YOGURT PRODUCTION FROM LACTIC ACID FROM

BACTERIA

NURFATIN AMIRAH BINTI IZHAB

(2012888124)

MOHD NAZMIE BIN MOHAMED MOKHTAR

(20128801260

HAZIRAH BINTI HAFIZ

(2012434468)

MUSALMAH BINTI ADANAN

(2012218062)

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
SHAH ALAM
JUNE 2013
1
 DECLARATION

“I hereby declare that this report is the result of my own work except for quotes and summaries
which have been duly acknowledged.”

----------------------------------------

NAME: NURFATIN AMIRAH BINTI IZHAB DATE: 10/6/2013

ID : 2012888124

----------------------------------------

NAME: MOHD NAZMIE BIN MOHAMED MOKHATR DATE: 10/6/2013

ID : 2012880126

----------------------------------------

NAME: MUSALMAH BINTI ADANAN DATE: 10/6/2013

ID : 2012218062

----------------------------------------

NAME: HAZIRAH BINTI HAFIZ DATE: 10/6/2013

ID : 2012434468

2
 SUPERVISOR’S CERTIFICATION

“I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this

project report is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award

of Bachelor in Chemical Engineering (Hons).”

Signature :______________________

Name : Nur Shahidah Binti Ab. Aziz

Date :______________________

3
 Accepted:

Signature : _______________

Date :________________

Head of programme

Dr. Jefri

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi MARA

Shah Alam

Signature :________________

Date :________________

Coordinator

Miss Nur Shahidah bt Abd Aziz

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi MARA

Shah Alam

4
Table of Contents

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................................. 6

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................ 6
LIST OF EQUATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 7
LIST OF ABBREVIATION ................................................................................................................................. 8
LIST OF SYMBOLS .......................................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL REVIEW ................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Process Involved ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.2.1 Process Flowchart ....................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Process and Reaction Description............................................................................................... 12
1.3 Thermodynamics Properties of Raw Materials and Products ........................................................ 15
1.4 Waste generation and Environmental Act ...................................................................................... 17
1.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER TWO: PROCESS FLOW AND DESCRIPTION .................................................................................. 19
2.1 Process Assumptions ...................................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Process Flow Diagram ..................................................................................................................... 21
2.3 Stream Tables.................................................................................................................................. 22
2.4 Equipments Tables and Description ............................................................................................... 23
2.4.1 Quantity, Quality Control and Storage ....................................................................................... 25
2.4.2 Materials and Energy Balance..................................................................................................... 26
2.4.3 Heat Exchanger ........................................................................................................................... 39
2.4.3.1 Heat Transfer Mode, Type flow and Calculations ....................................................................... 39
2.5 Bioprocess and Metabolic Regulations ........................................................................................... 53
2.5.1 Biomolecules Involved ................................................................................................................ 53
2.5.1.1 Lactose ........................................................................................................................................ 53
2.5.1.2 Glucose........................................................................................................................................ 54
2.5.1.3 Galactose..................................................................................................................................... 55
2.5.1.4 Lactase ........................................................................................................................................ 57
2.5.2 Biochemical Pathway .................................................................................................................. 57
CHAPTER THREE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................... 65
REFERENCE .................................................................................................................................................. 66

5
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Stream table for continuous process of yogurt, streams 1-20 ....................................................... 22
Table 2: Equipment table for volumetric flow meters ................................................................................ 23
Table 3: Equipment table for temporary storage tank................................................................................. 23
Table 4: Equipment table for fermenter ...................................................................................................... 23
Table 5: Equipment table for filter .............................................................................................................. 24
Table 6: Equipment table for centrifuger .................................................................................................... 24
Table 7: Equipments table for pump .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 8: Equipment table for mixers........................................................................................................... 24
Table 9: Equipment table for homogenizer ................................................................................................ 25
Table 10: Equipment table for heat exchangers ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 11: Equipment table for storage freezer ............................................................................................ 25
Table 12: Heat transfer properties at heat exchanger .................................................................................. 39

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 : Flowchart showing proposed process for yogurt production from lactic acid. .......................... 11
Figure 2: Hydrolysis of Sucrose (Averill & Eldredge, 2013) ..................................................................... 16
Figure 3: Lactic acid fermentation (Farabee, 2010) .................................................................................... 16
Figure 4: Filtration mass balance ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 5 Centrifuge Mass Balance ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 6 Centrifuge Energy Balance .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 7 Mixer M-101 mass balance ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8 Mixer M-102 mass balance ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 9 Homogenizer mass balance ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 10 Homogenizer mass balance ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11: Temperature distribution of a counter flow of heat exchanger ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 12 Pasteurizer mass balance ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 13 Pateurizer energy balance .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 14 Fermenter mass balance................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 15 Mass balance at storage tank ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 16: Chemical structure of lactose (Calvero, 2013) .......................................................................... 53
Figure 17: Chemical structure of glucose (Nave, 2012) ............................................................................. 54
Figure 18: Hemiacetal functional group in glucose (Monosaccharide-Structure of Glucose, 2001) .......... 55
Figure 19: Molecular structure of galactose (Ophardt, Galactose, 2003) ................................................... 56

6
Figure 20: Difference between galactose and glucose in structure (Ophardt, Galactose, 2003) ................ 56
Figure 21: Conversion of lactose to galactose and glucose (Taylor & Stahlberg, 2005) ............................ 57
Figure 22: Overview of glycolysis (Glycolysis, 2013) ............................................................................... 58
Figure 23: Phosphorylation of glucose (Helmenstine, 2013)...................................................................... 59
Figure 24: Conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate (Helmenstine, 2013) .................. 59
Figure 25: Phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate (Helmenstine, 2013) ................................................ 60
Figure 26: Cleavage of fructose-1,6-phosphate (Helmenstine, 2013) ........................................................ 60
Figure 27: Interconversion of glyceraldehaydes-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacteone phosphate ............... 61
Figure 28: Oxidation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate................................................................................. 61
Figure 29: Phosphoryl group transfer ......................................................................................................... 61
Figure 30: Interconversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate................................................. 62
Figure 31: Dehydration of phosphoenolpyruvate ....................................................................................... 62
Figure 32: Synthesis of pyruvate ................................................................................................................ 62
Figure 33: Galactose metabolism................................................................................................................ 63
Figure 34: Lactic acid fermentation ............................................................................................................ 64

LIST OF EQUATIONS

Equation 1: Chemical equation of glucose to pyruvate (Ophardt, Glycolysis Summary, 2003) ................ 16
Equation 2: Chemical equation of pyruvate to lactate (Robergs, 2001) ..................................................... 17
Equation 3: Overall reaction of glycolysis (Ophardt, Glycolysis Summary, 2003) ................................... 58

7
LIST OF ABBREVIATION

Abbreviation
LAB Lactic Acid Bacteria
Sp. Species
OHTC Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Re Reynolds
Nu Nusselt
NADH Reduce nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
DHAP Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
NAD Nicotonamide adenine dinucleotide

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbol
°C Degree Celcius
α Alpha
β Beta
µ Viscosity
Δ Changes
∑ Summation
Cp Specific Heat capacity at constant Pressure
ΔTlm Temperature log mean
h Enthalphy
Q Heat transfer
W Work
U Internal energy
v Specific volume
P Pressure
T Temperature

8
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL REVIEW

1.1 Introduction

Yogurt is known longer than we can imagine which is since 6000 B.C. Even the Mongol Empire
lead by Genghis Khan lived on yogurt. However, the first industrialized yogurt is in the year of
1919 in Barcelona by Isaac Carasso before the goodness concealed in yogurt being known
generally to public.

Nowadays, people have started to realize the important of yogurt in their everyday life. Yogurt
gives a lot of nutrition to our body and also helps the circulation process in our body to run well.
It is an alternative or another milk substitutes for those who are lactose intolerant. Due to this
growing awareness, their demand towards yoghurt production has automatically increases.

The suitable storage temperature for yoghurt is 7.2◦C and below. This is due to the presence of
living microorganism in the yogurt which is the lactic acid bacteria where the temperature is set
to inhibit them from undergo fermentation that might cause the yogurt become more acidic. The
lactic acid bacteria that usually used in the industries for yogurt production are Lactobacillus
bulgaricus, Lactobacillus delbruecki sp. and Streptococcus thermophillus each with optimum
temperature of 45◦C (Todar).

