by 24 expertsin the fieldand basedon the laiestLRFDcodesand strength

Produced
designprocedures,
ihis is lhe only reJerence
on composiieconstruction
for buildings
An essentialguidefor deslgn
ihat examinesall threeof lhesecrilica developmenls.
engneersand studenlsot struclural it thoroughly
engineering, surveysthe current
thinkingin the lield.And it heps lhe structural
engineerbecomefamiliarwilhthe latesl
designprinciples
andrnethods, in slructuraliraming
andlheirapplication for alllypesof
steel-framedbuildings.
The text'snarrativeiienhanced by nearly200 liguresand s supportedby over
(listedin Chapter7), a historical
450 references reviewoi composiieconslruction,
and
18 informative The desgn ol composite
buldingcasehjstories. elementsis illuslrated
withnumerous examples.
step-by-slep
resourcebringsthe struct!ralengineerup-todate with
This indispensable
emerging demo-nstrales
technology-and wiil ultimately
how this new knowjedge
producebetterandmoreeconomical
struci!res.
CompositeConstruction
Designfor Buildings

Ivan M. Vi€St sarto,-rn-q,i.t

prc sictent,IMV Consutting

Joseph P. Colaco :oito,

prcsident, CBM Enqineerc, tnc.

Richard W. Furlonq eoito.-

E. C. H. Bantet prctessorot Enginee;;s p,€ctice
Univerchyot Texas,Austin

LawrenceG. Griffis eol-

Senior Vice Prestdent, Wattet p. Moore & Associates. tnc.

Roberto T. Leon eaito,

Prctessot ol Civitan.! Envhonnenta! Engineens
ceorgia tnstituteof Technotogy

Loring A. Wyllie, Jr. roiro,

Ch airman, Degenkotb Engineerc

ASGE
Co-pubtished by the
American Society ot Civit Engneerc
34i East 47th Strcet
New yotk, New yotkt00t7-2398

Mccraw.Hill
NewYork- SanFr.ncisco Washington,
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csr.cas Lisbon Londor liadrid ltextcocny rgitan
Momrcat NewDetht SanJuan Sinsapore
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 Library of Congress Caiatogihg-i!-publicatioD Dara

Cohpmite_constmctioD d6iCn for buiidings / Ivd M. Viesr, edftor

JSBN 0-0? 06745?-4(acid-freelaoer)

r.. coDposite m.$rucr on. 2. S;ucrual de6Br. i. Buldje5
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4- Iaad facto. design. 5_ Elsroptasricfty. t. Viesl, ave M.
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It tuo' s t t1,(krtud s.hoatbaokbr \ retot;oRhaohi"o olMfcrok H,tt,<
rrcressbnat aoah cmup onpositian Lhit.

Ptinted dnd bould b! R. tt. Donnelter & Sons ConpuL!.

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uis ud oales prcbotions, or .o. sF ir comotuF rraining o"oqrams. lremi
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l D n r m r i , n . o n t a i n e d n . r q q o , L 1 a s b e c r o o t a r n p db J T t e \ , t . C r a w
Hitl
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b"ti"i"o,o be fetrabl;
flowa.tr, nr uref MccE*-Itll rjr irs g!traD,"p rhp ac.D,.) or coh
o F F n c o s 0 l d r i n j b m a i i o o o r b t i " h " o"LhoB
L " F i n d d n p r . d a r\ l c c r a w - H : r l r o r r k
a,uum!".ha b. Fsponsib e fo- d\ cftoB. omissbno, o- dd sees dbrC oL,
o /ort is publ"hcd rLL rhp rdd-rsndrDg-.t ar
H,r'ld rs
1t o* lr: ln d e . r n s i n e p r : odaLor h
"
o rasF " u D o t r i n_s o b a r . o nb u ro r r o ,
"rr"miprus
orlar protpld one sprircs. tf.L.h sph ce; ar;
-eqtrd thp as$"ton.e ot Bn aoD-opneF p-otc"s ons.
"bould be sou(h,.
 Contents

Contlbutofs vii

Notarlon xlll

Chapter1. Introduclion 1.1

1.1
.1.2 PurpGe,Scope,and Approach 1.17
1.3 BuildingCaseHbtodeg 1.19
1.4 sr Equtualenrs 135

Chapter2. CompositeSystems
2.1 ilateriala 2.1
2.2. Loa.llng
2.3 Composlle Floor Sfsbms
2.4 Composite Bulldlng Systems
2,5 Mslhods or analysi3 234
2.6 Conslruction Considertlions 2,44

Chapler 3. Composite Beams 3.1

3.1 Componentsand s_y€l€ms 3.1
3-2 Fundamenral6of conposirs Action 3,4
3.3 sh..r conn€clion 3.6
3.4 Doslgn lor Flexure 3,13
3.5 S€rvlc€abilrty . 3,32
3.6 qthor Design Considertlions 3.40
3.7 Openlngslnwebs 3.1t5
3.8 Composlie Joists and Trusses 3.50
3.9 S.lubGlKIer sysbms 3,70
Chapter 4. Composite Columns 4.1
4,1 BaslcConcepts 4.1
4.2 fypeE ot ComposlteCompression
Mombers 4,2
4.3 Behavlorof ComposlteColumns
4.4 D€slgnRules 4.16
4.5 SpecialConsid€latlons 4,30
4.6 D€slgnExarfiples

Chapter 5. Lateral Resisting Systems 5.1

5.1 Functlonol Bracing 5.1
5.2 Typesot Bracing 5.2
5,3 Moment-BesistingFrames 5.3
5,4 BracedFrarnes 5.13
5,5 SheaFwallDesign 5.21
5-6 HorizonralDiaphragms 5.27
5.7 CompositeSystems for Retroftt 5,35

Chapter 6. Design of Joints 6.1

6,1 BasicConsld€ralions
6.2 Colunn BaseandSplices 6.4
6.3 Bearn+o-column Shearconnecrions 6.12
6,4 Beam-lo-ColumnMomentConnections 6.29
6-5 Semi gid Connectlons 6.65
6.6 Beam-to-WallConneciions 6,81
6.? llriscellaneous
Connections 6,89

Chapter 7. Literature 7.1

7,1 Guide{oReterences 7.1
7,1
7.3 Design 7.8
7.11
7.5 MiscellaneousComposlte 7.14
7,15

AppendixA Ana'ysisol Steet-Concreto

hteraciion
AppendixB Analysesof ComposiieCotumns B.'l
IndexfollowsAppendixB
 Contributors

The following persons participated in the preparation of this book by con,

tributing materials to the identified chapters in the form of a completeor par
tial frst draft ofone or more sectionsor by reviewing parts of the manuscript.

Horatio Allison, Consultant, Dagsboro,Del.: contdbutor to Chapter S

Abolhassan Astaneh-Asl, Professorof Structural Engineering, University
of Califomia at Berkeley: contributor to Chapter 6
Atorod Azizinamini, Associate Plofessor ol Civil Engineedng, University
ofNebraska: contributor to Chapter 6
Reidar Bjorhovde, Professor and Chairman of Civil and Envircnmental
Engineering, University of Pittsburghr conhibutor to Chapter 3; sered as
the first editor ofChapter S
II. Richard Corry, Vice President, Ttrner Construction Co., Houston: con-
tributor to Chapter 2
David Darwin, Dean E- Ackers Professorof Civil Engineedng, Univemity
ofKansasi contdbutor to Chapter 3
Gregory G, Deierlein, Associate Pmfessor, Comell Unive$ity: contribu,
tor to Chapters 2 and 6; reviewer olchapters 4 and 5
W. Samuel Easterling, Associate Professor of Civil Enginee ng, Viryinia
Pol]'technicInstitute and State University: contdbutor to Chapter 3
AIi A. K. Haris, President, Hads Engineedng, Inc., Kansas City: cont bu-
tor to Chapter 4
Hal Iyengar, Skldmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP, Chicago: conhibutor to
Chapters 2 and 3
D. J. L. Kennedy, ProfessorEmeritus of Civil Enginee ng, University of
Alberta: contdbutor to Chapter 3
Stanley D. Lindsey, President, Stanley D. Lindsey &Assoc., Atlanta: con-
tributor to ChaDter 3
vlll

James O. Malley, Principal, Degenkolb Engineers, Sa.n Francisco: contlib-

utor to Chapter 5
James M. Ricles, Associaie Prolessor of Civil Engineering, Lehigh
University: contributor to Chapter 4
John L, Ruddy, \4ce Prcsident, Fletcher Thompson, Bridgeport: contribu-
tor to Chapter 3
Bahram M. Shahrooz, Associate Profeseor of Civil Engineering,
Univemity of Cincinnati: contributor to Chapter 6
Robert Sinn, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLg Chicago: conhibuto? to
Chapters 2 and 3
Kurt I). Swensson, Associate, Stanley D. Lindsey & Assoc., Atlanta: con-
tributor to Chapter 3
 Preface

Since the 1958 pubiication of the book CompositeConstructian in Steeland

Concrete for Brid.ges and. Built),ings,D'"+ I was asked several times to update it.
I declined primarily becauseby the mid-1960s compositedesign ofbeims and
Jloors,based on working loads and stresses,was well €stabtishedand knorn
by the design community in the United States. The situation reqardinq com-
posiledesignchangeddrasticaLlJ during rhe t9t0s and 1980"witl- rhe inrro-
duction of thrce major innovations into the structural buitding design prac-
tice: compositecolumns and walls, load and resistancefactor desien (LRFD).
a n d c l a s l o p l a . r i ac n a l y " F s N
. o n eo f r h e s eI o o s i . u " e d u r i v " r s a l v a " r e r .
e r e n r h o u g h i l i s c l e a rr h e l a l l o f t h c m w i l l b e . o m Fo a s j cI o o l si r r t r ea r s e n a
of the structural engineer in the foreseeable future. None of the existins
bookson compobireconsr"ucjronlor buildirg. encompaqsFd a,t thrF" of I hes;
innovations. Now, this book provides structural enqineers with a unioue
gride toward ar early adoprionofrhe innovari\p rechioro$ rhar wi eraLlp
them to fumish their clients with better, more economicalstructures.
At least 11 Englishlanguage books were published over th€ vears on the
sub,ecl of composilFcon"lru.rion. Ol rhese. four appeared in the Unireo
Slares, o rr!five jn Crear
Ind'd.'r"Additionall).rherehave beeni"suednumerousproceedings of confer-
encesdealing mainly with research and with descriDtionsof comDletedstr-uc-
tures. as discussed in Sec.L t.4. Of I he t I books,arl bur rhre" we"econcerrec
pdmadly with questions of desigrr. t\vo exceptions were Amedcaq one dealt
with constructionGr and the other was a state-of-the-art survevv. A third
qmerican book.'3publishedrn 1979,covered.oF.po.n.
"lructu;e- of "re"l.
rpinforcedconcrele.oresrressed concrerF.mabonry;wood,and timber. Books
published abroad were based on other countdes,cod€s,which differcd to varv-
ing degress from American practices. In view of this and of the emerying ne.w
technologies,it appeared that there was a neeil for an up-to-date book on
Amedcan practice for th€ design ofcomposite construction for buildinqs_

*SupeNcriltD15 refers toRet D15 in

Chap. ?, Liierarue.
 At the Apr. 28, 1991, meeting of the Com]nittee on CompositeConstruction
of the Am€dcan Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) it was reported that the
subcommittee on education was planning to initiate work on a tertbook on
composite desigTl.The book was to coYerthe design of basic composite ete-
ments, with emphasis on the needs of the desigr engineer and stressing
design simplicity and economy During the following vear, an outline $/as
devJloped and over onescore experts were found to &aft manuscripts in tbe
arcas ol their specialties. Six of them undertook the job of organizing the
effort and bringing the book to the profession. Chapter 2 was the responsibili-
ty ofJ. P Colaco;Chapter S, R. T. Leon; Chapter 4, R. W Furlong; Chapter 5,
L.A. Wyllie, Jr.; and Chaptel6, L. G. GrifEs Chapter l and all other contents
of the book. as rtell as the ovemll coordination of the work, were the responsi-
bility of the editor-in-chieL The six edito$ collated the exped contdbutions
and produced the manuscdpts of individual chapt€rs, selected the publisher'
and helped to bdng th€ pmjec't to a successtul conciusion The names of all
other padicipants and their affiliations are given in the list of contdbutors.
This book is a comprehensive presentation of curretrt knowledge lt coverg
the str-uctuml aspects of framing for all $pes ol buildings in which the steel
ftaming is combined$'ith concreteelements, such as slabs,walls, and encase-
ment, to proviale an efficient, economical structural system This book is
intended for the design engineer who conceives, alesigls, and is responsible
for consh-uction of shuctural ftaming for buildings; and for students, both
formal and irlformal, of sl rurI u-ralengrneering
The text's chapters are as follows; Introduction, Composite Svstems'
CompositeBeams, CompositeColumns, Lateral Resisting Svstems,Design of
Joints, and Literatue. The four chapters covedng the d€sign of composite
elements, i.e., beams, columns, bracing, and joints, are iilustrated with
numerous er.a]nples that designers can follow step by step in their o1a.nwork
These chapte$ arc based on the latest LRFD design procedures.Methods of
analvsis are described in the chapter on composite systerns, providing guid-
ance to nonlinear as well as linear aralyses The chapter includes discussion
of materials and loading, and brief descdptions of vadous floor and building
svstems. Constr-uction considerations are discussed in the same chapter'
The text is ilusbated with close to 200 frgures anal supported by more than
450 references.The relerences are listed in Chapter ?. Those dealing specifr-
cally with composit€construction are divided according to their principal
characteristics:research,design, and conshuction. A histodcal rcview of com-
posite construction, starting in 18?7, and 18 building case histodes are
included in the inhoductory chapter Although the case hiistories cover onlv
tall buildings, this book is applicable to buildings ofall heights Detail analv-
ses for compositebeams and columns arc presented in Appendixes A and B,
respectively. This book conciudes with a comprehensive index.
Numercus frgures, some of the tabular mat€dals, and a few quotations ca]ne
Som pior publications. All such items are identified in the text by supemcdpts
referring to references listed in Chapt€r T Gmtelul acknowledgment is made to
many organizations for permission to repdnt preYiously published materials,
including American Institute of Steei Consh-uction; American Soci€ty ol Civil
Engineers; Bethlehem Ste€l Cor?omtion, Sales Engineering Division; Canadian
Institute of Steei Construction; Chapman & Hall's Canstructional Steel Design:
An International Guid.e: Cancrete Construction lrf,aeazir\e; Engineering Neus
Record; Japanese Society of Steel Constr-uction; Mccraw-Hifl; Pau] Weidlinger
& Associates; and Skilling Ward Magnusson Barksh e Inc.
The basic Btrength of this book lies in the fact that it presents the essence
of the knowledge of numemus experts on va ous aspects of composite con-
str-uction.For this I am most grateful to all contdbutoN and the editors. They
have given generouslyoftheir time to the project. My thanks in particular go
to Dr. Joseph P Colaco, chairman of the ASCE Committee on Composite
Oonstruction when the project was launched, for his continued interest,
encouragement,and advice;and to his secretaryMrs. Elalne (Dolly) Wertz for
her sympathetic, effrcient, and prompt handling of numerous problems as
they arose from time to time. Finally, I want to expressmy deep appreciatior
to my wife Barbara for her many-faceted support, including her tolerance of
my frequent absencesin spidt during the cowse ofthe work.

Ircln M. Viest
Edito*in-Chief
 Notation

The_meaning of each sj,nbol and abbrcviation u6ed in this book is generaly

explained when it first appears in the text. For convenient referince, th'e
sj'nbols and abbreviations are listed below except for those used in App. A.
The latter symbolsare listed in Sec.A.2.

