coun-
tries, donors and other partners, all countries
have been asked to provide a breakdown of
their forest area into forest types, using their
own classification system. Since mangroves
are a distinct and relatively uniformly de-
fined forest type, specific information on man-
groves from most countries in which they exist
has been received as part of the FRA 2000
M. WILKIE
Unasylva 203, Vol. 51, 2000
47
country reporting. This information will be
analysed in a special study on the status of
mangrove forests worldwide as part of FRA
2000. Countries that have not provided in-
formation on their mangrove resources, but
that are known to have mangroves, will be
contacted again to ensure comprehensive cov-
erage.
In addition to providing information on
the current status of mangroves, the aim is
to compare these data with information from
previous assessments or other sources in
order to analyse recent trends in area losses
and gains (through planting efforts).
Readers are encouraged to provide inputs
to this study in terms of additional infor-
mation relating to current and/or past as-
sessments of mangrove areas, preferably on
a national scale, but also subnationally
where such information is available. Infor-
mation should be sent to Mette Løyche
Wilkie, Forest Resources Development Serv-
ice, FAO Forestry Department, Viale delle
Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy
(Mette.LoycheWilkie@fao.org).
A database and specific country informa-
tion will be placed on the FAO Web site as
soon as they are available. The database
Mangroves in Aurora
Province, the
Philippines
will be updated regularly. The long-term
plan is to develop this Web site further to
provide links to maps and other databases
dealing with different aspects of mangroves.
The aim is to concentrate on providing in-
formation on aspects not covered by other
organizations and to fill important gaps in
information falling under FAO’s mandate.
Bibliography
FAO. 1994. Mangrove forest management
guidelines. FAO Forestry Paper No. 117.
Rome. 319 pp.
Fisher, P. & Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected
areas with mangrove habitat. Cambridge,
UK, World Conservation Monitoring
Centre. (draft report)
IUCN.1983. Global status of mangrove
ecosystems. Commission on Ecology Papers
No. 3. P. Saenger, E.J. Hegerl and J.D.S
Davie, eds. Gland, Switzerland,
International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources.
Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D.,
eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas.
Okinawa, Japan, The International Society
for Mangrove Ecosystems. ◆