The composition of the yogurt is also different depending on the type of yogurt. For regular
yogurt, the fat and milk solid content are at least higher than 3.25% and 8.25% respectively
whereas for low-fat yogurt, the fat content is in between 0.5% and 2%. There is also non-fat
yogurt which composes of less than 0.5% of fat. Both of the low-fat and non-fat yogurt have the
same milk solids composition with the regular yogurt. (Milk Processing-Yoghurt Production,
2013). Particularly, solid content of milk up to 16% of total mass, 1-5% of fat and 11-14% of
solid non-fat (SNF) (Watson, 2013)

The pH of the yogurt usually maintained at pH 3 or pH 4 which occur during the fermentation
where the lactic acid bacteria lower the pH from 6.5-6.6 to the desired pH. The yogurt must be at
least at pH of 4.4 to be legally sold in the United States. (Choosing a Yogurt Starter Culture)

9
The processes that take place for yogurt production varies depending on the types of yogurt.
Yogurt actually comes in wide variety as the flavors, forms and textures are also varies.
However, generally, there are three types of yogurt which are low-fat, non-fat and regular yogurt
which each of them varies in their composition. Thus, the processes are slightly different to
ensure their composition is well fixed.

The process also depends on the style as it varies on how they are made. The three main style of
making are Balkan-style, Swiss style and Greek style yogurt. The Balkan-style or common
known as set-style yogurt usually used to produce plain yogurt. It has thick texture and suitable
usage for recipes. The Swiss style has slightly lighter texture with the adding of flavors and
fruits. It commonly use in the industry nowadays. The Greek style has a very thick textures and
is made by either evaporate water from the milk or straining whey from a plain yogurt to produce
creamier taste. It tends to hold up during heating, thus make it suitable for cooking too.

By considering all the major existing process, new process flow is suggested in this project for
the production of yogurt from lactic acid bacteria.

10
 1.2 Process Involved

1.2.1 Process Flowchart

Filtration

Centrifugation

Mixing
Powder
Skimmed milk Heat Treatment
Stabilizer
Homogenization

Pasteurization

Cooling

Fermentation

Cooling

Mixing
Stabilizers and
Flavoring
Cooling

Packaging and
Storage

Figure 1 : Flowchart showing proposed process for yogurt production from lactic
acid.

11
 1.2.2 Process and Reaction Description

Figure 1 is the flowchart that shows proposed process to apply in the production of yogurt after a
few existing processes were revised. Each of the process functions and how they will affect the
end-product are also considered in the process flow suggestion.

Basically, raw milk usually being filtered first to prevent any impurity in the milk that can cause
any harm to the yogurt production or the consumer. Some of the factory existed, preheated the
milk to kill any microorganism present in the milk to avoid any unneeded reaction. However,
despite heating it first, centrifugation is done first in the process flow suggested to minimize the
energy usage as before fermentation is done, a pasteurization process will be needed to
completely kill the other microorganism.

The centrifugation and homogenization process are the combo for the standardization and
modification of the milk. These steps are essential to produce a good quality end-product but
more importantly, the steps will provide the best condition for fermentation to occur later. The
other existing process included evaporation as one of the process to standardize the milk. The
reason is to increase the mass percentage of milk in the mixture or in other word, to remove the
water. Unfortunately, evaporater do consumed a lot of energy, thus in the suggested flow
process, evaporation process is replaced by adding powder skimmed milk to increase the mass
percentage.

Centrifugation process is usually used in the industries to separate fat from the milk in order to
lower the fat content in the product. The type of centrifuge used for milk usually disc-bowl
centrifuge. The revolutions per minute (rpm) of the centrifuge ranging in between 2000- 7000
rpm for fat to separated from the milk (HYFOMA). The centrifuged milk was then mixed with
powder skimmed milk and stabilizers to increase the mass percentage and maintain the mixture
from coagulate. The mixture undergo homogenization after their temperature is increased by heat
treatment ranging from 55-75◦C. The heat treatment is needed to favor the process of
homogenization to occur.

12
Homogenization process which is the last step before the milk is ready to ferment, is needed to
form better texture and releasing composition that will stimulate the starter culture. It is a process
where the fat globules are being broken down by forcing the milk to go through small opening
under high pressure. The pressure usually varies in between 100-200 atm for milk
homogenization in yogurt production. After the homogenization is done, sample of the milk is
taken to ensure that the composition is suitable for the next process.

Next is fermentation of the milk, but the readily milk must undergo pasteurization first to kill the
microorganism in it and only then the temperature is lowered to provide the best condition for
fermentation. The pasteurization is done under high temperature for a short time, only enough to
kill the microorganism. For some other existing process, they usually pasteurize first before the
homogenization to not only kill the bacteria but also to denature the whey protein. However, in
this process, the pasteurization is needed only to kill the microorganism.

After the pasteurization is done, the milk must be cool down to 42-46◦C and the same
temperature is maintained during the fermentation as it is the most optimum range of temperature
for the selected lactic acid bacteria. The lactic acid bacteria also plays significant role in the
yogurt production so that the fermentation will develop without bringing any harm to the product
as well as the consumer later. The duration of the fermentation is regularly 3-4 hours. By that
time, the pH of the milk initially at 5.0 to 6.6 will dropped to at least pH 4.0 by the presence of
lactic acid converted by the LAB. As the pH lowered down, the protein inside the milk will
denatured and stick together forming the better texture of yogurt. (Yoghurt Production, 2013)

To stop the activity of the live culture after the fermentation, the product which is the raw yogurt
will be cooled down to at least 5- 7◦C. This is crucial as further fermentation will give the yogurt
extra sour taste due to excessive accumulation of the lactic acid. If this occurs, the yogurt taste is
spoiled and might be off from marketed.

The raw yogurt is then, will be mixed together with stabilizers and flavor before the end product
is ready for packaging. The flavor and the fruits are needed to enhance the taste while the
stabilizers are added to maintain the firmness, jelly-like form and increasing the texture quality
of the yogurt. Common stabilizers are gelatin, pectin, agar and starch. (Watson, 2013) Here,
there are two types of way where the flavors and fruits can be added. First by using the set-style

13
by adding the fruit at the bottom of the cup and the inoculated yogurt are poured later during the
packaging or using the Swiss-style or stirred-style to blended the fruit together with the cooled
yogurt prior to packaging. (Milk Processing-Yoghurt Production, 2013) Swiss style is found to
be more suited for industries so that the yogurt is well mixed together with the stabilizers.

For the packaging, there are high possibilities for contamination to happen without proper
prevention. The usual type of contamination to happen is cross contamination but it is
preventable. Some of the methods of prevention are such as keeping the plant design and
production flow minimize from any likelihood of cross-contamination (ex: employees working
in raw processing area should not access RTE area), clean filtered air, cleaning and sanitation of
equipments regularly, separate the storage of raw materials and product and others. (Cross
Contamination, 2003)

14
 1.3 Thermodynamics Properties of Raw Materials and Products

In the production of yoghurt from bacteria, bacteria used in this production of yoghurt are
Lactobacillus Bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophillus. These bacteria undergo two
biochemical processes which are hydrolysis and fermentation in order to produce lactic acid.

The first reaction occurs when sucrose is converted to glucose and fructose. This process is
known as hydrolysis process which is catalyzed by enzyme sucrase provided by the bacteria
(H.Garret & Grisham, 2010). The temperature of the culture tank is between 70°C to 80°C as it
is the optimum temperature for the enzyme to react (Heinen, 1970). The optimum pressure of
the tank is 1 atm. The sucrose and the enzyme appear as liquid in this tank. Sucrose’s heat
capacity is calculated using Kopp’s rule, a simple empirical method for estimating the heat
capacities.

(Cp)C12H22O11 = 12(Cpa)C + 22(Cpa)H + 11(Cpa)O

= 12(12) + 22(18) + 11(25)
= 815 J/mol °C = 0.815 kJ/mol °C
Sucrose has a density of 1.59g/cm3 (Density of Sucrose, 2013). The melting point of sucrose is
367°F. Sucrose does not have a boiling point as I break down to form caramel before boils
(Boiling Point of Sucrose, 2013).

The culture tank is an open system tank where there are changes of heat and matter that occurs.
This is a steady state flow system. The heat is absorbed in this reaction in order to break the
bond of sucrose to produce glucose and fructose. Thus, q > 0 as heat energy is needed in the
bond breaking.

15
Figure 2: Hydrolysis of Sucrose (Averill & Eldredge, 2013)

The second process is lactic acid fermentation. Glucose is converted to lactate in this process.
The product of this reaction is lactic acid and NAD.

Figure 3: Lactic acid fermentation (Farabee, 2010)

There are two main phases in lactic acid fermentation which are the conversion of glucose to
pyruvate and the conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid.

C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P -----> 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O) COOH + 2 ATP

+ 2NADH + 2 H+

Equation 1: Chemical equation of glucose to pyruvate (Ophardt, Glycolysis Summary, 2003)

Pyruvic acid + NADH + H+ lactic acid + NAD+ lactate-Na+ + NAD+ + H+

16
Equation 2: Chemical equation of pyruvate to lactate (Robergs, 2001)

The fermentation tank’s temperature is kept between 42-46°C as these range of temperature are
optimum for the bacteria used. The pressure of the tank is kept constant at 1 atm. This glucose
is in liquid phase.

