Atmospheric Motion

ENVI 1400: Lecture 3

Isobars at 4mb intervals

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 The PressureGradient Force
Horizontal pressure gradients are the
main driving force for winds.

Pressure gradient force = - 1 dP 1000 mb

 dx
where P is pressure,  is air density,
and x is distance. The force is thus 1004 mb
inversely proportional to the spacing
of isobars (closer spacing  stronger
force), and is directed perpendicular pressure
to them, from high pressure to low. force

The pressure force acts to accelerate

the air towards the low pressure.

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The Coriolis Force

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The coriolis force is an apparent
force, introduced to account for the Axis of spin
apparent deflection of a moving
object observed from within a rotating
frame of reference – such as the
Earth.

The coriolis force acts at right angles

V
to both the direction of motion and the
spin axis of the rotating reference
frame.

Coriolis Force

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 Coriolis Force on a Flat Disk
Fc V

1 2 3

4 5 6

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Earth is a sphere – more complex
than disk: horizontal and vertical
components to the coriolis force.
In the atmosphere, we are concerned
only with the horizontal component
of the coriolis force. It has a
magnitude (per unit mass) of:
2 V sin
 = angular velocity of the earth
V = wind speed
 = latitude
This is a maximum at the poles and
zero at the equator, and results in a
deflection to the right in the northern
hemisphere, and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.

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 Geostrophic Balance
A pressure gradient imposed on
a stationary air mass will start to The pressure force
accelerate it towards the region continues to accelerate the
of low pressure flow, and the coriolis force
continues to turn it FP

1000 mb
FP FP FP
Vg
1004 mb V
V
V
Fc
Fc Fc
Fc Eventually the flow becomes
The coriolis force acts to parallel to the isobars, and
turn the flow to the right (in the pressure and coriolis
the northern hemisphere) forces balance. This is
termed geostrophic balance,
and Vg the geostrophic wind
speed.

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Since the coriolis force balances N.B. air density  changes very
the pressure force we have: little at a fixed altitude, and is
usually assumed constant, but
Pressure gradient force = coriolis force decreases significantly with
1 dP = 2 Vg sin increasing altitude
 dx  pressure gradient force for a
given pressure gradient
Geostrophic wind speed is directly increases with altitude
proportional to the pressure  geostrophic wind speed
gradient, and inversely dependent increases with altitude.
on latitude.
 For a fixed pressure gradient,
the geostrophic wind speed
decreases towards the poles.

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 Geostrophic wind scale (knots)

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Geostrophic flow is a close Departures from geostrophic
approximation to observed winds balance arise due to:
throughout most of the free – constant changes in the
atmosphere, except near the pressure field
equator where the coriolis force – curvature in the isobars
approaches zero. – vertical wind shear

Significant departure from

geostrophic flow occurs near the
surface due to the effects of
friction.

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 Centripetal Acceleration
Motion around a curved path requires HIGH
an acceleration towards the centre of Fc
curvature: the centripetal
acceleration. V Centripetal
acceleration

LOW
FP
FP

For a low, the coriolis force is less

Centripetal V than the pressure force; for a high it is
acceleration
greater than pressure force. This
Fc results in:
LOW: V < geostrophic
The required centripetal acceleration (subgeostrophic)
is provided by an imbalance between
the pressure and coriolis forces. HIGH: V > geostrophic
(supergeostrophic)
V is here called the gradient wind

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 Effect of Friction
Geostrophic flow Friction at the surface slows the
away from surface wind. Turbulent mixing extends
effects of friction up to ~100 m to
~1.5 km above surface.
Lower wind speed results in a
smaller coriolis force, hence
reduced turning to right.
Wind vector describes a spiral:
the Ekman Spiral. Surface wind
lies to left of geostrophic wind
• 10-20 over ocean
Ekman Spiral • 25-35 over land
The wind speed a few metres
above the surface is ~70% of
geostrophic wind over the ocean,
even less over land (depending
Vg on surface conditions)
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 Surface winds cross
isobars at 10-35

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Global Circulation

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 For a non-rotating Earth,
convection could form simple
symmetric cells in each
hemisphere.

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Coriolis force turns the air Polar Cell

flow. Stable mean Ferrel Cell

circulation has 6 counter-

rotating cells – 3 in each
hemisphere.
Within each cell, coriolis
forces turn winds to east or
west. Exact boundaries
between cells varies with
season.

N.B. This is a simplified model,

circulations are not continuous in
space or time.

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 Summary
• Balance of pressure and
coriolis forces results in
geostrophic flow parallel to
isobars
• Curvature of isobars around
centres of high and low
pressure requires centripetal
acceleration to turn flow,
resulting gradient wind is:
– supergeostrophic around
HIGH
– subgeostrophic around
LOW
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• Friction reduces wind speed
near surface
• Lower wind speed  reduced
coriolis turning, wind vector
describes an Ekman Spiral
between surface and level of
geostrophic flow
• Surface wind lies 10-35 to left
of geostrophic wind, crossing
isobars from high to low
pressure.
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• Difference in solar heating
between tropics and poles
requires a compensating flow
of heat
• Coriolis turning interacts with
large scale convective
circulation to form 3 cells in
each hemisphere
• 6 cell model is an over-
simplification of reality, but
accounts for major features of
mean surface winds

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