Symbols
Cross sectionalareaj or a nmericat constanti or a iiesign parameter
Cross-sectionalarea of a 6earanste teg
Cross-sectionalarea ofa botr
R e o u i " P db o t r o m, h u r d s " e a
Area of a concretesiab; or ooss-sectionatarea of column concrete;or area per
unit width ofa concrete slab
C.oss-sectionalarea ofthe reiDforcedcore ota column sectionmeasued out to_
out of the transvene reinJorcemeni
Cross-sectionalarea of reinforcins bars in each tayer of coluhn ties spaceitat
s,, thmush the beam deprh
One half of the actual dea ofthe encasedconcretein a fiIed composte coiumn
Total cross-sectionalarea of dowets
Efective area ofa closs section
Gross aea ofa ooss seclion
Area ofH-shaped portion of a baseplate in lisht colu]nns (I,is. 6.2)
Net area ofa crosssection
hoduct of the effective joint widrh, taken as zbl and the column di reter d
Cross-sectionalarea of total bar reinforcemenr;or cross-sectDnaiarea ol one
rci.forcin-g ba4 o-rarea oftongitudiDal reinforcenent in a colum cross sectiol;
or area of properly developed reinforcement within etrecrive slab width placei
pamllel io the steei beam
A Cross-sectionalarea ofa shucturat 6teel shape,prpe,or luDe
Cross-sectionalarea ofone stud shear connector
Cross-sectionalarea ol hansvene reinforement, includins closs ties, wfthin
spacins ri and perpendicular 10 dinension
4
 Required arca ofatension diagonal
Total cross-sectionalarea of column ties, Iocated within vertical distance of
0.4J ftom the beam, measued ir a plane peryendicular to the beam
Web area of a steel shape plus eny longitudinal bars at the center of column

A.Iea of the base plate in d encased colum

In a base plate, maximm dea of the poltion of the supporting sudace that is
seohetrically similar to and concentric with the loaded area
Depth of a compression stress block; or depth of the neutral dis; or a de6i€n
pdameter defined in Table 8-38 in the AISC LRFD Manual;'*' or distance
from the neubal a:.is to the exheme fiber in compression (r'ig. 6.28)
Distance from bolt line to veld line
Length of a bedins zone! or a desisn parameter
T end+l] nfr &ph nnpnlno

Ratio M"/V,
Depth of compression zoDe in the web; or fillet weld size
B A Dmerical constant
B Side dimension ofa base plate
b Total slab widthi or ooss section width
b" Column width measured perpendiculai to the beah

b" Etrective slab widthj or joist spacins

bE ElTective shear width in an encased composite column
Beam or colum fldge $ridth
b, W'dth o'irbPr pElel
b Etrective width of a joint
Average of b€am fldse vidth and colunrn width
b, Width of outer panel
Width offace bearins plate
b Flese width of a steel colum4 or width of an eltended face bearins place
6" Beam spacins; or flaree width of a steel shap€
C Compression force; or a coefficient listed in Table 8'18 of the AISC LRFD
Manuali$'or a desjsn parameier
C" Vertical bea ns fone shown in Fig. 6.18cj o. concret€ compresBive lorce bear-
ing asaimt the beam flanse
c". Noninal beadng strength of concrete
cd Deflection amplificatioD factor in seismic design
cf Compression force h concrete for a tully composite section
CL Creep coefficient accounting for relative hmidity
c"l ComFessive force in conoete comp.ession stnt (r'is. 6.28)
q Crcep coefftcient accounti.s for time under sustained load
c." Compressive force in the top chord of a steel joist
c Creep coefficient accountins for the ase of concrcte at the time olloadins
C Force in the vertical reiDforcement shom in Fig. 6.18c
C," Nominal compression strength of the vertical joirlt rcinlorcement attached
dir€ctly to a st€el b€am
C"" Creep coelicieni accountinsfor member size or shape
Cr Electrcde Btrensth coefrcient ftom Table 8-37 ofthe AISC LRI'D Manual"':
or a design parameterj or the force shom in I'is. 6.28 and given by lq. (6.23)
DeBigalarameters defined in Sec.6.5.2
1.0 in;or a dimension definedin Fig.6.2
Thickness of concrete coler
Nmerical coefficients listed in Table 4-1
D Dead load
, Fillet rveld size
D,u Required seld size in skteenth ofan inc!:'36
d Beam depthi or depth ofthe tensile reinforement rclative to the extr€me
confete comprcssive fiber; or the distance tuom the tensile force to the
compressive forcej or pipe diameter; or diameter of a concrete filled pipe
colmn; or intedor moment dm in a stub gider
Bolt diameter
d, S r ' p l ' o l u m d p ! r h : o r . o l L i n d m e r e . o r 6 r p e lp i p ed i " m , r r
Distanc€between chod centroidsin a truss
Distance from the tensile force in the botton chord to the comprcssive

Center-to-centerdistancebetweenbeam flanges
d 0.25 times the beam depth d when a steel column is lresent oi the lesser
of 0.25d and the heisht of the extended face bearins plateB when these
plates de lresent; or additional effective joint depth provided by attach-
ments to bean flanses (Fig. 6.12)
d Plate heieht
Reinforcins bar diameter
Steei bee depth
dl Total depth ofa steeljoist; or distancebetweencenhoids oftrusB chordB
Si€el beam web depth
Depth ofcompressionyieldins in the web
DistanceBused in Eqs. (3.9) and (3.14)
E Modulus of elasticity
E Modulus of elasticity of concrete
E Modifi ed modulus of elasticity
E }lodulus ofelasticlty of Bteel
E"t ModuluB ofelasticity ofconoete at time ofloading
Er Tansent noduius of elasticity
 EccentliciE
Eccentdcity of a reaction from a bolt line
Minimum eccenbicity of a-{ial force in a colrmn
Eccenbicity ol a reaction lrorn a weld line
Hodzontai component of eccentdcity e as defined in Tabie 8-18 of the AISC
I-RFD Manual*?
F
F"D Iactored cofttulction dead load
F"L Factored coGtruction iive load
F"" Cdticsl colum str$s
F"r Factored construction loads
FD Faciored dead ioad
Yield sireryth of a weld"*
Ff Force in the flange
FL
Modiffed yield stress
F, Force €aried by consete slab atta€hed to steel beams
Specified dnimrm tensiie shensth of Bteel
Specified minimm tensile strensth ofbeadng plate steel
SpecjfiedmiaimuF e''eal srrenslh ofbolr sreA
F,, For@ in the veb; or Btrensth of a weld
F! Specified minimln yieid stress of steel
F Yield shess of a seat ansle
Yield Btress ofdowel bars
F,r Bem flanee yield shess
F,o Specfiedield strcnsthof tlarsvelse reinforcement
F"o Yield BtreBsof a Bteel pdel
F,. Specified yield stleneth of slab reinforcenent
F", Yield Btre8s of a Bteel pipe
F,, Beam web yield Biress
4 Compl$sion force in a steel diagoDal brace (Fig. 6.46)
Tension force ir a steel diagonat brace (Fig. 6.46)
Bearins strcngth
f" Comprcssive stress in concrct€
f, Tensile Btrength olconcrete
Compressive stress ir steel pipe or tube
Tenstle sbess in steel pipe or tube
f: Specified compressive streneth of concrcte
t'- Compressive sbength of confined concret€
f; Compressive sbeneth of con$ete at time td
t;"" Conprcssive streneth of concreteat 28 days
c %o;
H Hodzontal shear force;or total shear applied to a comlosite column
H Horizonial force applied to a seat angle
H Annual average ambient rclative humidity
Length of shear stud connector after welding
Depth ofa steel sectio4 or overall depth ofa conposite or a rcinforced concrete
column; or column width in the llane ofbendins
Ctear distancebehaeenflans€s leBsthe fiIet or corner radius for mlled shapes;
or for built-up sections,the distancebetween adjacentlines of fasienels or the
cleay distance bets'een flanses when welds are used; or cross-sectionaldinen-
sion of the column corc measuredcenter-to-c€nterofconfinins reidorceneni
Nominal db height
Web heisht of a steel shape
Distance between lonsitudinal bals
Concretewidth perpendiculd to the plane of bendinsj or depth of a steel tube
ConcretethickneBsin the plane of bendins; or sidth of a steel tube
I Moment ofinertia
\ Moment of ineftia of a composite section
I" Effective homent ofinedla of a partially composrtesectlon
I! Moment of inertia of a gross section
L" Lower-boundmoment of inertiaDir
r"" Los er-bound moment of inertia for nesative bendins
L, Lower-boundmoment of inertia for lositive bendins
1" Moment ofineftia ofa sieel section
Mom€nt of inertia of a compositeiruss
Mo&ent of inertia of a compositesectionbansformed into equivalent steel
\ Moment of inertia about r axi!
I: //1.10
ri 1./1.10
Effectile beam depth or etrectivejoint length
K Efectile colum lensth factor
Kt Relative humidity influence factor for shdnkase
Ke A desiga pdameter
K," Size effect factor for shrinhase
Kt Time'dependentshrinkage factor basedon ase of concrcte
Flanse thickness plus the depth ofth€ Bteelfillet bet{een the flange and the
web of a hot rolled sieel section;or a coefficientin Tabl€s 8-38 through 8-,15of
the AISC LRFD llanual'"
Sh€ar stitrnesBofa shear comector
A{ial stitrnessofa shear connector
xviii

L Live load
L, Roof load
I Len8th

tb Bean lensth
Development length
t" Embedment iength
tt, Horizontal edse distance ofbolts
I, Length of a plate
It
t" LengthofaUweld
Vertical edse distance ofbolts
Weld lensth
tl Ratio ol ultimate beam momenl to ultimate beam shear
t, Ratio ofultimate colurnn moment to nltimate column sheaf
M Bendins momentj or prinary bending moment at the centerline of a web
opening
M"
M6 Bending moment along a bolt line; or ultimate beam moment
Secondaly bendins monent below a web openins at the hieh-moment end
Mu Secondary bending moment below a web opening at the iow-moment end
Mo,, Lrltimat€ beam moment
Mo, Beam moment to the leit of a joint
Mo, Beam hohentto the risht ofajoint
M Ultihate column moment; or limit flexural strength of the reirforced con-

M4 Desisnmoment due to faciored constructionioads

M"1 Column noment aboveajoint
M"" Colmn moment b€lov a joint
MD Desisn deadload moment
Mt Fixed'end monent
Mr. Flexural Btrength ofa fully composite bem
Mt Fixed'end moment at factorcd load
Mft Factoredlive load honent
Mr. Moment at the face ofan openhg
Mft Fired-end moment at se ice load
M-- Maximum moment
M-i Minimum monent
M, Nominal moment
M., Nomjnal bendiDs sheneth for bending in the plane ofthe r dis
M,," Nominal bending strcnsth for bendins in the plane of the y axis
M"r Total moment on a column cross section about middepth \rheD the plastic
neutfal axis is atthe distancez below middepth
Total honent on a coluhn cross section about middepth when the plastic
neuiral a-\is is a at middepth
MP Plastic moment calacity
M P l a s r ; cn o i p - r " " l a c i r o f d . o y p o s i r eB e 1 o l
Plastic moment capacity of a plate
M Plastic moment capacity of a weld throat section
M" Moment capacity at serviceload; or servicedesiga moment
M"! Servicelive-load moment
l,imit flexural strensth ofsleel portion subjectedto bendins alone
M," I-imit fiexural sirength of 6tee1portion
Secondarybendins moment abovea web openingatthe hish moment end
Secondarybendins moment abovea web opening at the los, noment end
M,, fntimate moment: or factorcd moment
M," Factoredmoment at the beam c€nter
M," Factorediive-load moneni atthe sulpolts;or bendine moment at rhe end ofa

M Bending mohent at midspan

M fltimate simlly sulpoted factor€dmomeni
M Required moment capacity for bending component ir the ploe ofther dis
Required moment capacity for bending component in the plde of the y alis
The smallef .equ ed moment applied at one end of a cotumn
The ldger rcquircd noment applied at the end ofa collrjm opposite io M,,l
M," Bendingmoment alons a weld line
M X{onent at first yielding
M(e) Moment exlressed as a function olend rotation e
Monent conespondinsto end rotation of2.5 milltadians
Mohent coresponding to end rotation of10 milliradians
Desicn parameter for base plates
N Nunber of stud shear connectors
Actual number ofstud connectorsused in desisa
N Number ofshear connectorsrcquired 1orpdtial interaction
N Side dimension ofa baseplate
N N u b F ro f n L r d s . o . F n l a r a o " r m i r r e r : e r l ; u n
Modular raiiot/r";or a desisn paraneter defined in Sec.6.2.2

Concentfatedload; or the total forcetransfered from a steel to a concretecol

umn (Fis. 6.46)ior vertical load;or compressiveforce
Beadng load on a foDdaiioni or a iensile force below a web opening
 Aial load in a beam to the le{t of ajoint
Euler buckliDg index for a column (see al6o Pr)
Limit compressive strcnsth of rcinlorced concrcte porlions subjected t

tr'actored conshuction point load on eider

Limit cohpressive sbength of reinforced conoete po4ion subjected to

Limii tensile strensth of reinfo.ced conoete portion subjected to teNion

alone, taken negative
Column diat load above a joint; or force in the concrete fitl of a flled
tube colum; or force on concrete above the distdce +2 from middepth
Column dial load betow a joint; or lorce on concrete from the distance

Point load due to sewice dead load

Factorcd point load due to senice dead load
Euler colum buckling Btrength
Resultart ofvertical forces actins on an inner panel
Pf I'actored point load
Capacity for biaxiaily eccentdc uial tbrce
PL Point ]oad due to seNice live load
Factored point load due to Bervice live load
Nominal strencth of a colmn
Limit compressive sEeneih of reinforced concret€ poftion
Nominal squash load of a composite colurnn section
Nominal coluhn strcnsth about the r ui3
Nominal column sbength about the y ais
Total dial force on a cotumn ooss section when the plastic neuhal uis
j s a . r c F o i s l a . c e2 D e l o wr h e m r d o p p t h
Total uial lorce on a columr cross sectlon when the plastic neutrat dis
is at middepth
Theoretical squash load of a composite column section; or factored load
coDespoDding to the area eDclosedby a stnctural shape
P,I Force on reidorcement at the iop or bottom of a section
Force on reinforcement at middepth
Portion of factored dial load resist€d by a steel 3hape
Limit comprcssive streDgth of the steel portion
4,,4"4, Forces defined in App- B
Compressive fo.ce above a web openine
Strencth in compression; or factored trsnsfer force; or factored axial
loadi or a-liat compression
Wind load
P, Alial force capacity for eccentdcity e. in the plane ofthe I dis
 r".:l:_i ' ! 5 ' 6 e .o q I o n : o r a r d r o n " . s D a , i . r . o ,p . , e r r r . . , y
: 9 : ' : ol
e D rne ptane . 1 c 1 hv
thr dis
Compressive strength of a steei section, A.tr,
Ptr Compressiveyield force in the top flanse
Tonsile)'ield lorce in a cover plate
P,, Tensile yield fore in a rolted shape
Cohpressive l,'ield force in the web
a I-oad resisled by one shear coDnectorjor the realuctioncoefficienr
@,
a. Noninal strength of a stud shear comector
a" Reduction coefrcient
a" l,rltimate strcnsth of a 6hear connector
R Exterhal force: or reacrion; or the numericat factor in Iq. (6.30);
or the rcsul-
taDt horizontal forces (Fig 6.46)j or the rcsponse modification
coefficient ih