In a fermentation tank milk is ferment with the bacteria as one of the procedure to produce
yoghurt. The milk which enters the fermentation tank has a specific heat capacity of 3.22 kJ kg-1
°C-1. The boiling point of the milk is around 100°C as milk is mostly water (Tamara, 2007). For
the melting point of the milk, it is above -0.250°C (Tamara, Freezing Point of Milk, 2007).
Skimmed milk is said to have the density of 1.026 kg/L at 38.9°C. The density changes as the
lighter the milk fat rises to the surface (Elert, 2002).

Glucose has a density of 1.54g/cm3 (Glucose, 2013). The heat specific heat capacity is 155J/K
(Schroeder, V, & Wesley, 2000). The usual boiling point of glucose is around 150°C and the
melting point is 146°C (Boiling Point of Glucose, 2013). Impurities lower the glucose’s melting
point (Melting Point of Glucose, 2013).

This reaction is a steady state flow and an open system reaction as there is a change in form of
heat and matter. As NAD is also the product in lactic acid fermentation, the reaction is an
exothermic process. Energy is released in this reaction in form of heat, q < 0.

1.4 Waste generation and Environmental Act

In this yogurt production, waste product is being disposed from the system during the
filtration process. The idea of this process is to increase the creaminess of the frozen yogurt, the
amount of protein and calcium in the product and to decrease the amount of lactose. To achieve
this, a volume reduction factor of 4.55 is needed (Premaratne and Cousin, 1991; pg. B-2). To do
so, only 78% of the incoming skim milk is filtered and only 22% of the skim milk becomes UF
milk. The cold filtrate can be used to cool the compressed ammonia, grow the bulk culture and
even sold as pig feed (Knight,2008). The working fluid used in this production is water. The

17
water is reused for the same purpose as water is renewable. Also, water is easily found and
cheap. This can reduce the cost of the production.

There are three major safety hazards associated with frozen yogurt manufacturing;
microbiological, chemical and physical. The greatest hazard is microbiological, which may affect
the human health. If the design parameters are not strictly controlled, potential risks may occur
throughout the process from milk receiving to storage and transportation. Chemical hazards are a
concern as we are dealing with large quantities of toxic, highly corrosive compound onsite.
Physical hazard can result in human injury, or worse, fatality. This hazard inflicts direct impact
on the personnel working at the facility during the operational phase.

1.5 Conclusion
Yogurt production varies in the process of making as well as the textures of the end-product.
Process flow, the equipments and the culture and raw materials must be chosen depending on the
need for the type of the yogurt end-product.

Process flow must be suitable so that the raw materials don’t lose its texture, viscosity and the
nutrient itself. This is because some of the existing process can affect the materials and chemical
composition. The way of handling the equipments involved in the process especially at crucial
tank such as fermenter can make a big loss if there is no turning back or restoration if there are
any mistakes happen. For example, the pH exceeded the desired pH due to lactic acid production
form way too many. Besides that, the types of culture, as well as the raw materials also need to
be chosen precisely for the reaction to happen accordingly.

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CHAPTER TWO: PROCESS FLOW AND DESCRIPTION

2.1 Process Assumptions

The process to make yogurt is described in this section. A block flow diagram of the process can
be found in section 2.2, Figure 2 and the process flow diagram can be found in section 2.3,
Figure 3. The stream tables are given by Table 1. The equipment tables are located in section 2.5.
Later in the same section, detailed mass and energy balance as well as the calculations for this
process can be found.

From the process, a few assumptions are needed to simplify the calculation and estimation of the
product mass and energy balance as well as the heat transfer calculation. The assumptions are:

1. The yogurt production process is steady-flow at each component.

2. During the heat exchange at each tank and stream, the heat loss to surrounding is
considered negligible.
3. All the process systems are assumed to open-system.
4. The kinetic and potential energy, KE and PE are assumed negligible.
5. To avoid any corrosion, or other impurities from contaminate during the process, all the
equipments is assumed are made of stainless steel materials.
6. The water and steam stream is assumed not to leak.
7. The basis for the whole production is assumed 3000 kg of raw milk is being processed
per day.
8. The pressure at each tank except the homogenizer is assumed to be at 1 atm.

There are also specific assumptions at selected stream and equipments which based on process
flow diagram in section 2.2.

19
Stream Assumptions
5 1. The flow of liquid is steady-flow
2. The filter completely filtered impurities
7 1. Steady-flow process
2. Whey protein and undesired fat composition are completely
removed after centrifugation.
3. The pressure is assumed 1 atm
10 1. The homogenizer is assumed single-phase homogenizer.
2. Steady-flow process
3. The mass is conserved in homogenizer.
14 1. The fermenter is assumed as open system.
2. The energy is conserved in the fermenter due to constant
temperature.
3. The composition is assumed conserved even though the
textures become more jelly-like.
4. Steady-state during the fermentation process
15-19 1. Steady-flow process.
2. The properties of milk and yogurt entering the heat
exchanger are considered the same as water.
3. Heat loss to surrounding is considered negligible.

Equipments Assumption
FL-101 1. Steady-flow process
2. Impurities are completely removed.
CF-101 1. Steady-flow process
2. Heat loss to surrounding is negligible
3. Undesired composition is assumed removed.
HG-101 1. Steady-flow process
2. Mass is assumed conserved
3. No heat loss to surrounding where it’s negligible.
F-101 1. Steady-flow process
2. Assumed as open system.
3. Energy is assumed conserved.
4. Mass is assumed conserved.
E-101 1. Steady flow process
E-102 2. Milk and yogurt properties are assumed have the same
E-103 properties with water.
E-104 3. Mass is conserved, no composition change.
4. Average constant thermal properties (thermal conductivity
and specific heat) and convective heat transfer coefficient
along the heat exchanger.
5. Negligible internal heat generation and negligible free
convection
6. Average temperature is taken for measurement.

20
 2.2 Process Flow Diagram

Figure 4: Process flow diagram

Streams number
21
FM-101 Volumetric Flow meter
ST-101 Temporary storage tank
ST-102
FL-101 Filter
CF-101 Centrifuge
E-101 Heat Exchanger
E-102
E-103
E-104
HG-101 Homogenizer
M-101 Mixer
M-102
CT-101 Culture Tank
F-101 Fermenter
P-101 Pump

2.3 Stream Tables

Table 1: Stream table for continuous process of yogurt, streams 1-21

Stream 1 2 3 4 5
Temperature (◦C) 4 4 4 27 4
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1 1 1
Mass flow (kg/day) 3000 3000 3000 3 2997
Component Raw milk Raw milk Raw milk Impurities Milk
Stream 6 7 8 9 10-12
Temperature (◦C) 50 65 92 45 40
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1 1 1
Mass flow (kg/day) 66.07 2930.93 265.63 3196.56 3196.56
Component Undesired Milk Proline Concentrated Concentrated
Composition skimmed Milk milk
milk (HE stream)
Stream 13 14 15 16 17
Temperature (◦C) 45 30 30 5 32.5
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1 1 1
Mass flow (kg/day) 105.87 3302.43 3302.43 3422.5 3422.5
Component Culture inoculated Raw Raw Yogurt Cooling and
with NFDM Yogurt Yogurt storage
(HE stream)

Stream 18-20 21 22&23

Temperature (◦C) 35.2 27 65
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1
Mass flow (kg/day) 122 120.07 121.7749
Component Working fluid Proline Working
Aspartame fluid

22
 2.4 Equipments Tables and Description

Table 2: Equipment table for volumetric flow meters

Volumetric flow meter FM-101

MOC* SS
Type Magnetic Inductive
Component Milk
Inlet Temperature (◦C) 4
Inlet Pressure (atm) 1
Mass flow (kg/day) 3000

Table 3: Equipment table for temporary storage tank

Storage tank ST-101 ST-102

MOC* SS SS
Type Cone roof Cone roof
Component Raw milk Raw milk
Inlet Temperature (◦C) 4 4
Inlet Pressure (atm) 1 1
Mass capacity (kg/day) 3000 3000

Table 4: Equipment table for fermenter

Fermenter F-101
MOC* SS
Type Plug flow
Component Milk mixture and Bulk Culture
Temperature (◦C) 45
Pressure (atm) 1
Volume (m3) 4
Mass capacity (kg/day) 3500
Component Raw milk

23
Table 5: Equipment table for filter

Filter FL-101
MOC* SS
Type Nylon-filter
Component Raw milk
Inlet Temperature (◦C) 4
Inlet Pressure (atm) 1
Outlet Pressure (atm) 1
Mass flow in (kg/day) 3000
Mass flow out (kg/day) 2997
Filtrate flux (kg/day) 3
Area (m2) 27.63