-R6 Requircd tat€ral bmcins force

lil. Design strcngth iD beadns
R,, Responsemoditication coef{icienrin seismicdesisr!
fia Noninal strensth ofbolts, wetds, and connectedetements
n," Capacity of i.he effecrive net area
l?^" Shear capacttyofa net section
n" Yield or vertical shear capacity ofa
eross sectionofa plare
R,, S r F n 8 1 h . a d u ,r o . f a . o " t o - r L o " , r a , o . . . a . , . " ' , " . U I rna ;b- or enr-
eo larar eLt. the supportjng beams
S r , . e r $ h F d u f l o r r a ,r o r f o " - r I o s : - - - r o e d s r p p td " c k w i r h I a
" rios oricnr-
eo lerpendrcnlar to the supportjna beahs
R Requircd streosth ofbolts, weldB,and connecredelenenrs: or factored
shear
/ Radius ol slaatioq or design srrensrh ofa bott
eroup
/,, Modified radius of $n arion
r" Radius ofCyration ofa steet pipe or tuDe
r, Desisn shear strcngrl ofone bott
." Radius ofgl,aation abourf, axis
.. RadiuB of glration about z axis
S Internal forc€;or suiface area ofconcrere
S, Section modulus for the boftom flanee
S," ConBtruciiondead ]oad
54 Constmction live load
S, SeNice dead toad
S" Etrective section nodutus ofa partialy compoBltesection
S, Senice live load
S" Sectionmodrius ofa siflrcrulat steel section
S, Section modutus for the top flanse
s, Section modulus of a t.flnsforrned cohposite section
s" Section modulue dbouta a-{is
Slip
Maximm slip; or h€ximum t1e spacing
Spacins of column ties
SpaciDg of transverse reinforcement measured alons the lonsitudiDal axis of
a structuml member
T
Chord forceB at A and -D, respectivety
T. Tensil€ force at the face ofan openins
T TeDsile yield force or a gloEs section
Maximum chod force
T Tensile ultimate force on a net section
T Factored tensile yield force on the gross area ofthe bottom chord of a tnr8s
T tr'actored ftacture load on the net section ofthe bottom chord ofa huss
T"
T" Factored dial tension
T Force in the vedical reirforcement shom iD Fis. 6.18c
T Nominal shensth in tetrsion of vertical joint reinforcement directlv attached

T1 Force shonn in Fis. 6.28 md given by Eq- (6.2a)

Cover plate thickness

Time in days alier castins
Ilanse thickness
Thickness of column flmge
Age of con$ete at time ofloadins

Slab thickness
t Steel panel thickness
Thickness ofthe stem of a tee
ThickneBs of a steel pipe
Top chord thicloesB
Web thickness; or width of a wall
Shear or volume of concrete; or shear at the centerlire of a web opening
v6 Required shear streDgth of a bolt at Beraice toad; or ultimate beam sheari or
averase ofbean shears applied t ajoint; or shear below a web opening
Beam shear io the left of a joint
Beam Bhear to the right of a joint
 Notation xxiii

\ Vr'1umeofconcrerei d avemge ofcoiumn shears

apptied to a jointj or nominal
sJ1edresutance of a concretecotmnj or shear assisned
to co;oere
v Column shear actins on ajoint
Nominal shear resistanceof the inner conoe@ compressron
srrut
Y,,, Ultinate column shea.
Y. Colun1nshear aboveajoint (Fis. 6.14)
v"" Colunn shear below ajoinr (Fis. 6_14)
v", Total shear force in an exi,edorstub
v,,, Noninal lhearrsistance ofan outer concrerecompressron
tield (fig. 6.19);or
comp.essionfi eld strensth
vi" Total shear force in an intedor stub
v
v Nominal shear rcsistance
v Ve.tical shear capacityofa compositeplate
i/ Shear streneth ofsteel; or shcar assisnedto a
st et shape
v Nominal shear resistanceofa steet panei (Fig. Lj.19l
Snear strensth oftiesi or shear assi$ed to ties;
or shear abovea web opening
v Ultimate shea.; or shear capacity;or shear forcei
or shear stress
v Shear force in the bean web at ultimate
Shcar I'ield capacity otthe beam s,eb
v Shear vield strensrh ofa ptate
v Shear yield slreneth of a i,eld
v' Streneth prolided by concreregi1€n by Eq. (6.10)
v' Strcnslh provided byhorizontat ties
siven byXq. (6.11)
Shear streneth of concret€
Ultimate shear stress
w Wind ioadi or weight
Unit weisht of concrete
Construction load per foot of ajoist
Load per linear foor
Averase width ofa rib in slab casr on a formed
steetcleck
SeNice load per foot ofajoist
Factored desisa floor toad
r"h n"yl" d"o ra.FbFa.rn-pa.rsd-"
p r . b " n L . olr. 2 , 2 s t _ p ,o r , J , \ -
steel rolumn is preseni
Y, Distance ftom the top ofthe steel beam to the
centerline of the concretestab,!,
A coordinatei or the $eater of steet cojumn
and erlended face bearinA ptate

Distance from elastic neutrat axis to the outside

sudace ofbottoh anAtes
Delth ofplastic neutrat axis for double angles
 Distance ftom elastic neuhal axis t the outside surface oftop angles
Z Plastic section modulus
z" Plastic section modolus of a steel beam
Z. Plastic section modulus of a Bteel section with reEpect to i Mis
Distance between poinLe about which secondery moments are calcolated at a
veb opening; or a distmce from the midheisht of a cross seciion to the neu-

A Laterat defl€ction
\ Shortening of a steel colun
^r',, Change in force in vertical baB through ajoint region
d% Applied force; or net vertical be€m shear tmnsfeEed into a column
Ay" Net hodzontal column shear tmnsfeDed into a beam
2Mu Sln of beam moments applied to a joint
>M" Sum of coll]]m moments applied to a joint
>Q"' Sum ofnominal sheneths ofshed connectors between the point ol mdimrm
po€itive or negative mom€nt md the point of zero moment to either side
o A nmber between 1 dd 2 for definirg the shape ol the bidial moment con-
tour; or ratio of column shear V" to bean shear V6
e1 A coefficient defined by Eq. (4.74)

Bd Ratio of required pemanent uial load to rcquied total axial load usuallv
taketL aB l.4PnlP,,
91 coemcientdeffned by Eqs. (a.7b) md (6.41)
1 A nrnedcal coefficient reflecting the portion of the steel pipe etrective in car-

6
% Dead-load deflection
a, Live-load deflection
€ Straini estimated shodenins st ain including crcep under sustained load
€" Maxinum st.ain in conoete
€, Initial elastic strain
€" Linear shortenirs shain due to shinkaee of a composite colum
€, Steel pipe tensile stain
0 arctan (d/4)
O, Rotation at an intersection of a be€m line at factored loads
0., Rotation at m intersectior of a beam liae at serice loads
0" End rctation in a simply supported beam
0,i End rctation in a simply supported bean at factorcd loads
0"" End rotation in a simply suppoted beam at serice loads
I" Column slenderness pameter
I" Stem slendemess
 Displacementductility
A Dunerical coefficient that determines the stress level which a steel pipe
filled \rith concrete is allowed to approach at ultimate load

StIess

Resistmce factor for flexue

Resistancefactor for compression
Resistance factor for tension
Resistance factor for shed
Resistancefactor for welds

: !sreviations

A.ASHO American Association of Stat€ Highway Ofticials

A{SHTO American Association of Stste Highway and 1\ ansportation Oticiats
ACI Amedcan Conoete Institute
A]SC American Institute of Steel Construcrion
AISI Amedcan Iron and Steei Institute
ASCE Amedcan SocietyofCivil Engine€rs
ASTM American Society for Testing and Matedats
AWS Americd Weldins Society
BSSC Buildins SeismicSafety Council
CEB Comit6 Euro-Internationale du B6ton
HRB Hishway ResearchBoad
HSS Hollow structural sections
IABSE Intenational AssociatioD for Bridge and Shucrurai Engineerins
IOE Institution ofCiv nryineers (creat Britain)
ISO International Organization for Standadizatiol
L
LRI'D Load and resistancefactor desisl
NEHRP National Eadhquake Hazard Reduction prosram
SSM Superyosedstuengthmethod
WSE Westen Society of Xngineers
WT SFuctuml tees cut ftom a W shape
2L Structural double angles
 Chapter

Introduction

'.1 Milestones
On August 8, 1988, the Bank of China was toppealout in Hong Kong. This,
one of the most spectacular buildings of combined structural steel and con_
cret€, was a fitting tribute to a century of progress in the field of composite
conEtruction.Wh€n topped out, Bank of China was the tallest buildinE our-
side the United States. The structrual engineers made perfect use of thelrin
cipal virtues ofthe component materials: the tensile st;eneth of steel and the
comprpssive sl ren$h of concrete.

- '.1
Concrete-encased
steel
The combined structural use of steel and concrete was 1irst encountereil
alrnost as soon as the two materials becameavailable to structuai enginee$.

Early construction. According to Hogan,ctr. the first blast fumace and iron
r\orks in. Anerica were buitr ar Saugrs. Mass.. in abour t645. buL in those
oays and tor rhe nexl two rcniurics lreel was far roo \aluable a comnodit)
for general structural use. The cement industry traces its beginnings in
A&erica to 1818, when a souce of natuml hydrautic cement was'disco;-ered
near Sullivan, N.Ycr6 The noted canal engineer CanvassWhite patented this
"water lime" in 1819 and used it for stone masonry walls and aqueducts of
the Erie Canal. A half-centuy later, in 1821, David Saylor applied'lor a U.S.

*Supe.sdiptc21 refersto Rel C21ln Cha!.

?, Liter.rue.
Chapler
One

patent on a "new ard improved cement" he claimed to be "in every respect

equal to the portland cement made in England." Saylor built a mi1l at Copley,
Pa., and produced the filst portland cement in the United States.cll By 1889.
rotary kiins were built in Lehigh Valley, marking the beginning of the ma€b
production of cement.e2
Mea[while, the steel proclucers were also making progress. Bessemer con-
verters, introduced in the 1860s,made it possibl€to supply steel in quantib.
From thai time, output grew rapidly.G'?l In 1869, Captain James Eads
obtained cast alloy steel tubescs for his bridge a$oss the Mississippi River at
St. Louis, the first important use of steel for bridgework in the United
States.G?The Glasgow Bddge was the lirst large, all-steel crossing.Gt c?
Started in 1878, it spanned the Missoud River at Glasgow, Mo. The flve river
spans, 314 lt (95.7 m) each, were deck and through Whipple trusses. Soon
after, William LeBaron Jenny used steel in the skeleton of the Home
Insurance Building in Chicago. Its constr'uction commenced in 1884 rrith
wrought-fuon beams for the fiIst six floors but was compieted with bessemer
steel beams.G13Ihus, by about 1890, the prcrequisites for composite consh"lrc-
tion were on hand,c11,C13
The first well-documented structural use in America of rolled beams
embedded in concrcte was in the Ward House, a pdvate rcsidence completed
in PoIt Cheste( N.Y. in 187?.c1ctIt waB more than another decadebefor€
the new combination began to find wider applications. In buildings, concrete
began replacing \'rood and masonry in floor construction dudng the late 1880s
and the 1890s.c4,c5,c7 {e,cr3,cr7,crr,c25,c1
The Methodist Building, built ir 1894
in Pittsburgh, was among the early ones that used concrete-encasedsteel
floor beams.c'zs In 1897, a frrc started in a nearby building, leaped across an
alley, and consumed the contents of the Methodist Building, but the basic
shucture remained relatively unaffected.c'1,c'5In 1896, several comparfes
submitted their floor constructions to fire tests in response to a rcquest ftom
Stevenson Constable, New York City Superintendent of Buildings.c'5 In his
1905 inaugural address as president of the Ame can Society of Civil
Engineerc IASCE), C. C. Schneider stated that reinforced concrete proved
satisfactory fo? fireproofing ste€l in buildings anal as a prctection to the steel-
work over railroad hacks-c3
In 1894, Josef Melan, an engineer from Vienna, Austria, obtained an
American patent for highway bridge constructioncr3 consisting of several
steel I beams, bent to the curvature of an arch, completely embeddedin con-
crete.cs'zMelan claimed that the steel and conoet€ acted together; he submit-
ted deflection calculations to pmve his point.cloc3' One of the first bridges of
this type was built near Rock Rapids, Iowa, in the same year,c32c13 and con-
struction of many other Melan bridges was reported in the following
yeals.c14,c15,c16,c13,c23,c21,cr6,cr8
Replacementof th€ curved beams with stmight
as-rolied or riveted girderB was the ne)'t step.c,,,c,, By the turn of the centu-
ry, steel beam encasement in condete was a r€$ ar practice in both build-
ings and bddges, primarily to protect steel against firc and other elements.
The Druecker warehouses, built in Chicago in 1898, were amory the first to
 use steel columns fully encasedin concrete.c1s.c25
This sc\eme was revened
in the new Govemment Pdnting Office in ]Mashingtonin 1901. where pipe
columns were filled with concrete to increase the catracitv of a crane

Early research and specifications. The first systematic tests of comDosite

c o L u m n sw e r e c o n d L . t . o c t C o l u m b , t n ' e " s i t o C i , : l E n g n F e r . g
Laboratory in 1908 by W H. Burrt In 1912, A. N. Talbot and A. R. Lord
rcported on tests of 31 columns made at the University of Itlinois including
21 composite and 10 bare steel co1umns.,The tests indicated that the
streneth of compositecolumne may be predicted best by adding the separate
strengths ofthe steel and concreteparts of the column. Rules for the design of
composite columns were included in the earliest nationwide rccommenda-
tions for rcinforced concretedesign.D,,Dr,D5 These r-ulestended to Dermit verv
l o h c r " e s s efao r c ^ n ( r e t ea n d r c 0 e c t Fcdo l r i d e r d be c a u r o nr e e a r d i n ce o t u m "
in.lab;l:ry.Tne earlj rule" hdo no p.ovi. on- or beroins.
l n I 9 2 2 .r h e D o m r i o n B r i d g ec o r p a n : o ' c a r a d a i o n d u , r " or e = r "o f r w o
floor panels, each consisting ola concreteslab and two steel I beams encased
in concrete. In reporting on the results of these tests. H. M. MacKav. p
Gillespie. and C. Leluau3 wrote:
Wlile suchteBtshavehithelto beendcsiFed on the assumptionthai the cntire
. u a o . . i.- r " " i o o ) h " - 1 , - . r . w s s r h u L gr , - d r h es r - . i , o ,ghr
" " o a r, " e r
rcally acttogethersoas to lbrm a comDosr LcDcarn....
At about the same timo, tests of compositebeams were car ed out also in
the United Statesa and in England.c All of them irdicated qood interaction
b e r u e e nr n e r q o m d r F . i a l .T. h u s a o l c n i n g p o r l p r o v i d " o, b r a c h a i no "
studies of composit€beams which have continued "to a.
this dal-.In 1924, H. M.
MacKay of Mccill University in Montreat, who \ras involved in the Dominion
Bridge program, conducted a new series of tests? to obtair additional bond
and horizontal shear data. As an innovation and departure from the tradi
tional lull encasement,seveml specimenshad only their top flanges embed-
ded in the slab, a caseofpartial encasement.
In 1928, R. R. Zipprodt,D? structural engineer of the Podland Cement
Association,rcported that Ame can and Canadian buildine codesmade little
o r n o a l o $ a n c pr b r r h e s l r e n g h e n : n ge f f F c lu f c o n c r F t F
that same year, Chicago structural engineer F. A. Randall suggested "rcz.ererL Lar.r
testing a
full-size floor section. He was named chairman of a Western Societv of
EnginpFrbcorm:lrFF organiredto condu.t 1e tesrc.sTh" s,x-parel flooi.t0
by 64 ft (12 by 20 m), contained steel beams fullv encasedin concrete made
with gravel aggregatesin foul panels and cinder in the other two., The tests
demonstrated the strengthening effect of concrete. The committee recom-
mended higher allowable steel stresses for encased steet beams.1oWithin 2
years, the shengthening effect was recognizedbv an amendment to the New
York City Building Code permitting steel stress of 20 kips per square inch
' h c j ,' 1 3 8M P , f o r p n , a b e o b e d m s a b c o m p a r F d t o t 8 kl Z. iq m p ir.unen
1.4 ChaDter
Ons

cased beams.D8The Empirc State Building, built in Nevr York Cif,y between
1929 and 1931, had its steel lialrre encased in cindel concrete,m'c2qq3 but the
strengthening effect ofthe encasement was not accounted for in stress design
calculations for either the gravity or the wind loads. On the other hand, in
drifi calculations the stifening effect ofthe encasement was included by dou-
bling the stiftuesses of individual lrame members from those based on the
properties ofth€b st€e1sections alone.
In 1936, the American Institute of St€el Construction (AISC) adopted a
revised vemion ol its 1923 Standard Specification under the title Specfication
for the Design, Fabdcation and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings.Dll
the document included a new Section 8 Composite Beams specit/ing geneml
rcquircments for the use of steel beams encased in concrete. The salne provi-
sions were includ€d in the 1946 reyision and thus rcmained in force without
changeunlil 1961.
Fmm 1922 to 1925, a cooperative study of bridge impact loading was con-
ducted by the Engineering Expedment Station of lowa State College, Iowa
State Highway Commission, and the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads.5 The first
experiments were made near Ames, Iowa, on the Skunk River 8ddge, a
through-huss shucture s/hose stringerc were padially encaseal beams. The
tests indicated that most of the stringers exhibited co$plete bond between
concreteand structural steel. Belore replacement ofthe bridge in 1948, addi-
tional tests were made to check the remaining composite action.'?4The west
approach span had tull composite action, but the bond was lost in the west
parel of the bridge a]ld was detedomting in other bridg€ stringers. This find-
ing pointed out a major wealness of composite action obtained tbrough par-
tial encasement: in time, long after construction and for many often unpre-
Cictable reasonB, aalhesive bond between steel and concrcte may be lost.23