Table 6: Equipment table for centrifuge

Centrifuger CF-101
MOC* SS
Type Disc bowl centrufger
Mass capacity (kg/day) 3000
Component Raw milk
Temperature (◦C) 50
Pressure (atm) 1
Revolution per minute (rpm) 7000

Table 7: Equipment table for mixers

Mixers M-101 M-102

MOC* SS SS
Type Closed vessel with Closed vessel with agitator
agitator
Component Raw milk Raw yogurt
Powder skimmed Stabilizer (Proline)
milk Aspartame
Stabilizer (Proline)
Inlet Temperature (◦C) 50 30
Inlet Pressure (atm) 1 1
Mass capacity (kg/day) 3500 3500
Mixing time (hr) 0.5 0.5
Volume (ft3) 2 2

24
Table 8: Equipment table for homogenizer

Homogenizer FM-101
MOC* SS
Type Single stage
Component Mixture of milk
Temperature in (◦C) 50
Temperature out (◦C) 65
Inlet pressure (atm) 1
Pressure (atm) 178

Table 9: Equipment table for storage freezer

Storage freezer SF-101

MOC* SS
Component Yogurt
Inlet temperature (◦C) 64
Outlet temperature (◦C) 37
Pressure (atm) 1
Mass flow (kmol/hr) 121.77
Heat duty (kW) 4.56

2.4.1 Quantity, Quality Control and Storage

When the raw milk arrives at the plant, the quantity of milk delivered is determined by sending
the milk through volumetric flow meter, FM-101, on its way to temporary storage tank. The
mass of the milk delivered is determined from the density of the milk through the volumetric
flow meter reading. Before any other, filtration was done to remove impurities which in this
case, we use nylon-filtered tank. Only then, the milk is sent for the real production of yogurt
processes. The temporary storage tanks are needed as not all of the raw milk will be used once
they arrived at the plant.

25
 2.4.2 Materials and Energy Balance

In yogurt production, there are five main stages not including heat treatment. They are filtration,
centrifugation, mixing, homogenization and fermentation. In the production, 3000kg/day of raw
milk processes is used as basis.

Filtration is to remove all the impurities such as dust and hair to avoid contamination to final
product. It is assumed that the composition of impurities in raw milk is 0.1% and during
filtration, all of them are removed.

FL-101

M2 = ________ kg/day
Ximpurities = 1

M3 = _________kg/day
M1 = 3000 kg/day
Xmilk = 1
Xmilk = 0.999 Ximpurities = 0
Ximpurities = 0.001
FILTER

M1 = M2 + M3 (kg/day)
3000 = M2 + M3 (kg/day)

Milk mass fraction:

(0.999)(3000) = (0)M2 + (1)M3 (kg/day)

M3 = 2997 (kg/day)

Impurities mass fraction:

(0.001)(3000)= (1)M2 + (0)M3 (kg/day)

M2 = 3 (kg/day

26
After the filtration, the milk is sent to centrifuge to remove undesired fat content and whey
protein. Below is the table of raw cow milk composition.

Composition of milk %
Water 86.5
Lactose 4.8
Fat 4.5
Whey protein 0.9
Protein 2.6
Other 0.7
Table 10: Raw milk composition

The desired milk composition in this production that we want to achieve is 0% whey protein and
0.0325% of fat from total mass fraction of the milk. In below block diagram, lactose, protein and
other are assumed to be solid composition. At the filtrate out stream, by using ratio, mass
fraction of filtrate removed is composed of 0.58 of fat and 0.42 of whey protein.

CF-101

M4 = ________ kg/day
Xfat_2 = 0.58
Xwhey_2 = 0.42
M5 = _________ kg/day
M3 = 2997 kg/day Xwater_5 = (x)
XSolid_3 = 0.081 Xsolid_5 = (1-0.0325-x)
Xwhey_3 = 0.009 Xfat_5 = 0.0325
XWater_3 = 0.865 Xwhey_5 = 0
Xfat_3 = 0.045

CENTRIFUGER

M3 = M4 + M5 (kg/day)
2997 = M4 + M5 (kg/day)

27
Water mass fraction:

(0.865)(2997) = (0)M4 + (x)M5 (kg/day)

(x)M5 = 2592.41 (kg/day)

Solid mass fraction:

(0.081)(2997) = (0)M4 + (0.9675-x)M5 (kg/day)

(0.9675-x)M5 = 242.76 (kg/day)

By comparing equation from water and solid mass fraction balance:

x= 0.8845
Thus,
mass fraction of water = 0.8845
mass fraction of solid = 0.083

M5 = 2930.93 (kg/day)
M4 = 66.07 (kg/day)

After the whey and undesired fat remove, the milk solid content need to be increase at least to
16% of total mass of the milk. Thus, considering fat is also included in the solid composition, the
total solid mass composition entering the mixer is 11.35%. Therefore, at least another 4.65% of
solid mass of milk is needed to produce optimum solid composition. There are two ways which
are evaporating the water or adding skimmed powder milk. In this case, we use skimmed powder
milk. To do so, proline is also added as the stabilizers. For the first stage mixing, only 0.5% mass
fraction from total mass of milk of proline is needed to stabilize the milk. The proline will also
be considered to be included in solid composition. We assumed that the outlet will atleast
compose of 4.15% of skimmed milk powder and 0.005% of proline from total mass mixed milk.
Total mass fraction of proline and skimmed milk powder is also calculated by ratio of mass
composition needed to increase the total solid mass in milk.

28
M-101

M6 =___________ kg/day
Xproline = 0.11
Xs.milk = 0.89
M7 = __________kg/day
Xwater = x
Xs.milk = 0.0415
M5 = 2930.93 kg/day Xproline = 0.005
Xwater = 0.8845 Xsolid = (1-x-0.0415-
Xsolid = 0.1155 0.005)

MIXER

M5 + M6 = M7 (kg/day)
2930.93 + M6 = M7 (kg/day)

Mass fraction of water:

(0.8845)(2930.93) + (0)M6 = (x)M7 (kg/day)
xM7 = 2592.41 (kg/day)

Mass fraction of solid:

(0.1155)(2930.93) + (0)M6 = (0.9535-x)M7 (kg/day)

(0.9535-x) M7 = 454.29 (kg/day)

Comparing both equations:

x = 0.811
Thus,
Mass fraction of water = 0.811
Mass fraction of solid = 0.143

M7 = 3196.56 (kg/day)
M6 = 265.63 (kg/day)

29
Later on, the outlet of the first mixture is sent to homogenizer. However, in this report, the mass
fraction in homogenizer is assumed to be the same because homogenizer is needed only to break
the large globules into smaller globules to increase the viscosity of the milk.

After the homogenization, not including the pasteurization and cooling stage, the same milk
composition is sent to fermenter. At the fermenter, there are a few assumptions which are:

1. The system is assumed to be open system even though it is a semi-batch tank.

2. It is at steady-state.
3. The energy is conserved.
4. The mass is conserved even though the textures are different from the milk. (more jelly-
like structure produced)
5. Bacteria culture is assumed to be inoculated with NFDM (Non-fat Dry Milk) and the total
mass composition in the end of fermentation is 3% of total mass.
6. Assuming the reaction of lactose to lactic acid is conserved and it mass fractions at the
outlet is proportional to its reaction.

By taking in measure of all the assumptions, earlier, among the solid composition of milk,
lactose is also present in the milk about 4.8%. While at the inlet stream of the fermenter now, not
including the 4.8% of lactose composition, the other solid composition total is 14.1%. At the end
of the fermentation process, 95% of the lactose will be converted into lactic acid.

F-101
M8 = ________ kg/day
XBacteia (with NFDM) = 1

M9 = _________ kg/day
M7 = 3196.56 kg/day Xwater = x
Xwater = 0.811 XL.acid = 0.0456
Xlactose = 0.048 Xlactose = 0.0024
Xother = 0.141 XBacteria(with NFDM) = 0.03
Xother = (1-x-0.0456-0.0024-0.03)

FERMENTER

30
M7 + M8 = M9 (kg/day)
3196.56 + M8 = M9 (kg/day)

Mass fraction of water:

(0.811)(3196.56) + (0)M8 = (x)M9 (kg/day)

xM9 = 2592.41 (kg/day)

Mass fraction of others composition:

(0.141)(3196.56) + (0)M8 = (0.922-x)M9 (kg/day)

(0.922-x)M9 = 450.71 (kg/day)

By comparing the equations:

x= 0.785
Thus,
Mass fraction of water = 0.785
Mass fraction of others = 0.137

M9 = 3302.43 (kg/day)
M8 = 105.87 (kg/day)

After cooling, the outlet from the fermenter stream will be sent to mixer again for addition of
stabilizers and sweeteners. In the second mixing, again, proline is used as stabilizer and the
sweetener is aspartame. The mass fraction of both of the stabilizer and sweetener is assumed to
be 5% of the total end product mass and assumed to be 2.5% each. At the first mixture, proline of
total mass 0.5% had already present, thus, by simple calculations, the mass fraction of proline
needed is calculated. The bacteria inoculated with NFDM is considered to be solid mass
composition at the mixer.