1.1.2 Shearconnectors
The solution to the loss of bond was indicated in two U.S. patents issued in
1903D1and 1926.D6.

First mechanicalconnectors. The firBt patent, applied lor in 1903, was issued
to Julius Khan of Dehoit and the second, applied fo! in 1921, to Julius Khan
o{ Youngstowr. Both pmposed to connect the steel beam to the conoete slab
by mechanical means. These may have been the first pmposals for mechani-
cal connectors, an important contribution to the evolution of composite con-
struction. Beams of this type were evaluated in the early twenties at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Purdue University, Truscon Steel
Company, and the University of Nebraska.a Six out of eight Bp€cimens tested
failed in fle:rural comprcssion in the slab aft€r lelding ofthe steel beam, one
failed in bond, and one test was discontinued beforc failule. Good interaction
at working loads and high overload capacities were observeal.seTests of anoth-
er six composite bea;ns were reported by R. A. CaugheyMl in 1929. On the
basis of these t€sts and a historical rel']ew of tests reported in the litemture
 1.5

prior to 1929, Caughey concluded that composite beams may be designed

safely on the basis of "elementary pdnciples of design" and recommended
allowable bond shess of 60 psi (413 kPa) for 2 ksi (14 MPa) concrete.For the
case of higher bond stresses,Caughey suggestedth€ use of angles riveted to
the top flange ofthe steel beam.M2
Other forms of mechanical connectorswere used on the approachesto t\vo
major New York area b dges to increase the stiffness of their' flools ca4ca5
Anchor bolts, hooked at the upper end to prevent uplift, werc attached by
double nuts at the Bayonne Bridge built in 1928 and bulb angles connected
with rivets on the New York appmach to the 1930 vintage Georye Washington
Bridge. The corresponding beams were desigled as steel members without
compositeaction,
Composite action of concrcte and structural steel attmcted early attention
not only in North America but also in Europe. In 1887, an article in
Engineering News rcpofied on Lindsay's flooring in England: rcI€d steel sec-
tions riveted into sheet piling like conflgurations frlled with concrete were
proposedfor bridge and building floor" and fo" column".'"A compreher.'ve
paper prcsented belore the Institution of Ciyil Engineerc in 1891 described
severai fircproof systems, considering separately the flue-resisting pmperties
of various materiais and their combinations.c6In a paper read on Apr. 4,
1894, before the ASCE, the well-known Austrian engineer Fritz von
Emperyer reported on three "concrete-iron"systems used in Ewope for high
way bridges.cr' I\vo ofthese used rclled shapesin combination with conoete;
one was introduced by R. Wrinsch of Hungary in 1884 and the other $/as
called "System Melan" after its Austrian inventor. By ihe time of von
Emperger's presentation, several bddges ofboth twes were in ser-vicein cen-
tlal Europe. Tables and design methods for compositebeams were published
in England between 1910 and 1920,D3and the National Physical Laboratory
tested slab specimensreinlorced with rolled beams in 1922 23.6Widespread
interest in continental Europe was evident from the large number of papers
published on the subject. But even by 1932 the published reports were con-
cerned only with encasedconstruction relying on natural bond; and a thor'
ough report on tests of fully and partially encasedrolled steel beams, a few of
them with flexible angle shear connectors,was published as late as 1939.11
However. the decade of the thidies contributed a landmark: Otto Schaub
received a Swiss patent for spiral shear connectorson July 30, 1932. The fol-
lowing year Schaub applied in the United States. He was granted a U.S.
patent under the name "spiral shear connectors"on Oct. 8, 1935.Dr0

Second-generationconneclors. The Iirst systematic studies of composite

beams with mechanical shear connectorswere made in Switzerland in con-
nection with the development of the so-called alpha system. The system
appears to have had its odein in Belgium and some early applications in
Flance. In this method of constmction, the transfer of horizontal shear ftom
the con$ete slab to the steel beam was assured bv muod bars fonned into a
helir. The helix, called a spiral shear connector,was welded to the top flance
1.6

ofthe steel section at the points olcontact along the length ofthe beam. Tests
of spiml shear connectors, carried out by Voellmy, Brunner, and RoS at the
Swiss Federal Institute for Testing Mat€dals in Ziirich, were completed in
1936.11,1ers,oThe system was then introduced commeniallv in th; United
States, whe?e additional tests were conducted at Columbiari and Lehiehr6.tr
universities and more than a decade later at tbe University of Illi;ois.ro
Porete Company of New Je$ey published a design manual,Dl3 and practical
applications spread rapidly in the field of bighway bridges. principally in
New York and other northeastem states. The first Amedcan apDlication. the
Van Dam Street Bridge was designed in 19J9 as a part of the approach
viaduct to the Queens-Midtown l\nnel in New York.Dr3,DDAnother early
bridge with spiral shear connecto?swas the Con€y Island Avenue Bridse on
the Bell Parkuay in Brookljal.N.Y. buiit in 1940.Dri'T\vo years larer.spbal
connectors were used on the approach spans ol the Lackawanna Avenue
Bridge in Scrarton, Pa.c36The first building with sptuat shear connecto$ was
a New York apartment house on the Grand Concourse at 17bth Sheet built in
1946.D13
After the early studies of spiral connecto$, the European research commu-
niry lumed its attenlion ro r$o new tJ4)es: { lrconnec{oismade from reinforc-
ing barc in the forIr ofhooks or loops, and (2) stiff connectors maale from rcc_
tangular steel bals or from mlled shapes welded to the steel beam in such a
manner as to offe? most reBistance to bending. The two t,?es were olten com_
bined, $'ith the stitr connector assigned the function of p;eventing slip while
the hook or loop was to resist uplift. Tests conducted in Switzerlandr8 and
cermanjt37 15t1,,jz,,5were followed by genelal acceptance in practical applica-
tions to highway bridges. A fere tests of stifT connectors were ca[ied out in
the United States.r7,r7r, Their practical use was limited mostly to angles
welded aloag the cut end. Wisconsin and Iowa state highway departme-nts
were their principal users.
Wlile European plactices tur.ned to stiff connectors combined with hooks.
American engineers showed prcference for flexible connectors requiring less
fabrication. The experimental investigations carried out before thJemereence
of stud connectors included flexible connectors made from rolled shapes,
mostly channels. The channel connectorc had one flange welded to the beim
the other flange furnished rcsistance to uplift. The tests were made at LehisL
Universit]16and at the Unrversiryoflllinois." "3 The rests ar lllinois were
extensive, involving 152 quarter-scale and 4Z fuIl-size specimens. ofwhich 92
were T beams and 10? push-out specimens.Both static anil fatigue tests were
included.A part of a cooperati!einvesrigationbetweenlhe univer.jR. fie
Illinois Division of Highways, and the U.S. Bureau of public Roads. thev were
led by N. M. Newmark and C. P Siess.Thc flcxjbtechannetshear connecLor
found pnctical applications in many highway bridges. The bridges on the ini.
tial construction of the New Jersey Turnpike were the first major
application.c3s The Ohio Tumpik€ was another maior user But in less than e
decade alter the completion of the Illinois studies, the flexible chamel shear
connectors werc supplanted by stud connectors.
 '1.7

Stud shearconnectors. Perhaps the most important innovation in the freld of

mechanical shear connectors was the entry of end-welded studs. The studs
not only provided a more economicalshear connecior but also made practical
the application of composite construction to building flools. Studies of stud
connecton began at the University of lllinois in 19543?as commercial tests
for Nelson Stud Welding of Lorain, Ohio. Aimed princlpally at the bddge
market, they included four series of push-out tests3sand fatigue tests ofbare
studs.rl Additional tests at Iilinois were concernedwith plate reinforced con-
crete.3aThe Iilinois tests wele followed shortly btr tests of 1 futl-size double T
beam36and 10 push-out specimensat Lehigh Univemity3Tfor KSM Products,
Inc., of Ne*' Jerse]'. In the late 1950s, more extensive tests, aimed at the
building market, were staded at Lehieh Univemitls undcr the sponsorship
oi the AISC. The first structures with stud shear connectors{,ere erected in
1956: a continuous plate girder bridge at Ft. Piene, S.D.,ca0D15 composite
ftaming for IBM'S Ensineering Labomtory at Poushkeepsie,N.Y,c3eand stor-
age tank platforms of the American Sugar Refining Company in
Philadelphia.cl5Within a few years, major buildings were buitt with compos-
ite flools. The sever-story court house and the four-story federal office build-
ing in Brookl]-n were designedand the contract for their. construction alvard
ed in 1960.Gt Two way composite floor made its debut at Detroit,s Cobo
Hall.ca Completedin 1961,the steel framing for Hall C was designedfor con
tinuit]' in both dircctions and for compositeaction in positive-momentzones.
OuNsideNorthAmerica, the stud connectoNwere iotroduced tiroush exDer-
r r e n t . r l i r v p " r i g d r i o nc" r E r ' . o r n r \ F s F c o ' 1hd- l t o l r \ " l 9 i 0 r a - l n p e r i . l
Collegein London.a,,6tBv 1960.the tests included 28 futl-scale and 66 small,
scalebeams and push-out specimenswith stud shear connectors.ss The Bdtish
studies were soon followed by studies on the continent,tr:rin Australia,sa and
in Japan.?1An innovative application took place in France on the Tancarville
suspensionbddge over River Seine near Le Ha\Te in i,he form of a deck com-
prised of steel plates connectedto a concreteoverlay with sfuds.c]1c4,Today
the stud connectoris used thmughout the world wlth the exception of those
countries w_heresemiautomatic stud weldins is uneconomical.
ln .pire olrlc obviou.oracrcal .,rd e,oror c adv,r1.rgF.of"rLd cor 1e.rorb,
nen ideas for connectingthe concreteslab to the supporting steel beams are
being encountered.Ttvorecent proposalscar be used to eliminate specifrcdraw-
backs of studs: (1) large power requirements for welding and (2) construction
hazards prcsented by shop-weldedstuds. Both werc developedin Eruope, one
r n L i F . h t e r j t a r n ra0i r F o a t r h e o L , i l d i r m g €r k F ra n d r l " o i f e , i n c e r r ' a ; J D '
proposedfor bridge applications.The fimt is cold-fomed fiom sheet steetin thc
form of an angle and fastened to the steel b€am using a po\,!.der-actuated toot.
The second,called Perfobondrib. is a % x 2%-in (1J x 60-mml per.fbmtedsteel
bar welded continuously along the top flange ofthe bddge gider.
In 1956, the Committee on Bridges and Structures of the American
Association of State Hishway Offlcials (A-{SHO) adopted for the first time an
expandedset ofprcvisions for th€ design of compositebeams. The maior inno-
vation was a s€t of detail mles fbr the desisn of shear connector.sforcins the
1,8 Chapter
One

condete slab and the supporting steel beams to respond to loading as a unl!.
Three tJapesof co.nectorc were included: the older spiml and channel connec-
to$, and the then new stud connectors. The n€w proyisions became a part of
the 1957 edition ofthe specifrcation.DlaA rapid spread ofthe use of composite
bridge construction lollowed. The stud connector soon gained a wide accep-
tance and, thanks to its economy as well as other practical advantages,
rcplaced the older spiral and chanael connectom within a few vears.
cr?sum plaster and mineral wool sprayed-on coatings, iniroduced in the
early 1950s,and other new methods offire protection made concreteencase-
ment obsolete. Thus composite action obtained by encasement was no longer
available to the structulal engineer creating incentive for the developmenr
and use of mechanical shear connectors.One of the firct steps towarri accep-
tance of composite construction vrithout encasement in buildinss was the for_
mation of a colnmittee to develop design recommenalations. Orsanized in
1957 under the auspices ofASCE and the American Concrete In;itut€, the
Joint ASCE-ACI Committee on Composite Conshuction had 18 members. It
has been active to this day; about 100 pelsons have served on it unaler 12 dif_
ferent chai$ thus far. In December 1960, the committee issued Tenrauve
Recommendationsfor the Design and Conshuction of Compo€iteBeams anal
Girde$ for Bui1dings.D16 They were the basis for the 1961D17and 1963Drs
AJSC specifrcation proyisions for composite beams with one exception: The
procedure for the desigtr of shear connectors was based on research then
being completed at Lehigh Univenity under the sponsorship ofAISC.as T'he
reedy availability of authoritative, rvell-foundeddtsiea rutes combined wiih
commercial incentive on the paft of stud suppliers led to a rapid adoption of
the technical and economic advantages ol composite floors throughout the
buiiding industry in Norlh Amp,ica.

1.1.3 Steeldecks
andftooring
T\vo other related developments had lasting effect on composite floor con-
struction: formed (corrugated) st€el decks and cellular steel flooring.