31
M-102

M10 = _________ kg/day

Xproline = 0.44
Xaspartame = 0.56 M11 = _______ kg/day
M9 = 3302.43 kg/day Xwater_11 = (x)
Xwater = 0.785 XL.acid_11 = (x2)
XL.acid = 0.0456 Xproline_11 = 0.025
Xsolid = 0.1644 Xaspartame_11 = 0.025
Xproline = 0.005 Xsolid_11 = (0.95-x-x2)

MIXER

M9 + M10 = M11 (kg/day)

3302.43 + M10 = M11 (kg/day)

Mass fraction of water:

(0.785)(3302.43) + (0)M10 = (x)M11 (kg/day)

xM11 = 2592.41 (kg/day)

Mass fraction of lactic acid:

(0.0456)(3302.43) + (0)M10 = (x2)M11 (kg/day)

x2M11 = 150.59 (kg/day)

Mass fraction of solid:

(0.1644)(3302.43) + (0)M10 = (0.95-x-x2)M11 (kg/day)

(0.95-x-x2)M11 = 542.92 (kg/day)

32
Comparing the three equations:

x2 = 0.044
M11 = 3422.5 kg/day

x = 0.757

Thus,
mass fraction of water = 0.757
mass fraction of solid = 0.149
mass fraction of lactic acid = 0.044
M10 = 120.07

33
 Energy balance

Sample calculation
M4 = 66.07 kg/day
Xfat_2 = 0.58
Xwhey_2 = 0.42
(l, 50˚C, 1 atm)

M5 = 2930.93 kg/day
M3 = 2997 kg/day Xwater_5 = 0.8845
XSolid_3 = 0.081 Xsolid_5 = 0.083
Xwhey_3 = 0.009 Xfat_5 = 0.0325
XWater_3 = 0.865 Xwhey_5 = 0
Xfat_3 = 0.045 (l, 50˚C, 1 atm)
(l, 4˚C, 1 atm)

CENTRIFUGER

 Inlet stream
 Solid
Mass solid = 0.081 x 2997
= 242.76 kg/day
Converting unit kg/day to kmol/day, since 59% of solid content is lactose, so we
assumed mw solid = mw lactose = 342.3 kg/kmol
Mass solid = 242.76 kg/day ÷ 342.3 kg/kmol
= 0.709 kmol/day
 Whey
Mass whey = 0.009 x 2997
= 26.97 kg/day
Converting unit kg/day to kmol/day, since 58% of whey content is b-
lactoglobulin, we assumed mw whey = mw b-lactoglobulin = 18300 kg/kmol
Mass whey = 26.97 kg/day ÷ 18300 kg/kmol
= 0.001 kmol/day

34
  Water
Mass water = 0.865 x 2997
= 2592.41 kg/day
Converting kg/day to kmol/day, since mw water = 18.016 kg/kmol
Mass water = 2592.41 kg/day ÷ 18.016 kg/kmol
= 143.89 kmol/day
 Fat
Mass fat = 0.045 x 2997
= 134.87 kg/day
Converting kg/day to kmol/day, since mw fat = 891.49 kg/kmol
Mass fat = 134.87 kg/day ÷ 891.49 kg/kmol
= 0.15 kmol/day
 Oulet stream 1
 Fat
Mass fat = 0.58 x 66.07
= 38.32 kg/day
Converting kg/day to kmol/day, since mw fat = 891.49 kg/kmol
Mass fat = 38.32 kg/day ÷ 891.49 kg/kmol
= 0.04 kmol/day
 Whey
Mass whey = 27.275 kg/day
Converting kg/day to kmol/day. Since 58% of whey content is b-lactoglobulin, we
assumed mw whey = mw b-lactoglobulin = 18300 kg/kmol
Mass whey = 27.275 kg/day ÷ 18300 kg/kmol
= 0.002 kmol/day
 Oulet stream 2
 Solid
Mass solid = 0.083 x 2930.93
= 243.27 kg/day
Converting unit kg/day to kmol/day, since 59% of solid content is lactose, so we
assumed mw solid = mw lactose = 342.3 kg/kmol

35
 Mass solid = 243.27 kg/day ÷ 342.3 kg/kmol
= 0.71 kmol/day
 Water
Mass water = 0.8845 x 2930.93
= 2592.41 kg/day
Converting kg/day to kmol/day, since mw water = 18.016 kg/kmol
Mass water = 2592.41 kg/day ÷ 18.016 kg/kmol
= 143.89 kmol/day
 Fat
Mass fat = 0.0325 x 2930.93
= 95.26 kg/day
Converting kg/day to kmol/day, since mw fat = 891.49 kg/kmol
Mass fat = 95.26 kg/day ÷ 891.49 kg/kmol
= 0.107 kmol/day

Refererence;

Solid, whey, water, fat (l, 4˚C, 1 atm)

Substance nin(kmol/day) Hin(kJ/kmol) nout(kmol/day) Hout(kJ/kmol)

Solid 0.709 0 0.700 ΔH1
Water 143.890 0 143.890 ΔH2
Fat 0.150 0 0.107 ΔH3
0.043 ΔH4
Whey 0.001 0 0.001 ΔH5

 Solid
Since 59% of solid content is lactose, so we assumed that properties of solid = properties
of lactose, which formula for lactose is C12H22O11
Cp solid = cp lactose = 12(12) + 22(18) + 11(25)
= 815 kJ/kg ˚C

36
 Since unit needed is kJ/kmol ˚C, so that value must be times with mw. Mw lactose =
342.3 kg/kmol
Cp solid = 815 kJ/kg ˚C x 342.3 kg/kmol
= 278974.5 kJ/kmol ˚C
50
ΔH1 = ∫4 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡
= 13948725 – 1115898
= 12832827 kJ/kmol
 Water
Cp water = 75.4 kJ/kmol ˚C
50
ΔH2 = ∫4 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡
= 3770 – 301.6
= 3468.4 kJ/kmol
 Fat
Cp fat = 2.177 kJ/kg K
Since the unit needed is kJ/kmol ˚C, that value must be times with mw fat(891.49
kg/kmol) and unit conversion of temperature(274.15 K = 1 ˚C)
Cp = 2.1777 kJ/kg K x 274.15 K/˚C x 891.49 kg/kmol
= 532059.06 kJ/kmol ˚C
50
ΔH3 = ∫4 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡
= 26602953 – 2128236.24
= 24474716.76 kJ/kmol
Therefore ΔH3 = ΔH4
 Whey
Cp whey = 0.06 kJ/kmol K
Since unit needed is kJ/kmol ˚C, the value must be times with unit conversion of
temperature( 274.15 K = 1 ˚C)
Cp = 0.06 kJ/kmol K x 274.15 K/˚C
= 16.45 kJ/kmol ˚C
50
ΔH5 = ∫4 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡
= 822.5 – 65.8
= 756.7 kJ/kmol

37
ΔH = ∑noutHout - ∑ninHin
= [(0.700 x 12832827) + (143.890 x 3468.4) + (0.107 x 24474716.76) + (0.043 x
24474716.76) + (0.001 x 756.7)] - 0
= 5.07 x 106 kJ/day

Since unit needed is kJ/s, the value must be time with unit conversion of time( 1 day/
86400 s)
ΔH = 5.07 x 106 kJ/day ÷ 86400 s/day
= 58.68 kJ/s → 58.68 kw
Therefore
Q + Ws = ΔH + ΔEk + Δ Ep, Since Ws, ΔEk and ΔEp = 0
Q = ΔH
= 58.68 kw

38
 2.4.3 Heat Exchanger

2.4.3.1 Heat Transfer Mode, Type flow and

Calculations

Table 11: Heat transfer properties at heat exchanger

Heat Exchanger Re Nu OHTC Rf ∆Tlm

E-101 1913.76 35 2.02 0.00088 9.28
E-102 695.29 30.7 1.798 0.00053 17.24
E-103 191 53.27 0.0645 0.00053 11.2
E-104 331.4 28.78 21.2 0.00053 8.03

E-101

Assumptions:

1. Average constant thermal properties (thermal conductivity and specific heat) and
convective heat transfer coefficient along the heat exchanger.
2. Negligible internal heat generation and negligible free convection.