Formed steel decks. Formed steel decks r rere designed to support freshly cast
concrete and canf/ construction loads. However, it was soon observed that the
decks bonded to the concete and contributed to the stmctural response of the
finished slabs.M5The steel deck form serv€al as one-way slab reinforcement.
w1len loadFdro fa;lure.largeslips occurredbpt\LecnLhedeckjnqand concrele
beforelhe ultimalc load$as reached.The final taiturewas usua r bv a com-
brnarionofshedr and bond.r Basedon proprietat rcsr,.,rhe deci manufac-
turcrs published load tables and installation guidelines for their products.Ms
Since no general specification lor the design ofcomposite slabs was available,
the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) initiated in 1966 an extensive
theoretical and experimental investigation of steel fom-reinforceal slabs at
Iowa State University.'-5After the odginat investigation was compteted in
19?4, studies have continued to this day under the sponsorship of ihe
 1.9

National Science Foundation and several industdal sources. In 1984, the

ASCE issued the Specificationfor the Design and Construction of Composite
SlabsD50,D37 based on the resuits of rcsearch at Iova State. Today,deck-rcin-
forced slabs are used universally in steel-ftamedbuildings.
For composite floor construction, the permanent steel folrns rcsulted in a
complete elimiration ofbond bet\r'eenthe concrete slab and the steel section
unless the forms spanned only bet$'een the flanges ofthe supporting beams
This last form of construction was adopted for bddges and has been used to
this day. On the other hand, in building constluction thc economy favored
continuous coverage over the supporting beams. Thus, to obtain compositc
action between the concreteslab and the supporting stcel framing, it was nec-
essary to weld the shear connectorcthrough the deck. Granco Steel Products
Company of St. Louis developeda special connectormade of steel sheet that
frtted into the corrugations and was welded manually through the deck to the
supporting beams. For early applications of stud connectors, holes were
punched in the steel deck, but by the middle sixties the stud manufacturers
developed methods for semiautomatic wetdine through not only black but
also lightly galvanized deck. Fudher developmentincluded hot'dipped decks
ae well.D'5Since the early 1970s,welding of studs thrcugh galvanized decks
has been a standard practice.

cellular steel flooring. On the basis of several inteNiews with design cngi-
neers in New York City and other involved personnel, an article published in
Ciuil Engineering in 1971r':5haced the developmenl of cellular steel floors.
Even as far back as 1925, some engineem were concemed about the heavy
weight of concretefloor slabs. Could not a lightweight floor be designedthat
could be mass-produced,cheaply shipped to the site, and rapidly laid in place,
making possible big savings in thc stcet frame and foundations? Indeed it
could. The answer proved to be a cellular steel floor made by H. H. Robertson
Company of Pittsburgh, until then a manufacturer of mctal roof decks
During the thifties, this steel deck began to be uscd lor floor systeme,mostly
in two- and three-story industdal buildings. By 1938, ensineers started to
use its floor cells for elcctrihcation to r-un a building's power, telephone, and
siglal wires. The first cellular floor was laid in the early 1930sat a Baltimore
& Ohio Railroad Company wardhouse in Pittsburgh. Follorving lVorld War II,
cellular steel floorc staded their climb in high-rise strucrures-Among the sev-
eral forces that brought steel-deck flooIS to the fore, the two major factors
were sharpiy rlsing labor costs,making the installation and removal of $'ood
forms less athactive, and the dwindling supply ofcinder, fbrcing engincerc to
go to more expensive lightweight aggegates.
In the early metal floom, the steel decking the only structural element-
"'as
ConcretefiIl was addod on the top ofthe deck to obtain the neededfirc rating
and provide a level sudace. Brt the ero*'th ol this early sl'stem was limited
becauseit had to be combined with a firepmof ceiljng systcm, inva ably an
expensive item. The bidh of spmy-on fueproofrng set off a rapid growth of
cellular steel floors. Sprayed on bcams and the undemide ofstcel decking, the
1.10

new fire protection eliminated the need for costly fircploof ceilings. Another
questionarose in the minds of engineels: Since there is concrcte o; the top of
steel decking, why not make it carry part of the load? About 19b0, Granco
Steel Pmducts Cornpany became the first to market a steel aleek with wires
welded to its top surface per?endicular to th€ colrugations. T.hus the concrete
and the deck lirked logelher.forming a composire.lab. In rhe early
"ere
1960s, Inland-Ryelson Company of Chicago came out with a celiular steel
flooring with embossed side$'alls. The embossments ausrnentecl the natural
bond berweenthe sleel deck and lhe concrclc.Nor {he-ereineercolrldset a
-.re"t
slab.s)6l,emas btrong as or strongprrhaD bplora usine a thlnner-gage
for the deck or get longer spa.nswith the same thickness.
A major obstacle to the use of composite design with steel decking was
caused by the holes created over the beams when the steel deck corrueitions
run perpendiclaf {o {he beams.AIler consultingengineerA. H. Arrdnsonof
Hamilton, Ontario, suggested the use of composite floor eonstruction for 6labs
cast on unintenupted steel folms with deep corugations, a pilot test of a full_
size T beam was conducted at McMaster Universitv.60The beam was com_
posed of a rciled steet section, a B-in-deep (?6-mm) steel deck s.ith corruga_
tion8 running per?endicular to the steel beam, stud shear connectors welal=eal
in the deck troughs, and a concrete slab cast on the steel aleck.The test
dpmon6traled.thefeasibiliryoI designingcompos:rpbeam" with deep deck..
rJunig rne to o$1ngdecade.many Lesiswere,nsdeofconposileconsLrucl,on
with propdetary products, often lor specific applications. The results of a
more detailed investigation at McMaster University were reported in 1967.5s
It was observed that the pmportions of the deck ribs influenced the mode of
failure. Ifa deep rib is too nallorfi, then a horizontal force aDDlied to the slab
-After
would lend 10 rrack rhe concretealong the rop ofrhe deck. inilial hori_
zontal cracking, the anchorage of the stud in the solid portion of the slab
aboveLhedeck corr-ugar,ons made a significanlconrribunonto rhe ability of
the compositebeam to maintain the load.
In 1970, researchers at Lehigh Unive$ity analyzed the results of many
commcrc'altesls madF during tl-e prFcedingyeals and publi.hed tentati\;
design reconmendations for composite beams with steel decks 3 in (26 mm)
or less in depth.DaFor decks up to 1.b in (88 mm) deep,they found no signifi-
cant reduction in ultimate load; the beam can be desisned as ifthe slab-were
bolid.Tbey follo$ed up thc srudy with a sysLematic;yperimenrat intesLiga_
tion of the effects of kno.wn variables using rolled beams and break_forrrrld
decks made specfically for the investigation. Additional beams were testeal at
the Udversity of Texas. The finat reporl of the Lehigh investigation,?? includ_
ing the tests at the University of Texas and earlier commerci;l tests in addi-
tion to those made at Lehigh, contained design guidelines based on a totat of
75 full-size beam t€sts. These guidelines were adopted by AISC in 19?8 as a
part of thei? sp€cfication for buildings.D3e The method, utilizing a reduction
formria applied to the shength of shear connectorc embedded i; a solid slab,
has been used to ihis day. It is applicable to both nor.rnal-weight and light_
welEni concrete.
 lnlroduction 1.11

Dudng the past 20 years, the use of steel decks became widespread
thoughout the world, and problems arising trom their use have been studied
intensively abroad, particularly in Australia,lrr Canada,106 and
Ger:nanv,Da5
Switzerland.l03 It can be expected that such studies and the subsequent
exchangeof ideas will lead to a much better understanding of the str-uctural
6ehavior that will eventually be reflected in bettcr more rational design
methods.

_ .1 oevelopmentsafler 1960

Continuing research resulted eventualy in the transition from the allowable

shess design to design based on the stlength ofmcmbers and connections

Bridges. Tb take advantage in bddge design ofthe latest research on the ulti-
mate static strength of shear connectors, rcsearchers on both sides of the
Atlantic examined their fatigue strength. Initial fatigue tests ai Lehigh
UniveNitys? canied out principauy on push-out specimenswere followed bv a
sedes of 12 beam tests. Sevenfull'size beams were tested at the University of
Texas.a6The American studies \tere completed with a systematic sedes of
push-out tests at Lehigh Universitls that resulted in a fatigue design proce'
dure which was adoptedby the.d{SHO Committee on Bddges and Structures
in 196?.D'91The procedurewas noteworthy for its simplicity. It based fatigue
design on the concept of shear shess range, i.e., the difference between the
ma-{imum and minimum shear stresses.The stress-rangeconcept simplified
design and permitted uniform spacing ol connectors, a feature particularlv
dcsirabl€ftom the standpoint of fab cation. While th€ rcsearch in the United
States was limited to stud connectors,Bdtish fatigue studies involved stud,
channel. and bar connectom.s'
In 1965. an advisory committee was formed by AjSI to rcview b dge desie!
practices and to develop design recommendationsfor a more consistent and
efhcient use of steel in highway bridges.D'!s The committee initiated a study
that resulted in the Tentative Criteria for Load Factor Design of Steel
High*'ay Bridges.D'z6 The criteria were presentedto the AASHO Commlttee on
Bridges and Structures in 1968 and pubiished in the 1971 A-A.SHOInterim
Specificationsas an altelnate design method.D'7
Still other investigations included composite plate and box girders com-
monly used in bddges but not in buildings.D"'s'gLimited research was corn-
pleted on compositebeams with inverted steel T sections that were used in
the construction ofa two span continuous bddge in Kansas.Dls

Buildings. Research on the application of lightweight condete to composite

beams was slarted by J. Chin at the University of Coloradowho reported the
rcsults of push-out tests in 1965.a4Other investigations of propdetary aggre-
gates followed. The results of systematic push out tests at Lehigh
Universitv6aand beam tests at the University ofMissouriarA were published,
and included in the 1978 AISC specification.D3'The studies revealed that the
1,12

strength ofa composite beam with a lightweight concrete slab is the same as
that of a beam with a normal-weight concrete of the same compressive
stlength. However, deflections are laryer with lightweight concrete anal the
strength of connectors is reduced. These and follow-up studies at Lehigh
Univemity7? led to a revis€d formula fol th€ ultimate shenqlh o{a stud c; _
nectorapplicablc{o bolh normal-weightand tightueightconcrere.
Among other signifi€ant developments in composite construction, rcsearch
at Lehigh University show€d that u]Iifonn spacing of shear connecto?s is sat.
isfactory for beams subjected to uniformlv distributed load.a5In 1964. tests at
lmperial college in Londondemonsrraledthar heaw concentratedloaahon
compositpbFamcwirh unjformly spacedstud connecror.could inhibjr the
redistributior of shear forces among the connectors and cause a premature
lailure of the composite beam.43To guard against this condition, the 1969
AISC specificationDr3 added a requirement for a minimum nunber of connec,
tols that must be placed between a concenhated load a]ld the nearest point of
zero moment. The effect ofbeam flange thickness on the strensth of siud con_
nectorswas inv"s11g6p6at Case lnstilute ofTbchnolo$ in 1968.63 Ba.ed on
these tests, the 1969 AISC specificafionDz3called for a ;inimum flanse thick_
ness ror slud shear connectorcrha{ are locatedaway from the beim web.
Theoretical and experimental investigations of the ne;afive moment regions
of continuous composite beams were carried out in En;hnd51 and the U;ited
Statesaeduring the 1960s. All ofthem reached the conctusion that beams with
adequately anchored longitudinal reinforcement for slabs in the nesative_
moment regionccan be anatyredby cimpte plastir {heoD. tn t970, r;rk at
the Universify ol Wa.Fick resulredin a method for dererminingrhe mlni
mum amount of transverse reinforcement required in simple and;ontinuous
beam€l,o prevent longirud,nalsplitling ofth; slab along lhe shear connec_
lors.6 Furtherqtudiesofrheeffecrsofvenical shpar anJ rhe effectsor local
buckling of the ste€l comprcssionflange were completedin 1972.?0
The 1969 AISC specificationD23 included another innovation: rules for com_
posite beams haying lewer connecto$ than the number required for {irII com_
posile aclion. Researcha{ Lehigb Unive,sitl5 has shown rhat for a given
steel beam and concrete slab the inoease in bending shength intem;iate
between no composite action and full composit€ action is proportional to the
shear resistancedevelopedbetweenthe steel and concrete,i.e, to the number
of shear connectorc pro\.ided between these limits. Since at timeB it may not
be feasible or it may be unnecessary to p?ovide full composite action, the
specifrcation recognized for the frst time two conditions: full and incomDlete
compositedclion,
A design method for composite castellated beams was proposealin 1966.4?
,
Several investigations of composite open-web joists witi various types of
mechanical connectors were carried out at Washington University in St.
Louis between 1965 and 1920.63Such joists were uied in parkini decks.
Composite trusses with steel d€cks appear econornical for spans bet-ween 40
and 80 ft (12 and 24 m). Floor systemsof this tlAe have been tested and used
for the World tade Center towers in New york,cn the Sears BuildinE in
 1.13

Chicago,D'?s and several other tall buildings. A floor system lalling between
h'usses and full-web girders was intmduced in 1972, the so,calledstub-girder
system.cs'Short stub beams were welded to the top flange ofthe girder and
connected to the slab with shear connectors. The spaces between the stub
beams accommodatedcontinuous floor beams and allowed for the passageof
ducts and pipes. The stub-girder floor system was used in several bdldings in
the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
Work on a major improvement ofthe design of compositebeams was stad-
ed in the €arly 1970sas a part ofthe developmentof a new design method for
steel buildings that eventually became kno\\'rl as load and resistance factor
desie! (LRFD) car Based on fully plastic shength of composite sections, the
method rcsulted in better utilization of matedals and substantial simplifica-
tion of design-D37 It became a pad of the LRFD Specifrcationfor Str-uctuml
Steel Buildinss adopted by AISC in 1986D55 and revised in 1993.D,rThe same
document included another major innovation: rules for the design ofcompos-
ite columns. Prior to 1986, the design of compositecolumns was coveredonly
by Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, published by the
ACI.D80The ACI rrrles for composite columns are based on the same pdnci-
ples as the design of reinforced concrete;the strength approachesthat ofrein-
forced concretecolumns as the percentage of the steel section decreases.On
the other hand, the AISC rules are akin to steel column design and requirc
that the cross sectional area of the steel shape, pipe, or tubing compdses at
least 4 percent ofthe total compositecloss section;the strength of composite
columns approachesthat of steel columns as the percentage of steel section
increases,
Composite columns were used tuequenUyin buildings dudng the first half
of this century. While the pdmary function of the concrcte encasementwas
tire pmtection, it was assigned a portion ofthe total load resisted by the col-
umn even in someofthe very early applications.c30 However,the introduction
of lightweight flreproofing after World War II resulted in a]1 almost complete
elimination of compositecolumns 1|om new buitdings. They returned only in
the early 1970s, as will be described later.. The work on the AISC rules for
composite columns started as an activity of the Structural Specification
Liaison Committ€e organizedby Georye Winter in the 1970swith the support
of the ACI, AISC, and AlSl. The rules were first developedin terms of work-
ing shesses,Da0 later adjust€d to the ultimate-strcngth levelDa,and adopted
by AISC.D55Extensive studies of composite columns have been repofted in
recent years from abroad.o70,Nn0.100 r0r'1t4Exper.imental studies of composite
€olumns with high'strength concrete were caried out at the University of
Califomia u1
The area of perhaps the least progress is that of composite structural
joints. As an illushation, a well-documentedstate-of-the art report preparcd
for the Structural SpecificationLiaison Committee in 1977M?contained a 10-
page section consisting mostly of drawings but no referenceson this subject.
To this day, most ofthejoints for compositemembers are designedas for steel
shuctwes without any regad for concrete.Some early experiments were car-
1.14 ChapterOne

lied out on beam-to-column joints at Lehigh University.67 More recently work

was completed on connections between comFosite beams and concrete
.olu.Itns.r:0Work at the Unive"sirl of Minneboti on beam-Lo-column connec-
tions103and at Virginia Tbch on beam-to-girder connectionslaepromises to
result in signifrcant economies in floor constr.uction.lo3 Over the veals. consid-
erable$ork wab reponed+om abroad63qs?, Studiesofconne(1i;nsqere pdr-
ticularly numercus in Japan and were concemed p ncipally with the resis-
tance ofjoints to earthquake forces.trs
The elements of a composite shucturc a?e weil tied together This major
characteristic of composite conshuction is particularly beneficial in arcas
subject to ftequent shong eadhquakes. It is this characteristic that made
composite design particularly popular in Japan. The acceptance of composite
construction in Califomia was much slower than in the rest of the United
States. At firct, shear connectoN $ere relied on onlv to connect the hodzontal
diaphragmsro rhe sreelfra'ning.bu{ Lt"ebeamsw"ie deoignedas noncompob-
ite. However, during recent yearc composite flools became standaral practice.
E!en so. litrle resea"chelfofl wss direclcd rowa"oproblpmsof seismicres;.-
tance of composite stluctures. Studies of floor beams at the Universitv of
C a l i r o r n i aa L B e r k e l e y ,, . o l u m n s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t vo f C a l i f o r n i aa t S a n
Diego,r'0and lramesand subassembli"s at Lehighrs and Sranford"-"uliver-
sities are a palt of a United StatesJapan cooperative rcsearch effort.
Extensive studies of the d€sign of composite buildings have been under way
in Europe since about 1980D35 in connectionwith their develoDmentof stmc-
rural desigr codeswirh lulrina{iondl appticabiLjtJ, rhe so-caijedEunocodcs.
Prc\.isions for composite construction compdse Eurocode 4, the fbst part ol
\^hich is concernedD'irarily with buildings.