Tmilk, in = 75.7 °C Tmilk, out = 92°C

Plate

Twater, out = 65°C Heat Twater, in = 100°C

Exchanger

The mode of heat transfer in this tank is convection. Convection refers to heat transfer
that occurs between a surface and a moving fluid as a temperature gradient exists. The faster the
motion of the fluids, more amount of heat transfer that occurs. There are two types of
convection, internal forced convection and external forced convection. (Frank P. Incropera)

The heat exchanger that is most commonly used in dairy production is:

1. Plate heat exchanger.

2. Tubular heat exchanger.

The heat exchanger that we chose is the plate heat exchanger. This is because the plate
exchanger is more widely used in most existing process. Also, advantages of this type of heat

39
exchanger is it offers a large transfer surface that is readily accessible for cleaning (R. L
EARLE), superior heat exchanger performance, lower temperature gradient, higher turbulence
and compactness over tubular heat exchanger( (Bipan Bansal). Plate heat exchanger is very
popular for low viscosity fluid; in this case, the fluid is milk. The plate heat exchanger consists
of a stack of corrugated stainless steel plates clamped together in a frame. Heating and cooling
fluid flow through alternate tortuous passages between vertical plates.

The flow of the fluid is counter current. A counter current heat exchanger is more
efficient as it takes a smaller heat transfer to the surface area (As) to achieve the same heat
transfer rate (q) as a parallel flow heat exchanger (APPLIED PHYSICS). A counter flow heat
exchanger supplies hotter portion of the two fluids at one end, and cold portion at the other end.
The temperature distribution for a counter flow heat exchanger is as shown below.

Figure E7.1 Temperature distribution of a counter flow heat exchanger.

Reynolds number.

To calculate the Reynolds number, the formula used is;

𝜌𝑈𝑚𝑥
𝑅𝑒 =
µ

Where 𝜌 is the density of heating agent, Um is the mean velocity, x is the length and µ is the
dynamic viscosity of heating agent. The heating agent used is water. The value of density of
water is known to be 1000kg/m3. The value of Um is then calculated by the formula;

ṁ
𝑈𝑚 =
𝜌𝐴

Um is the mean velocity, ṁ is the mass flow rate, 𝜌 is the density of cooling water and A is the
cross sectional area. The area, Ac, is calculated by the formula;

40
 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Ac = 0.04 m2 (Funke)

By knowing this, we can calculate the value of mean velocity, Um

0.03599
𝑈𝑚 =
957.9(0.04)

𝑈𝑚 = 9.39 𝑥 10^ − 4

Inserting the values into the Reynolds formula,

957.9𝑘𝑔
(
𝑚3 ) 9.39 𝑥 10^ − 4(0.6)
𝑅𝑒 =
0.282 𝑥 10 − 3
𝑅𝑒 = 1913.76

The flow is laminar as it is less than 2300.

Nusselt number

Nu = 0.664 Rex1/2Pr1/3

By inserting the value;

Nu = 0.664 (1913.76)1/2(1.75)1/3

Nu = 35

Tlm

The formula used to calculate Tlm is;

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

41
However, the outlet temperature of the heating agent is still unknown. This temperature can be
obtained by calculating the qc of the milk. Since the qh and qc is the same, therefore, the outlet
temperature of water can be calculated. By using the formula;

𝑞𝑐 = ṁ𝐶𝑝𝑐 (𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐, 𝑖)

Where ṁ is the mass flow rate, Cp is the specific heat capacity of the water, Th,i is the
temperature inlet of cold fluid and Th.o is the temperature outlet of the cold fluid. Cp of the fluid
is known to be 3.77 kJ/kg.°C (The Engineering Toolbox). Ṁ is calculated to be 3196.56 kg/day.
Through unit conversion, the ṁ in kg/s is 0.03537 kg/s. The ΔT is 27°C. Thus the q is 3.76kJ/s.

3196.56 kg 1 day 1 hr 1min = 0.03699kg/s

day 24hr 60min 60s

Since the qc is equal to qh, therefore

𝑞ℎ = ṁ𝐶𝑝ℎ (𝑇ℎ, 𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ, 𝑜)

3.76 = 0.03699(4.187) (100 − 𝑇ℎ, 𝑜)

𝑇ℎ, 𝑜 = 75.7°𝐶

Thus, the ΔTlm can be calculated

(100 − 92) − (75.7 − 65)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
100 − 92
ln[ ]
75.7 − 65
𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 9.2846 °𝐶

Overall heat transfer coefficient (OHTC)

To find the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, the formula used is:
𝑞
𝑈=
𝑇𝑙𝑚. 𝐴
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, q is the rate of heat transfer and A is the surface
area. The surface area As can be calculated by using the formula

𝐴𝑠 = 𝑁𝒙 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒙 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉

𝐴𝑠 = 5 𝑥 0.04

𝐴𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎^𝟐

42
By inserting the values,

3.76
𝑈=
9.2846(0.2)

𝑈 = 2.0248 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2°C

Fouling factor

The Fouling factor for water above 50°C is 0.00088m2K/W (Engineering page)

E-102

Assumptions:

1. Average constant thermal properties (thermal conductivity and specific heat) and
convective heat transfer coefficient along the heat exchanger.
2. Negligible internal heat generation and negligible free convection.

Tmilk, in = 92°C Tmilk, out =45°C

Plate

Twater, out = 72.29°C Heat

Twater, in =30°C
Exchanger

The type of heat exchanger used is the plate heat exchanger. This is because a plate heat
exchanger is known to effectively handle low viscosity fluids. The plate heat exchanger consists
of a stack of corrugated stainless steel plates clamped together in a frame. Heating and cooling
fluid flow through alternate tortuous passages between vertical plates.

Type of flow in this heat exchanger is the counter current flow. A counter flow heat
exchanger supplies hotter portion of the two fluids at one end, and cold portion at the other end.
Thus, heat transfer occurs between the hotter portions of the two fluids at one end (Frank P.
Incropera).

The mode of heat transfer involved is convection. Convection occurs as the fluid is in
motion and there is a bounding surface when the two are at different temperatures.

43
Reynolds number

The formula used to calculate Reynolds number is

𝜌𝑈𝑚𝑥
𝑅𝑒 =
µ

Where 𝜌 is the density of the working fluid which is water, Um is the mean velocity, x is the
length and µ is the dynamic viscosity of the water. The mean velocity is calculated by using the
formula

ṁ
𝑈𝑚 =
𝜌𝐴𝑐

To calculate the cross sectional area,

𝐴 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

A = 0.04

By knowing this, it is possible to calculate the value of Um.

0.03699
𝑈𝑚 =
996.0(0.04)

𝑈𝑚 = 9.2846 𝑥 10^ − 4

Thus, the Reynolds number can be calculated as

996.0(9.2846 𝑥 10−4 )0.6

𝑅𝑒 =
0.798 𝑥 10^3
𝑅𝑒 = 695.29

Since the Re <2300, the flow is laminar.

Nusselt number

The nusselt number formula is given by

Nu = 0.664 Rex1/2Pr1/3

Nu = 0.664 (695.29)1/2(5.42)1/3

Nu = 30.7

44
Tlm

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
Where Tlm is T log mean, Th,i and Th,o is the temperature hot inlet and outlet respectively and
Tc,o and Tc,i are the outler and inlet temperature of the cold fluid which is the working fluid.
Since the Tc,o is unknown, it can be calculated by determining the value of qh

𝑞ℎ = ṁ𝐶𝑝ℎ (𝑇ℎ, 𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ, 𝑜)

𝑞ℎ = (0.03699)(3.77) (92 − 45)

𝑞ℎ = 6.55𝑘𝐽/𝑠

Since qh = qc,

𝑞𝑐 = ṁ𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐, 𝑖)

6.55 = (0.03699)(4.187) (𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 − 30)

𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 = 72.29 °𝐶

Thus, the ΔTlm can be calculated by substituting in the values.

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜) − (𝑇ℎ, 𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
(92 − 72.29) − (45 − 30)
𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
92 − 72.29
ln[ ]
45 − 30
𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 17.24 °𝐶

OHTC

By using the LMTD method,

𝑞
𝑈=
𝑇𝑙𝑚. 𝐴
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, q is equal to rate of heat transfer, Tlm is the T
log mean and A is the surface area.

45
By inserting the value,

6.2
𝑈=
(17.24)(0.2)

𝑈 = 1.798 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2°C

Fouling factor

The Fouling factor for temperature below 50°C is 0.00053m2K/W (Engineering page)

E-103

Assumptions:

1. Average constant thermal properties (thermal conductivity and specific heat) and
convective heat transfer coefficient along the heat exchanger.
2. Negligible internal heat generation and negligible free convection.

Tmilk, in = 46°C Tmilk, out = 30°C

Tubular

Heat
Twater, out = 34°C Twater, in = 20°C
Exchanger

The type of heat transfer used is turbular heat exchanger. The reason that we chose this
type of heat exchanger is because that it is cheaper than the plate heat exchanger.