Conferences.Tb evalualp progressjn composjreconsrru.rion.1o sludy cur-

rent design practices, and to identify areas for futue research, a ioint United
StatesJapan seminar was held in Tokyo in 19?8. It was attended by 22 invit
ed attendees, mostly ftom academia. In addition to the padicipants from
J a p a n a n d r h e U n r t e dS r a r e s .o n . r e p r e s e n l a l i v a
e r r e n d e dl r o m e a c h o f
Canada, England, and Germany. The papers presented at the seminar were
published in 1980.M1'The secondUnited States'Japan seminar was held in
Seattle in 1984.M'aIi included attendees flom five countries other than the
United States and Japan. In 1987, the United StatesJapan seminars were
followedup by rhe firsl EnginepringFoundal,ion corferenceon .ompositecon.
stmction held at Henniker, N.H.M13Attended by 96 prolessionals from 1?
countries, it provided a tr-uly worldwide survev of the status of comDosite con-
slruction.Also in t987. an inremarional.5,mposiu.n oE conposiresLeFl.on-
crete shuctues was held in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia.Nll?A slanposium on
mixed structures including new matedals was held by the Intenrational
Association for Bddge and Structural Engineefing (IABSE) in Brussets in
1990.M1eFukuoka, Japan, was the site ol the International Conference on
Steel-Concret€ Composite Structures in 1991.rlr0 A second Engineedng
Foundation conference on composit€ construction, held in 1992 at potosi,
 lntroduction 1.15

Mo.,rr'?3
had attendance similar to the one at Henniker. More than a quarter
of the participants at Potosi also attended ihe first Engineedng Foundation
conference.A United StatesJapan workshop on compositeand h)'brid struc
tures was held in Berkeley, Calif., in September 1992.M,,An intemational
meeting on compositebridges convenedin Barcelona at the end of November
1992. The second United States Japan workshop, called the Second Joint
Technical Coordinating Committee Meeting, con\.enedin Honolulu in Jui"
1995, and the third Engineering Foundation Conferenceon Composite
Conslruction \vas held at Irsee, German! in June 1996.

Becenlbuilclingconstruction
Almost withont exception, skyscraper.sbuilt du ng the past threc decades
have compositefloors and frequenUy also a compositeexterior shell or a few
pdncipal compositecolumns. In 1968, coDstmctionwas completedon the 100-
story John Hancock Center in Chicagoc6rihat was design€d with €xte or
valls as the principal wind-resisting elements. The structure was framed in
steel with shear stiffness of exterior walls provided by massive diagonal X
braces extending the full width of ihe buitding and over the depth of many
floors. The John Hancock building is about 10 percent shorter than the then
still tallest Empire State Buiiding in Ne\r York. The 110-storv World TYade
Center trvin towe6 in New York CitJ',(rarcompleted in 1972 and for a short
time the tallest buildings in the world, are essentiallv vertical tubes consist-
ing of clc'selyspaced$'e1dedsteel extedor columns and deep spandrels, and
an inte or service core also ftamed in steel. The space between the outside
.|\,allsand the core is bridged with compositetrusses erccted as subassemblies
oftwo trusses each and brought to the constrtction site btr baryes.
Currently the tallesi building in the world is the 1450-ft-high(442-m) Sear.s
Tori'erof 1974 vintage located in Chicagoctr.c6rIt, as well as the John
Hancock Building, rvas concelvedand designedbv Fazlur R. I(1an, a b lllanh
structural engineer and innovator, and his team at the Chicago olfice of
Skidmote. Owens and Medll. It was made possible by Khan's recognition
that in very tall buildings the wind fbrces must be assigned to the exte or
walls rather than to the core in the intefior as was done in the past, ard thah
tha available technologymade such a solution economicallyfeasible.Thc exte-
rior ivind resisting wall framed in steel, such as those in the Seals and John
Hancock buildings, required heary sectionsand expensivefabdcation. Khan
reasoned that significant economiescould be achieved if all steel columns.
both interior and et:tedor'.were designedfor veftical loads only and the $-ind
forces taken care of by embeddinethe extedor columns in concrete.Thus the
slrstem utilizing exteriol stoel columns for erection, rcusable temporary wind
bracing, and er,:teriorcomposite columns and rvalls camc into being. DurinE
the past decadesuch a system has been used extensivelyin tho 50- to ?s-storf'
range. lts lirst application was the 2o-storlrContrcl Data Corporationbuildinb
in Houston.clictu completed in 19?0. With this initial step successfullycom-
pleted, the system was soonadopted on a broad scale.
1.16 Chapte.One

The 7s-story Tbxas Commerce Tower, completed in 1982 in Houston,c6l was

at that time the tallest building $dth an exterior composite shell. The steel
ercction was allowed to prcceed 12 floors ahead of concrete. The buitdrrts was
designed by CBM Engineers of Houston. Tbree Filst National Plaza Building
in the ChicagocT? loop, completedin 1982,was designedby Skidmorc, Owings
& MeIIill using composite floors and exterior walis. It has 5T stories and is
757 lt (231m) hiCh. A variation on the tube concept was developed by
LeMessuder Associates/Scl for the 73-story Dallas Main Center,c73complet-
ed in 1985. To satisfj. the request for offices with uninte upted view, the
weight ofthe entirc building was placed on 16 composite colunlns located up
io 20 ft (6 m) inside the outside envelope of the building. For the 6o-story
Momentum Place completed in Dallasc?3in 1988, stip forms were used to
build conuete walls at the four corlrels ofthe building. Stlucturat engineerc,
the Datun Moore Partnerchip, designed these walls to work integrally $.ith
the perimeter composite iiame in resisting lateral forces. The Of6ce of lrwin
G. Cantor of New York designed a composite system that joins €tee1and con-
crete throughout the building in the 54-story $200 million Mellon Bank
Center completedin Philadelphia in 1990.c3,
In 1972, A. c. Tadcs proposed the use of concrcte-filled steel columns ro
decrease the cost of multistory buildings.D3o Six of the recently completed tall
buildings in Seattle are supported on huge pipe columns filled with
conffete-csr IVo Union Square Building is the most advanced application of
this composite system developed by Skilling Ward Magnusson Barkshirc Inc.
The S8-story building includes a core that carries 40 percent of the gravity
loads, rcsists the lateral loads, and supports one end of the flools extending
column-free to the perimeter colunrns. The core is supDorted otr four 10-ft-
d iameter ' 3-m ) pipe columns filled wi rjr l9-ksi rt 30-Mpai conc"ete.
The skyscrapers built duling the past 30 years are olnce buildings in which
column free rcntable space is an economic necessity. This often led to bridg-
ing the space between the service core and the exterior stluctule with com-
posite trusses that not only satisfied the architectural requiement but also
helped stiff€n the structurc in its resistance to horizontal loads. It should b€
noted, howevef that composite construction is used unive$ally in low-rise as
well as in high-rise buildings. Vidually all steel-ftamed buildings built with
concrcte floor slabs capitalize on th€ advantages of composite const?uction. As
the tonnage of steel used in low dse buildings $eatly exceeds that for high-
rise constr-uction, the impodance of the former in th€ application of composite
design is readily apparent.

1.1.6 Recentbridgeconstruction
Most of the ste€l bridges on the 41,000-mi (66,000-km)inte$tate network of
limited-access highways arc of composite conetruction.cdoBuilt principally
dwing the 1960s and 19?0s, the system included a huge number of short
crossings and overyasses as well as many medium-span bridges, the latter
generally coNtructed with husses as the main load-carrying elements. With
 lntroduction 1.17

few excepljions,the overpassesand short cmssings were of compositeI beam

construction whenever built in shuctual steel. The medium-span bridges of
tr-uss conshuction frequently included compositefloors. A twical example of
a medium-span truss bridge with composite flooring is the main structwe
that canies Interstate Hiehway 80 over the Cladon River valley in $'estem
Pennsylvania.T$o three span continuous deck tlusses, lvith the main span of
612 ft (18? m), support a floor of compositeshingers and a concreteslab.
An interesting system for conshuction of compositebddges was developed
in Switzerland in ihe oarly 1970s.'r5iDro The method, called slip-deckine,uti-
lized casting of the bridge deck in segments, after the ercction of the steel
supeNtr-ucture, on stationary forms iocated near ona end or in the middle of
the bridge. Al1 deck segments, usually 80 to 130 ft (24 to 40 m) long, were cast
and cured in the same forms. .After each curing period, the l^,holeslab was
jacked, i.e., moved alead atop the steel girders, to make room for-the ncxt
segment.The sliding was aided by steel shoesplaced intermittently bctween
the conctete deck and the steel girders. Alier the whole deck was cast and
moved in place, stud shear connectoN were welded through preforrned open-
ings in the deck, and the openings around the studs and the gap befi\'een Ure
slab and the steel girders were gouted.
A significant development in the construction of compositebridges is cur-
rently in progress in Europe. Europe's railroads ha1'e been deciining since
19,15,but improl.ements of the laie 1980s and of the 1990s in France.
Germany, and other countdes may teverse that hend. The German Federal
RailNays are spending about $1.1 billion annually on a ne"'1250'mi (200u-
km) net$ork for trains haveling at speedsup to 155 mph (250 kn/h).(rro On
the link betivcen Hannover and wilrzbulg, designedfor speedsexceeding200
mph (320 km,41),the ho zontal and veftical alignment required cuNes with
minimum radius of 23,000 (7000) and 17,000 ft (5200 m), respectively,and
very stiff b dges with a limiting deflection equal to 1/2000 ofthe span
length.c?'gComposite deck box girders and composite trusses plofided the
required stiffness. The tr-ussesare of the Wanen t]?e. The tesulting struc
tures are note$'orthy for their excellent ding quality and their aesthetically
outstanding appearance-

Purpose,Scope,and Approach
LRFD provisionsDerfor composite design include beams and columns- For
beams, they resutt in economyand simplification ofdesign. For columns, they
are the preferrcd method when the percentage of steel is large. Bccause ot
these characte stics and becauseof the rather limited cunent use of both
LRFD and compositecolumns, it was consideredtimely to prepare a text that
can ser"veas a design guide.
Dimensioning based on LRFD is canied out at the maximum strength
leve1.As inelastic deformal,lonstake place in the shucture before the failure
loads are reached. the intemal forces can be assessedaccurately only wlth
elastoplastic analyses. Such analyses have be€n developedand used in occa-
1,18

sional applications. An elastoplastic analysis $ras adopted for this book wherc
applicable.
Composite columns, LRFD, and elastoplastic analyses are rclatively new
tools that have not yet enjoyed universal acceptance. It is the purpose of this
book to Fesent them to the profession as applied to the design of composite
structurcs in steel and concrcte, and to provide gtidance for their use. The
book cove$ the design of composite beams, columns, bracing, and joints that
are combined into floor and frame building systems. The design procedurcs
are presented in a form aimed at ready use by the design€r For this reason,
explanations of assumptions and derivations of equations are given only
when not readily found in generaly available literature. The reader who is
interested in a mole scholarly study of the subject is refered to the rcfer-
encesin Chap. 7.
The appmach to the desie! of composite steel-concrcte buildings selected
for this book is based on the most recent infonnation on the behavior of such
shuctures under various types ofloading. The internal forces are found by an
analysis appropriate for the loading conditions under consideration.
Generally, an elastic aralysis is apprcpdate under service loads and a plastic
or elastoplastic analysis is needed for loads at maximum shength. The resis-
tance ol the crosssection is determined by LRI'D.
The book is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 1 features an extensive
history of composite construction and case histories for 17 composite build-
ings completeddruing the pedod 1968 thmugh 1992. Both elastic and inelas-
tic analyses arc covered in Chap. 2, concerned with the design and construc-
tion ofcomposite systems.Design of compositebeams and columns is covered
in Chaps. 3 and 4, resp€ctively. Instruction on the design for lateml load6 is
presented in Chap. 5, which includes also a bdel discussiotrof retrofitting of
elisting buildings. The design ofvarious tj.pes ofjoints is cov€redcomprehen-
sively in Chap. 6. The fouf chapters covering the design of composite ele-
ments, i.e., beams, columns, bmcing, andjoinh, are illushated with 2? exam-
ples that designers can follow in their work. An €rtensive list of refercnces
classifiedinto five categoriesis included in Chap. ?.
Compositeconshuction as used in this book may be defined as thejoint use
of structural steel and structural concrete in individuai elements, such as
beams and columns, and in diffelent palts ofa stluctule. The term'compos-
ite construction" is used throughout the book for all combinations of shuctur-
al Bteel and sbuctural concrete. Dufing the 1970s, the term umixed struc-
tures" was intmduced to distinguish between those elements and structwes
in which concrete and steel are forced to act together as a unit and str-uctures
in which concrete and steel €lements act independently. The latter t}?e of
structurc is rarely mentioned in this book. Fufthermorc, it is o{ten difficult to
dietinguish between the two types.
The overwhelming reason for using composite construction is economy.
Steel is parlicularly good in resisting tension and concete is shong id com-
pression. Thus, with proper design, their combined us€ is structumlt' effi-
cient. Furthennorc, in steel iiamed buildings, flools and often also ekterior
 1.19

walls are built of reinforced concrete.In such structures the additional efii-
ciency gained though compositeinteraction between the concreteand struc-
tural steel can be obtained at a usually very small cost of interconnecting the
tlvo elements.

3 BuildingCase Histories
The application of composite construction is illustrated in this section by
descriptions of 18 tall buildings completed in 1931 and from 1968 through
1992. Since 1930, the New Yorli City building code pelrnitted higher allow-
able shesses for steel beams encasedin concrete.Connecting steel beams to
concretefloor slabs with shear connecto$ became a common practic€ during
the 1960s.The beginning of frequent use of compositecolumns in tall build-
ings dates to about 1980. The casehistories are based mostly on information
contained in the references cited with individual buildings. However, fre-
quent use was also made of other sourcessuch as pe$ona1 infolrnation from
structural engineers of record, and various publications and files of the
Council on Tau BEildings and Urban Habitat.

:' P r i o tro 1 9 8 0
The Empirc State Buildingil,G'?oca3,c56 in New York City was the tallest build-
ing in the world for morc than ,10 years, from the day of its completion in
1931 until 1972 when the twin toweN of New York's World TYade Center
exceededits 1250-ft (381-m) height by almost 120 ft (3? m). It was conceived
by the designers as an 8s-story building but was up$aded to 102 floors by
public relations interests. The structural steel frame with dveted joints,
r.hile encasedin cinder concrete, was designed to carry 100 percent of the
gravity and 100 percent of the wind loads imposed on the building. The
encasement, although neglected in strength analyses, stiffened the frame,
palticularly against wind loads. Working with tuequency of vibration mea-
sured on the completed building, the actual stiffness was estimated at 4.8
iimes the stiffness of the bare steel ftame. The speed of the design and con
struction 1vashuly remarkable; it took only 18 months from the architectk
fiISt sketches to the completion of the bullding. The erection of 57,000 tons
152,000tonnes (t)l ofsteel took oniy 6 months with a 5 day work week. Except
for its height, the building was typical of the construction ol its era. The
structure was designedby H. G. Balcom ofNewYork.
The 100-story John Hancock Centerc63(Flg. 1.1) in Chicago is a multiuse
building in\'olving commercial, parking, office, and apartment-type space in
one buildins. The $ound-floor plan measures 154 by 262 ft (47 by 80 m), and
the clear span from the c€nhal core is appn imately 60 ft (18 m). The build-
ing is tapered to the top to a dimension of 100 (30) by 160 fi (49 m), and the
clear span reducesto 30 ft (9 m). The floor height is 12 ft 6 in (3.8 m) in the
office sector and 9 ft 4 in (2.8 m) in the apadment sector.The structuml sys-
tem consists of diagonally braced exte or frames which act together as a
1.20

Fisue1.1 John Hmcock Center schematics.cs

tube. The distribution of a-{iat forces when the tower is subiected to wind on
the broad face is shown in Fig. l.l. The alrnosl ujtiforln distriburion on rhe
flange face and the appror.imately linear deoease acrcss the web indicate the
predominant cantilever mode of deformation and very little shear lag effect in
the tower's response. The floors have 5-in-thick (12?-mm) stabB of lightweight
concrete of medium unit weight placed diectly on the supporting ste€l beamB
and connected to them with stud shear connecto$. Ttre columns, diagonals,
and ties arc I sections fabricated ftom thrce plates with maximum thickness
of 6 in (150 mm) and the ma-..imr]rncolumn dimension of 36 in (920 mm).
Floor framing, fabricated from rolled beams with simple connections, was
designed for gravity loading only. The intedor columns were designed for
gravity loads using roued and built-up s€ctions. Almost all steel was
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) erade ,436. Connectiors
were shop-welded and field-botted except that field welding was used in span-
drels, main ties, and column splices. the building, designed by the Chicago
 1.21

offrceofSkidmore, Owings & Merrill, was completedin 1968 reaching 1127 ft

(344 m) towad the skies.
The pair of World Trade Centel to\iielscl? ct'r in New York City is noteworthy
in its magnitude and compler.ity and in its pioneering advances of high-dse
building technology. At 1368 ft (417 m) above the street level, the towers
accommodate110 floors, each 207 ft 2 in (63 m) square.With almost 1 full acre
(about 0.4 ha) per level, each tower contains 4.8 miilion gross fr: (446,000m:)
of floor area. Over 200,000 tons (182,000t) of shuctural steel were rcquircd
for the project. The resistanceto the wind loads was assignedto the extedor
wal1s made up of 240 tubular columns spaced at 3-ft 4-in (1.0-m) and 52-in-
deep (1.3-m) steel plate spandrels io lolm a Vierendeel truss. The vertical
loads arc tmnsfened from the 4-in-thick (100-mm) concretefloor slabs to the
extedor and core collrmnsby trusses spanning 60 to 35 ft (18 to 11 m). The 6-ft
s-in (2.0-m) spacebetween two adjacent trusses is spanned with corrugated
steel decking that tied the two husses into an erection unit and served also as
forns lor concrete.The web members ofthe trusses extend 3 in (76 mm) above
the top chords into the slabs to provide composite floor action. An architectuml
first introduced in the construction of the World Tmde Center $'as the fire-
rated "Shaftwall" made of steel studs and glTsum wallboard which has since
completelyreplacedblock masonry in high-dse offrcebuildings. To avoid objec-
tionable accelerationsduring high winds, viscoelasticdampers werc installed
bet een the exterior columns and the ends ofthe bottom chods olthe floor
tlusses. The directions,velocities,and other chamcteristicsof$.rnd gusts were
obtained ftom several sources and checkedby wind-tunnel tests. Acceptablc
levels ol horizontal accelerationwerc determined by comprehensivehuman-
s€nsitivity tests. Skilling, Helle, Ch stiansen, Robertson were the shuctural
engineerc. The fiIst tenants moved into the north tower in December 1970,
a]td the construction was completedin 1973.
Sears Towelc c6! is curently the world's tallest building, rcaching to a
height of 1450 ft (442 m) above the street. It contarns 109 floorc and encloses
3.9 million gtoss 1l'z(362,000m') of office space.The owner Sea6, Roebuck&
Co.-required large floor areas for their own opemtions but smaller arcas for
rental purposes.Thus a modular approachillustmted in Fig. 1.2 was adopted.
The basic shape is composedof nine areas 75 11(22.9 m) square,for an overall
floor dimension 225 tt (68.6 m) square. 1ko of the nine constituent tubes are
terminated at the 50th floor, two more at the 66th, and thee at the 90th, cre-
ating a variety offloor shapesranging from 41,000 to 12,000frl (3800 to 1100
m2) in gross area. The structure acts as a ve*ical cantilever fixed at the
ground in resisting wind loads. The walls of the nine tubes bundled together
are composedofcolumns 15 ft (,{.6 m) on cente$ and deep beams at each floor.
Every two adjacent tubes Frhareone set of columns and beams.All beam col-
umn connections are welded. Tfussed levels $'ith diagonals betw€en columns
are provided at thee intennediate mechanical levels, two of them immediately
below the setbacksat the 66th and 90th floors. The beams are 42- and columns
3g-in-deep (1.1- and 0.99-m) built-up I sections, with the flange width and
thickness deoeasins with incrcasing h€isht. A total of 76,000 tons (69,000t)
1.22

E -|

n
-n-
I J | | -----J

-66

Flque1,2 Seus Towe.6chematics.c64

ofA36, A5?2, and A588 steel was used in the project. Except for cotumn splices,
all field connections were bolted. The floom are supDorted on one-wav 40-in-
deep,r 0 m' lrusbesspanjJng75 ff ,23 rnrand spacedar t5 ft '4.6 ;,. Each
truss ftames dfuectly into a column. The span direction is altemated every six
floors to equalize the gravity loads on colurnns. The floor slabs of 2.b-in (68-
mm) lightweight concrcte cast on a 8-in (76-mm) steel deck span the 15 fi (4.6
m) beireen *re trusscs.Composilpaclion beiween*re concrereand lbe sLeel
deck relies on bond augmented by embossments in the steet deck. ard that
between the slab and the supporting tr-usseBis assured by stud connectors
welded tbrough the d€ck. The design ofthe studs was based on extensive tests
involving push-off specimens, simple and multiple-span slabs, and a 1i l-scate
slab-deck-truss assembly. The building, designed by the Chicago office of
Skidmore, Owings & Mer"rill, was completed in 19?4.
The 22-story Control Data Buildingcls,Mrl in Houston, designed by F. R.
Khan and his staff at the Chicago olhce of Skidmore, Owings & Merriil, was
the first building conshucted \rith composite exterior I|aming. Built in 1969,
it is an of6ce building 180 x 90 ft (55 x 2? m) in plan. T.he frame has exteior
composite columns spaced 10 ft (3 m) on centerc containing rclled-st€et sec-
tions W8 X 35 that served as ercction columns- The steel flame was erccted 8
stodes ahead of concrete. The normal-weight 4-kBi (28-MPa) conffete includ-
€d prccast exterior cladding and cast-in-place frll for spandrels and exterior
 1,23

[[ [0
ng

.-' : Cortrol Data Building typical €xierior colllm.Mll

columns. Twical er:terior columns, shown in Fig. 1.3, measure 31 x 22 in (0.8

). 0.5 m) outside the erection column. The encasementofthe ercction column
is 12 x 11 in (0.3 x 0.3 m). Temporary bracing was provided to stabilize the
erection frame. The er,terior compositeframe canies the entire ind load in
both ofthogonal d ections.A typical spandrel beam is 21 in (0.5 m) wide and
5 It (1.5 m) deep.The floor beams, located at each exterior column, are W18 x
50 rolled sectionsofA36 steel spanning 35 ft (11 m) between the exterior wall
and an interior corc. Three-inch lightweight concreteslab is supported on 20-
gage metal deck 1% in de€p (48 mm). The interior core columns vary from
W12 x 40 at the roofto W14 x 246 at the ground floor and are of 50-ksi (345-
MPa) steel. The building is 303 ft (92 m) high and is supported on a 4-ft 6-
in-thick (1.4-m) mat.
The ??2-ft-high (235-m) 57-story IDS Centercasin Minneapolis completed
ln 1972 was another early user of extedor compositecolumns. Its octagonal
plan with serrated edges along the four diagonal sides (Fig. 1.4) resulted in
32 corfler oflices per floor The structural system, desigT1edby New York City
consulting engineers Severud-PeIIone-Sturm-Conlin-Bandel, consists ol
perimeter columns, concret€core, column-free steel framing spanning
between the core and the pedmeter columns, and two-story outrigger husses
located at thrce widely separatedlevels along the height of the buildine- The
columns are W14 sectionsembeddedin s-ksi (34-MPa) concrete.The core is a
vertical concretebox with two 12-in-thick (0.3-m) flanges and five 18-in-thick
(0.46-m) webs. The flanges are penetrated by doorways to the elevators so
1,24

-_l

g 1
s
l
1,,..*,.1
Flglre1.4 IDS Cente. floor llan.cit

that in plan the core rcsembles frve wide-flange sections 88 ft (12 m) deep
v/ith 17-fi-long (5-m) flanges (Fig. 1.4). Steel channels 12 and 18 in (0.9 ard
0.46 m) deep are embedded in the walls of the core. The steel framing
includes 3-f1-deep(0.9-m) husses spaced 29 ft (8.8 m) on centen and {i[er
beams that support composite flooring. The outrigger tnrcses arc located at
the gth and 10U1floors, the 27th and 28th floorc, and the top two flooN. The
diagonals are 3-ft-deep (0.9-m) 1-ft-wide (0.3-m) plate girders. Dudng con-
shuction, a 1o-story lead vras maintained by the steel crews over the coneete
crews. T'he steel workers bmced the corc channels with 10 x 3/,-ir:'(284 x 10-
mm) diagonals lor Btability prior to placement of concrcte.

1.3.2 The decadeofthe 1980s

Rising t,o a height of 1000 ft (305 m) the 7s-story Texas Commerce Tower.c6rl62
in Houston was, when completed in 1982, the tallest composite building in the
world and the tallest building outside Chicago and New York. The structure,
deeigned by CBM Engineem, Inc., ofHouston, is 160 ft (49 m) square with one
comer chamfered at 45" to oeate an 85-f1(26-m) cotumn-flee fifth side of steel
girdem and dual-pane glass (Fig. 1.5). The ededor structure ofthe builaling is
a composite system made of cast-in-place spandrels 4 ft (1.2 m) deep and
columrs spaced 10 fi (3 m) on center on all sides except the ftont face of 85 Ii.
The elterior columns were constructed with steel erection columns embealded
in cast-i4-place conuete. The missing 85-ft (26-m) fr{th side of the exterior
tube was ?eplaced with an interior concrcte shear wall connected to the exteri-
 lniroduclion 1,25

i -l

=i-= 1.5 Texds CommcrcePlaza-t

?ical fl oor framine pl!n.

or tube with very stiff link beams embedded in the floors. The erterior rup
tured tube and the intedor shear wall were assignedto resist the wind toads.
The steel girders on the 85,ft side respond to wind loading as secondarystiff
ness elements above the 60th floor The interior columns and floor jiaminq arc
olsrrucrural T.lp) "LpDon composire con.rFlFs ab. p aceoon 2-ir-deep
"teF.
15-cm)metal decks. ?he tower is supported on a 216-ft (66,m) square 10-ft-
thlck (3-m) foundation mat chanrferedin the san1emanner as the plan ofthe
building. The mat rcsts on stiff clay 63 ft (19 m) below the street tevel. The
perimeter compositeframing was consbucted with custom built jump forms
e n d c o n . r e r ep u m p e dt o r e . o . dh F i g h r . .T h e c o n r " a . t o *- a i n r d i ; F o ; : l - d d r
cycleper floor.Tne barFstee [.an e was al]owForo proceedl2 _oo.. a,leaor,I
rhe enbeomFrt in corcrpr.. lr rva. srabi'izeoo) ,empo.a4 ,reel bracingr_har
was moved upward with the steel frame_
The first three floors of the s2-story culf Towerc6t,Nrrlin Houston are
&amed in steel since they have atypical layout to accommodatea tobby, an
auditodum, and other senice spaces. But from the fourth tevel up, the
peri'ne,er column" ara .re-l wide-flanep in , on.rer" u,i F Lrre
remainder of the framing in steel. According "Fcriors"nca.ed
to the structural engineers
Walter P Moore and Associates of Houston. the extra matedal cost of the
steel base was less than the added time and forminE cost woutd have been
1,26

had the composite columns started at the ground level. The exterior compos-
ite columns are spaced 10 1i on centers while the spacing of the st€el columns
at the base is 20 ft. A steel box gider 5 ft (1.5 m) deep and 20 in (510 mm)
wide transfers the loads from the composite columns to the steel base. The
725-tL (221-]ltr)structure was topped out in 1982 just 15 months after the
ground-brcaLing ce?emonies. Condete placement kept up with steel ercction
following it by 8 to 10 stories. Because of setbacks at the upper levels, steel
ercction was slowed down so that concrete was or y a couple of floors behind
by the time the steel frame was topped out. The tower's basically square plan
was modified to provide 10 corner offices per floor (Fig. 1.6). The building,
completed in 1983, is clad with 3200 white sranite panels 1.25 in (30 mm)
thick, imported from ltaly, altemating with bands ofreflective g1ass.
The ?2-siory 921-ft"tal (281-m) InterFtust Plaza Towerc62 c66c63c71c?3csoM'l
at Dallas Main Center, with gleaming glass exterior uninterupted by
perimeter columns or X bracing, has a plan which maximiz€s the number of
corner offices. The building is supported on 16 composite columns, spaced at
30 fl (9.1 m) in two orthogonal directions, with cente$ located 20 ft (6.1 m)
inside the glass line (Fig. 1.7). This 20-{t distance between the columns and
the perimeter glass allowed for a continuous band of offices with uninterrupt-
ed views. To compensate for the loss of bending rigidity, all loads are tlans-
fered to the eround through the 16 composite columns interconnected ,i/ith a
seven-storytwo-way grid ofvierendeel tr-ussesspandng 120 and 150 ft (36.6
and 45.7 m). The composite colun]ns, made with 10-ksi (69-MPa) concrete,

Flgure 1,6 Gulf Tower-stDctural anal arhileciural floor

 lnkoduction 1,27

';---- Inte.Fist Pllza lb*rcf siru0rLualtloo. !l.n c!!