The type of flow used in this heat exchanger is the counterflow. A counterflow heat exchanger
has the hot fluid entering at one end of the heat exchanger flow path and the cold fluid entering
at the other end of the flow path (Bengston).

Reynolds number

The Reynolds formula for turbular heat exchanger is the same as plate heat exchanger, that is

𝜌𝑈𝑚𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
µ

46
Where Re is the Reynolds number, 𝜌 is the density of fluid, Um is the mean velocity, D is the
diameter of the tube and µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. To calculate the re, we must first
calculate the Um.

ṁ
𝑈𝑚 =
𝜌𝐴𝑐

Um is the mean velocity, ṁ is the mass flow, 𝜌 is fluid density, and Ac is the cross sectional
area. To calculate the cross sectional area,

𝐴𝑐 = 𝞹𝒓2

Ac = (0.0635)2

Ac = 0.01266m2

The mass flow rate must be converted to kg/s before doing further calculation.

3302.43 kg 1 day 1hr 1min = 0.03822 kg/s

day 24hr 60min 60 sec

Thus, the Um is calculated to be

ṁ
𝑈𝑚 =
𝜌𝐴𝑐

0.03822
𝑈𝑚 =
998.0(0.01266)

𝑈𝑚 = 3.02 𝑥 10^ − 3

Then, the Reynolds number can be calculated by

(998.0)(3.02 𝑥 10^ − 3)(0.0635)

𝑅𝑒 =
1.002 𝑥 10^ − 3
𝑅𝑒 = 191

The flow is laminar as the Re is 180 which is less than 2300.

Nusselt number

D
0.065 ( L ) Re Pr
Nu = 3.66 +
D
1 + 0.04 [( L ) Re Pr]^2/3

47
 0.0635
0.065 ( ) 191( 7.01)
Nu = 3.66 + 0.5
0.0635
1 + 0.04 [( ) (191) (7.01)]^2/3
0.5
Nu = 53.27

Tlm

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
Where Th,i and Th,o is the temperature hot inlet and outlet and Tc,i and Tc,o is the temperature
cold inlet and outlet.

𝑞ℎ = ṁ𝐶𝑝ℎ(𝑇ℎ, 𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ, 𝑜)

𝑞ℎ = 0.03822(3.77)(45 − 30)

𝑞ℎ = 2.16 𝑊

𝑞𝑐 = ṁ𝐶𝑝𝑐(𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐, 𝑖)

2.16 = 0.03822(4.187)(𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 − 20)

𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 = 33.5°𝐶

Thus,

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

(46 − 33.5) − (30 − 20)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
46 − 33.5
ln[ 30 − 20 ]

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 11.2°𝐶

48
OHTC
𝑞
𝑈=
𝑇𝑙𝑚. 𝐴
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, q is equal to rate of heat transfer, Tlm is the T
log mean and A is the surface area.

To find As,

𝐴𝑠 = 𝑁𝞹𝑫𝑳

𝐴𝑠 = (30)𝞹(𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟓)(𝟎. 𝟓)

𝐴𝑠 = 2.99𝑚2

To find the value of U,

2.16
𝑈=
(11.2)(2.99)

𝑈 = 0.0645𝑘𝑊/𝑚2°C

Fouling factor

The Fouling factor for temperature below 50°C is 0.00053m2K/W (Engineering page)

E-104

Assumptions:

1. Average constant thermal properties (thermal conductivity and specific heat) and
convective heat transfer coefficient along the heat exchanger.
2. Negligible internal heat generation and negligible free convection.

Tmilk, in = 30°C Tmilk, out = 5°C

Plate

Twater, out = 17.88°C Heat Twater, out =0.01°C

Exchanger

The mode of heat transfer used in this heat exchanger is the convection. This is because
the fluid is moving in a boundary with different temperatures.

49
 The type of heat exchanger used is the plate heat exchanger. This is because we need to
cool the fluid to a very low temperature which is 5°C from 30°C. The working fluid used is
water. Water is chosen as it can be recycled back into the streams and it is easily available. The
plate heat exchanger consists of a stack of corrugated stainless steel plates clamped together in a
frame. Heating and cooling fluid flow through alternate tortuous passages between vertical
plates.

The flow is counterflow. . A counterflow heat exchanger has the hot fluid entering at
one end of the heat exchanger flow path and the cold fluid entering at the other end of the flow
path (Bengston).

Reynolds number

The Reynolds number is calculated by

𝜌𝑈𝑚𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
µ

Where Re is the Reynolds number, 𝜌 is the density of cooling fluid, Um is the mean velocity, D
is the diameter of tube and µ is the dynamic viscosity of the working fluid. In this heat
exchanger, the cooling or known as the working fluid is water. Water is chosen as it is easily
obtained and more cost friendly.

To calculate Um, the formula is

ṁ
𝑈𝑚 =
𝜌𝐴𝑐

Where ṁ is the mass flow rate, Um is the mean velocity, 𝜌 is the density of fluid and Ac is the
cross sectional area. By calculations, we have known that the Ac is equal to the 0.04227m2.The
mass flow rate however, is different and calculations are need to be done to converse the unit to
kg/s from kg/hr

3422.5 kg 1day 1hr 1min = 0.0396 kg/s

day 24hr 60min 60s

Thus,

0.0396
𝑈𝑚 =
999.8(0.04)

𝑈𝑚 = 9.90 𝑥 10^ − 4

50
 999.8(9.90 𝑥 10^ − 4)(0.6)
𝑅𝑒 =
1.792 𝑥 10^ − 3
𝑅𝑒 = 331.4

The flow is laminar as the Reynolds number is less than 2300.

Nusselt number

Nu = 0.664 Rex1/2Pr1/3

Nu = 0.664 (331.4)1/2(13.5)1/3

Nu = 28.78

Tlm

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
Where Th,i and Th,o is the temperature hot inlet and outlet and Tc,i and Tc,o is the temperature
cold inlet and outlet.

𝑞ℎ = ṁ𝐶𝑝ℎ(𝑇ℎ, 𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ, 𝑜)

𝑞ℎ = 0.0396 (3.77)(30 − 5)

𝑞ℎ = 3.4056𝑊

𝑞𝑐 = ṁ𝐶𝑝(𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐, 𝑖)

3.4056 = 0.0396(4.81)(𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 − 0.01)

𝑇𝑐, 𝑜 = 17.88°𝐶

Thus, Tlm

(30 − 17.88) − (5 − 0.01)

𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
30 − 17.88
ln[ ]
5 − 0.01
𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 8.03°𝐶

51
OHTC
𝑞
𝑈=
𝑇𝑙𝑚. 𝐴
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, q is equal to rate of heat transfer, Tlm is the T
log mean and A is the surface area.

To find the value of U,

3.4056
𝑈=
(8.03)(0.02)

𝑈 = 21.2 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2°C

Fouling factor

The Fouling factor for temperature below 50°C is 0.00053m2K/W (Engineering page)

52
 2.5 Bioprocess and Metabolic Regulations

2.5.1 Biomolecules Involved

Bio-molecules are organic compounds that are essential to living organisms (Biomolecules,
2011). Bio-molecules are derived from the simplest organic molecule that is hydrocarbon
(McKee, 2003). The type of bio-molecules involved are from carbohydrate and protein bio-
molecules. Lactose, glucose and galactose are part of carbohydrate bio-molecule while lactase is
part of protein bio-molecule.

2.5.1.1 Lactose

Lactose is a dissacharide with molecular formula of C12H12O11. Lactose is a some kind of sugar
found in milk (Calvero, 2013). Lactose is composed of glucose and galactose that is linked via
β1,4-glycosidic bond. The linkage occurs between hydroxyl group of carbon 1 of galactose and
hydroxyl group of carbon 4 of glucose. Lactose is a reducing sugar because glucose component
consists a hemiacetal group (McKee, 2003).

Figure 5: Chemical structure of lactose (Calvero, 2013)

53
Lactose is also known as 4-O-β-D-galactosylpyranosyl-α-D-glucopyranoside. This is the IUPAC
name for lactose. Lactose comes from the cattle’s milk that is used in our production of yoghurt.
Lactose is catalyzed by enzyme lactase provided by the bacteria when the milk undergoes
fermentation. From lactose anabolic pathway, galactose and glucose are formed (H.Garret &
Grisham, 2010).

2.5.1.2 Glucose

Glucose is a carbohydrate and it is called a monosaccharide which is a simple sugar. Glucose it

also known as dextrose with a molecular formula of C6H12O6 or H-(C=O)-(CHOH)5-H (Nave,
2012). A monosaccharide has a ring with a hemiacetal functional group (Monosaccharide-
Structure of Glucose, 2001). Six-membered hemiacetal rings are called pyranoses as it is similar
to pyran. In pyranose form, glucose is known as glucopyranose (McKee, 2003). Glucose is
primarily from corn syrup and it serves as energy sources for plants and animals (Nave, 2012).
Glucose is needed in glycolysis pathway in order to produce pyruvate which will then be used in
lactic acid fermentation (McKee, 2003).

Figure 6: Chemical structure of glucose (Nave, 2012)

54
Figure 7: Hemiacetal functional group in glucose (Monosaccharide-Structure of Glucose, 2001)

2.5.1.3 Galactose

Galactose is a monosaccharide of carbohydrate which is known as simple sugar. It is an aldose,

hexose and also a reducing sugar. It is called a reducing sugar because it contain aldehyde
functional group. The molecular formula for galactose is the same as glucose that is C6H12O6.
The difference between glucose and galactose is the position of 4th carbon in molecular structure.
The –OH group at 4th carbon of galactose in the upward projection in the chair form compared to
glucose which is in horizontal projection in the chair form. Galactose also has hemiacetal goup.
A carbon which has both ether oxygen and alcohol functional group is hemiacetal and known as
anomeric carbon (Ophardt, Galactose, 2003).

55
Figure 8: Molecular structure of galactose (Ophardt, Galactose, 2003)

Figure 9: Difference between galactose and glucose in structure (Ophardt, Galactose, 2003)

Galactose produced will be converted to glucose-6-phosphate to undergo glycolysis to formed

pyruvate. Pyruvate will then be converted into lactic acid.

56
 2.5.1.4 Lactase

Lactase is an enzyme made out amino acids. All enzymes are proteins. Thus, lactase is part of
protein bio-molecule. Lactase is used to cleave the glycosidic bond in lactose to form glucose
and galactose (Carroll, 2013)

2.5.2 Biochemical Pathway

In production of yoghurt from bacteria, Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus

thermophillus grow vigorously on milk’s lactose (H.Garret & Grisham, 2010). Lactic acid
fermentation occurs when lactose, a sugar which is composed of glucose and galactose is
converted to lactate. Lactase is an enzyme provided by bacteria which catalyze the reaction of
converting lactose to glucose and galactose.

Figure 10: Conversion of lactose to galactose and glucose (Taylor & Stahlberg, 2005)

57
Figure 11: Overview of glycolysis (Glycolysis, 2013)

Glucose that is produced from lactose catalyzation enters gycolysis pathway. Glycolysis is a
process or pathway where glucose is converted to three-carbon pyruvate and it is viewed in ten
steps of reaction. It occurs without the presence of oxygen which is known as anaerobic
metabolism (H.Garret & Grisham, 2010).

C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P -----> 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O)COOH + 2 ATP

+ 2NADH + 2 H+

Equation 3: Overall reaction of glycolysis (Ophardt, Glycolysis Summary, 2003)

Glycolysis is divided into two phases that is first phase and second phase. In first phase, glucose
is converted to two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and during second phase, two
molecules of pyruvate are produced (H.Garret & Grisham, 2010).

58
For first phase, there are five reactions. During this phase, energy is used in order to gain more.
Reaction 1 is known as phosphorylation of glucose, a six-carbon atom. Glucose is converted to
glucose-6-phosphate by enzyme hexokinase or glucokinase. Enzyme hexokinase is used to
phosphorylate glucose and stored it in cell. This enzyme is regulated and is allosterically
inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate. Adenine triphosphate, ATP is consumed in this reaction
(H.Garret & Grisham, 2010).

Figure 12: Phosphorylation of glucose (Helmenstine, 2013)

Next is 2nd reaction. It occurs when phosphoglucoisomerase catalyzes the isomerization of

glucose-6-phosphate. Aldose glucose-6-phosphate converts to ketose fructose-6-phosphate by
enzyme phosphoglucoseisomerase (H.Garret & Grisham, 2010).

Figure 13: Conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate (Helmenstine, 2013)

Second phosphorylation happens in reaction 3. This phosphorylation is driven by ATP where it

is consumed again for the second time in this step. Phosphofructokinase-1 catalyzes the changes
of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-biphosphate. In glycolysis pathway,

59
phosphofructokinase is the major regulatory enzyme and its activity is allosterically inhibited by
citrate and high levels ATP (McKee, 2003).

Figure 14: Phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate (Helmenstine, 2013)

Phase 1 of glycolysis ends with the cleavage of fructose-1,6-bipshosphate into two three-carbon
molecules. Enzyme fructose biphosphate aldolase catalyzes fructose-1,6-biphosphate to form
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) (McKee, 2003).

Figure 15: Cleavage of fructose-1,6-phosphate (Helmenstine, 2013)

For next reaction, only glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is needed. Thus, dihdroxyacetone phosphate

produced in 4th reaction is converted to glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate by enzyme triose phosphate
isomerase. In this 5th reaction, two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are produced
(H.Garret & Grisham, 2010).

60
Figure 16: Interconversion of glyceraldehaydes-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacteone phosphate

Second phase of glycolysis pathway consists another five series of reactions. There are two
processes involved in 6th reaction which are oxidation and phosphorylation of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate. This reaction is catalyzes by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase that contain
two binding sites for glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate and NAD+ to produce glycerate-1,3-
biphosphate. While this reaction is happening, NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
undergoes reduction to form NADH (McKee, 2003).

Figure 17: Oxidation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

For 7th reaction, phosphoryl group is transferred and ATP is synthesized when glycerate-1, 3-
biphosphate is catalyzes by phosphoglycerate kinase to adenosine diphosphate, ADP. Reaction 7
is known as substrate level phosphorylation, this is due to the yielding of ATP caused by transfer
of phosphoryl group from substrate (McKee, 2003).

Figure 18: Phosphoryl group transfer

61
Then, enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase catalyzes the migration of functional group within the
subunit that converts 3-phosphoglcerate to 2-phosphoglycerate (H.Garret & Grisham, 2010).

Figure 19: Interconversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate

2-phosphoglycerate is catalyzed by enolase to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). In this 9th

reaction, water is removed from 2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenolpyruvate’s enol
structure (H.Garret & Grisham, 2010).

Figure 20: Dehydration of phosphoenolpyruvate

The last reaction in glycolysis occurs when phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is driven by pyruvate
kinase to form pyruvate. There is a transfer of phosphoryl group from phosphoenolpyruvate to
ADP that synthesis ATP (H.Garret & Grisham, 2010).

Figure 21: Synthesis of pyruvate

62
Galactose that is formed from catalyzation of lactose is required to undergo a few reactions to
ensure that it can enter glycolysis pathway to form pyruvate.

Figure 22: Galactose metabolism

Galactose is initially transformed into galactose-1-phosphate by galactokinase. Then galactose-

1-phosphate is converted to nucleotide UDP-galactose by uridyl transferase. UDP-glucose is
formed by isomerisation of galactose. This reaction is catalyzed by UDP-glucose-4-epimerase.
UDP-glucose is then converted to glucose-1-phosphate by UDP-glucose-pyrophosphorylase.
Glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis pathway when it is converted from glucose-1-phosphate
by enzyme phosphoglucomutase (McKee, 2003).

After obtaining pyruvate molecules from glycolysis pathway entered by glucose and galactose,
the pyruvate will then be converted to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase. This whole process is
known as lactic acid fermentation (H.Garret & Grisham, 2010)

63
 .

Figure 23: Lactic acid fermentation

There are a few assumptions have been made based on biochemical reactions involved. Firstly,
in biochemical reactions there are a simple organic reaction mechanism as an enzyme usually
does one conversion at one time. Secondly, the number of reactions occurred are large but the
type of reactions involved is usually small. Lastly, the central importance’s reactions in
biochemistry are few as the one used in energy production and also the synthesis and degradation
of major cell components.

64
CHAPTER THREE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

To produce yoghurt, there are several processes that had to proceed in order to produce tasty
yoghurt. In this production, yoghurt is produced by bacteria where the bacteria used are
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophillus. The bacteria are cultured in a tank
between the ranges of 35-45 degree celcius. The first process is filtration, followed by
centrifugation and mixing. The mixture undergoes homogenization process after the temperature
is increased to alter the heat. After the homogenization process, it undergoes pasteurization
process to kill the microorganism. The mixture undergoes cooling process to make sure it suits
the optimum temperature of the selected lactic acid bacteria during fermentation process. After
the fermentation process, the mixture is cooled again. Stabilizers and flavoring are during the
second mixing process. Then it is cooled again for the third time. After cooling it to desired
temperature for the yoghurt, the yoghurt is now ready to be packaged and stored. All these
processes are done where all its mass balances, energy balances and overall heat transfer
coefficients calculations are calculated. The processes involved do not violate the first or the
second laws of thermodynamics. As a conclusion, the production of yoghurt from bacteria
procedures is a success.

65
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