vary in size from 5 to 7 Ii (1.5 to 2.1 m) square and arc reinforced with 75 ksi
(517-MPa) reinforcing bars and 50-ksi (345-Mpa) WS6 shap€s.The concrete
encasementofthe wide-flange shapesends at the 62nd floor 1evel.The seven-
story truss system begins at the fifih level, supportins the core verticals and
r h ee l . . l o " c .O n " o f r h c u n u " u d| . e 1 rr r c s r n . t o " . i t . . t " , l c n d F ne s s :T n e
" "f
ratio of the height to structurat width of the InterFirst plaza Tower is ?:1.
The steel frame was toppcd out in July 1984 and the construction completeal
in 1985. The structural engineerswere LeMessudelAssoc./SCIofCambridee.
M"-s.. 'r ajo I r venturFq ith BrockF,e & As\o.ialesofDaltas.Tex.
The Singapore Tleasury Brdldingc6r,c1,is a cytindrical b2-story office tower
at the center of Singapore.Rising to a height of 251 ft (229 m) above$.ade, it
wd- fo. a t:me nF la le-t bLi di'rg n A"ia. T1e toqer s concre.e,.ore is L,:edto
its limit as the only element car.r.)'ine vertical gravitv loads and iateral wind
loads. Elevators, stairs, and sanitary facilities are contained within a cylin-
dqcal rorcrprecore82 i ,25 m i.l our:idFd a1ere| wi.h B 1\all 39.4iI| 1.0
m) thick. With only four openings per floor, the core wal has close to ideal
shear dgidity. Floors cantilever 38.5 lt (11.Tm) to a cytindrical extedor gtass
and aluminum wall. The floor is suppoded on si.:teen 4-ft,deep (1.2-m) radial
cantilever plate girders welded at thetu inner ends to steel columns which
rvere subsequentlyembeddedin the concretecore wa1l.Durine steel erection.
,'lF D ele Si-aers *cre prov ded \ ir'r rempor"ry e\rFrior .utpo".:. Becdu-F
1.2A Chapterone

there are no extedor columns, atl gavity loads are caried on the conc?ete
core wall, thus increasing its oveftuming resistance to make the 52-story
heighi feasible. The steel advanced eight stories above the conffete core wall,
which was cast in forms d€sigred to be jumped vertically through temporary
openings in the steel floor This sequence waa chosen to prcvide the fastest
ercction with the most foolproof connections of st€el to the corc' Ttre structur-
al design was by LeMessuder Assoc./SCI of Cambridge and Ove Arup &
Padnem of Singapore. The building was completed in 1986.
A monume[tal erarrit€-clad arch entry and a flamboyant rcoIiop are the ha]l-
marks of the Momentr-rm Plaeec?4'c75'c?3'rl21 completed in Dallas in 1988. The
60-story oflice tower has an atrium bar]king hall in its Bix-story podium, a
semicircular arch roof at the 26th floor, and quarter-circle vaulted skylights at
the 50th, where the shape of the plan changes ftom rectangutar to crucifor'rn.
On top is a cross-vaulted arch clad in copper- The stmctural engineer fol tl1e
project, the Datum,Moore Partnership ofDalas, calried out a aletailed analysis
of six floor and four wind liaming systems. The final scheme has punched con_
clete shear walls at the four corarcrs ol the rectangdar flool plan (Fie. 1.8),
steel spandrcls and four composite colultrns between the shear walls on each
side of the building, and composite steel and concrete beams for lhe floor fram-

62-6 t, 25 L 25 L 25 L 62-6'

FisuEl.s Modentm Place t?icalfloor plm for levels 30 to 50.M1

 1.29

ing. The core is liamed in st€el. Above the 50th level all ftaming is in steel. The
shear walls are 18 in (0.46 m) thick and are reinforcedwith no. 18 bars at the
base and no. 7 bals at the top. The concrete strength in the walls vades liom
7.5 ksi at the base to 5 ksi at the top (52 to 35 MPa). Window openingsin the
walls al1owfor 18-in-squarc(0.46-m)columns 5 ft (1.5 m) on centen and 4-ft 6-
in-deep(1.4 m) spandrelbeams.The exterior compositecolumnsare 32 in (0.81
m) squarc including a W14 x 61 ercction column and have the same concrete
shength as the shear walls. The interior coiumns at the base of the corc are
built-up 28-in-square(0.71-m)box sectionsofA572 grade 42 steel. W14 rclled
shapes replace the box sections above the 32d level. The shear walls were
designed to work integlally with the perimeter composite steel firame to resist
lateral forces.The buildingfises to a height of78? li (240 m) abovethe street.
For the 1209-ft (369-m) Bank of Chinac30,c,0,M,1 in Hong Kong, ofstructural
design by Leslie E. RobertsonAssociatesof New York, the desigr floor and
wind loads were twice those rcquired by the New York City building codeand
the design seismicloads four times those required in Los Angeles. The build-
ing, unique by its geometry (Fig. 1.9), was topped out on Aug. 8, 1988. Its

c (d)

(d) V E

c 'f7
| ,/E
l./
\{ G)

'f-_l
1,,\ I
AJr" (o) \
'f--_l
tl
^L_____l
r:nkof Cnna 6chemauis.ri:l
1,30 Chapter
One

160-ft-square (49-m) floor at the base is diyided by diagonals into four quad-
mnt triangles. Moving up the building, one quaibant tapem off at the 25th,
another at the 38th, and the third at the 51st story. The shucture is support-
ed on foul huge composite corner columns and a fifth column starting at the
25th floor The exterior walls are grant vedical planar trusses consisting of
the five columns and composite diagonals extending over 12 floors. The
resulting structure fu a vertical 7s-story space truss that provides the needed
resistance to hodzontal loads. Almost the entire gravity load iE trammitted
though the diagonals to the foul corner colunrns. The concrcte of the compos-
ite corner columns provides a simple connection between the vertical planar
truss€s eliminating any need for complex out-of-plane connections. The conr
posite columns were made with 8-ksi (55-MPa) concrcte and bundled 2-in (50-
nr]n) reinforcing bals. The diagonals are box members, from 15 x 39 in (0.4 x
1.0 m) to 16 x 59 itr (0.4 X 1.5 m), fabricated from four steel plates and fllle I
with conuete to inclease their stiffness. The structule is supported on 30-ft-
diameter (9-m) hand-dug caissonslocated under the cor.nercolumns.

1.3.3 Early1990s
TWo Union Squarec76,c3l in Seattle combines two innovating features: 10-ft-
diamete( (3 m) composite pipe columns and 19-ksi (131-MPa) concrete.The
58-story 140 x 190-ft office buildins of irresular floor plan (Fig. 1.10),
designed by Seattle-based structural engineer Skilling Ward Magnusson
Barkshire Inc., has lour of these huge columns at the cornels of its core.
Fourteen more compositepipe columns of smaller diameter are placed along
the pedphery of the building to support glayity loads. The steel pipes provid'
ed erection steel and rcplaced fonns as well as vertical bars ard hodzontal
ties for the high'strength concrcte. There arc no rcinforcing bam in the pipe
columns. The pipes ale connectedto the conoete with studs welded to the
pipes'interior sulfaces. The core carries about 40 percent of the $avity loads
of the building and provides resistance to sway and to lateral loads. The
space betiveen the core and the widely spaced pedmeter columns is column-
free. The construction of T\MoUnion Squarc was complet€d in 1990. Other
structural systems cornbining large-diameter compoFrite pipes with column-
lfee space between the core and the exterior sheli were used in several build-
ings in Seattle. The 44-story 110 x 170-ft Pacific First Centercsl includes
eight 7.5-{t-diameter(2.3-m) pipe coiulnis at the building's core and perime-
ter columns a maximum of2.5 ft (0.76 m) in diameter, both Iilled with 19-kBi
concrcte(Fig. 1.11)-Yet another example is the 62-story 90 x.160 ft Gateway
Towercs'(Fig. 1.12) in which 9-ft (2.7-m) pipe columns exposed at the four
corne$ of the inne? square ol the hexagon are tied together with lo-stoly-
high X braces. The larger closs section of the widely spaced colu]nns permit-
ted the use of11-ksi colrcrete.
For the 7g4'ft-high (242-m) Mellon Banh Centercs'.cs5in Philadelphia the
decision to use a composite structural system was made about hallway
though the design pmcess. Wind-tunnel tests on an earb steel design showed
 1.31

Bracing
.:- .10 nro Lrnio! Squde Uoor !ld,c31 lO 1986, Stulr,€ Wa.d
: : :.n Bdf khire I n,, all nehtu reserue.l;
6e.J uith pernis sian.)

that the cross-windstructural rcsponsewas 50 percent higher than allowed by

the code. Consequently, stiffening of the building str-ucture was required. The
altemative selectedadded concrete to the perimeter columns and combined
concrcte and steel in the core. Becauseof the building,s proximity to the his
ioric City Ha1l, the building has a 10,story granite-c1adbase. A]1 aluminum-
and-glasstower with comer cutouts starls abovethe base and continuesto the
rool The tower is topped with a prohuding cornice and a steel-framed p}1.a
mid hat that conceals the cooling towers. Total wind and gravity forces of the
bullding are carried by the corebetweenthe sinh floor and the building,s base
lbur levels below g?ad€.A massive vertical supertruss bansfers the loads to
the four comers of the core. In the tower abovethe base the lateral system js
formed by compositeperimeter columns spacedg-ft 8-in (2.95 m) on centem,
fonning a pedmeter tube. The steel section in the p€rimeter columns ranged
liom W14 x 398 at the base to W24 x 76 near the top. The Oflice of Invin G.
Cantor of New York City was the st rctual engineer on the project. Mellon
Bank Center, completedin 1991, was the filst tall building in the northeast
designedto take full advantageofcomposite columns.
To accommodateefficiently the complicated geometry (Fig. 1.13) of
1.32 ChaPterOne

Flsur€1,11 Paofic First Certer floor pls.c8r

Minneapolis'775-ft (236-m) tower called FirBt Bank Place,c36CBM

Engineeri, Inc., of Houston decided to use a cruciform spine including four
maBsive steel-and-concrete composite supercolumns which rise uninterupted
through the tower's 53 stories (Fig. 1.14) The supercolumns, located in the
midd; of each face of the towe?, arc ?5 {t'z (7 m'z)in plan at the base and 50 {t'z
(4.6 m') near t}le top. To impaft to the tower ihe necessary torsional rigidity'
perimeler bracing was needed.T\|o complementary s)"tems lqere provj-ded:
ver'tical trusses with six-story ahagonalson the east and west faces of the
building, and thtee hodzontal Vierendeet bandages on the other two laces
wherelhe presence of diagonals was conBidered objectionable The
Vierendeels, three stories high, were placed where the building profile
changed. Building these three floom requfued an unusual construction pmce-
dure-using temporary steel columns to support the bandages, adjacent floor
framing, and floor decking dudng erection The temporary columns were
removJ before concrete was poured for the floor slab immediatelv above' The
tower's frnishing touch is a 45'ft-tan (13.7-m) cantilevercd crown constructed
ofstcel Farne with glassinfill. The purposeoflhe crown is ro concealanlen-
nas. The building was completed in 1992
 1,33

lllrl
Ill
:-- -2 cat€way To{
€r floor !lan.c3L

The NationsBank Tbwer in AUantacsi,csT,css openedfor occupancyearly in

1992. A compositestructure topped with an open steel liame cone'that sup_
polts a 90-ft (27-m) spire of steel and fiberglass provides b? stories above the
ground for offrcespaceand frve basementslor parking and assemblyoccupan,
cy. The comers of the buitding have beer serrated (Fls. 1.1S)to create more
corneo r lllce | ^ , " \ e ri n c l u d i n g r h e " o i r e . r i s . ; I 0 0 0 f t3 0 0 m a b o v c
- s p d . el h. p
rne surror.r,lc!ng terrajn. A rclurdl slclern .orpo-pd of r$el\e comoosire
cupPrcorumns. ^re ar Fachcorrer "lr
ot d reclangular;oreand rwo on ea.il siqe
of the building, linked by moment-connectedgirders and diagonal bracing,
prcvides a completely column-free rentable space above grourid. the supe"r_
columns include W14 x 808 rolled sections,the heaviest rolted in the United
States. The concrete strength in the supercolumns va es from 10 ksi (69
MPa) at the lower levels to ? ksi (48 Mpa) at the upper levels.
\picat floor
framing consists of W18 composite beams spanning from the core to the
pedmeter A 57a-in-thick (133-mm) slab, including 2-; (51_mm)metal deck,
spans the distance between the floor beams. The core anal the Derimeter
-uoFrcollrmns arF ried logethar$irn eighr trubce"bctweenrhe b61hdnd bgrh
1.34

Becing

bullding

building

Figuel,l3 Fi$t Bar]. Placeschematics.'e

1-,
i
27ih 1100ls)

g-storyV e€ndee gird€r

Figure1,1a Fjjst Badr PtaceTo*er floor llm.ce

 1,35

_H-l

lLt-l
': -- 5 Nat on\BrnlPlazr rrprcalfloorplan..'$

floorc. The basement levels are of flat-siab concreteconshuction_The struc-

ture was designedby CBM Engineers, Inc., olHouston.

Sl Equivalents
The conventional system of units was adopted for this book because it is
€xpectedto remain lbr several years by far the most commonly used system in
the design of buildings in the United States. However, in view of the metric
convenion that has been mandated for all federal procurement, grants, and
business-relat€d activiti€s by the Executive Order of July 28, 1991, and m
view ofthe progess ofmetrication in many U.S. industdes, SI equivalentsarc
listed in parentheses thrcughout the text ercept in design examples. To r.etain
clarity, each design example is solely in conventionalunits, with the SI equiv-
alents listed only in the stat€ment of the problem. SI eouivatenhcnAc";a cao
'or conven,'ooalur irs ubed rhi"
.n boukarF lrbledin TabtFt. I on Daee1.36.
'1.36 Chapt€rOne

1ABLE1.1 Molrlc Conv€rslon FactoE'

F M

6i15,16
0.092 903 04
4046.856
0.112985 tN.m
1.35582
16.0145
lb 4.44822 N
4.44822 }N
25'4
0.s(Ma
1.6093:t4
lb 0.453592
lnp 0.463692
0.907184
4.88243
]b,{t 1.44816
416,237
0_04?880 3
StreBs,modilus of etsticity 6.894?6
6.894?6 M"a
L6OgA,L4
16.387064
0.?o4555
0.764556
*To conv€.t fton c@v€nticnal (C) to met ! (M) Dits, mdtidythe n@ber in @nventtonal uit.e bv cdveEion factor F.
lExact nmben are sloM lEld.
 Chapter

2
Composite
Systems

Materials
Composite construction is characteriz€d by interactive behavior between
structwal steel and concretecomponentsdesignedto use the best load-resist,
ing characte stics of each matedal. The componentsmay be discrete isolated
elem€nts which form a podion ol a structural system. They may also be
stmctural steel ancyor concrete subsyst€mswhich together resist the entire
set of loads imposed on the st|ucture. The resulting elements and composite
systemsgenerally represent a high order of efliciency in resisting the applied
loads and consequentlyare cost-effective.
The most impoftant characteristics ofsrr&cfrrol steel are high shength, high
modulus of elasticity, and high ductilitn which result in small size members,
long clear spans, and adaptability in fabdcation and use. Other major advan-
tages relate to st€el's lorv weight per square foot of a building, dimensional Eta-
bility, ease of modification, and high speed of erection, the last rcsultine ftom
the prcfabdcation of members and connections. The rcle of structural steel in
composite constnrction is therefore oriented toward the following:

Floar framing wherc the abiliiy to span long column-free areas and the
potentiel for future modification of structural elements is required.
Grarifi columns to reduce the cross,sectionalarea requirements for
columns, allowing more column-free rentable floor space,and as erection
elementsto speedconstruction.
Areas of high seismic actiritJ, where high ductility and low buildins mass
are distinct advantages.
Structural steel sections used in composite conshrction include the entle catalog
of ro11edshapes, structulal pipe, square and rectangdar tubing, bunt-up gtude$,
fab cated trusses, and prcfabdcated joists. The most ftequently used rolled
shapes are r,eide-flange sectrons, channels, angles, and t€es. ASTM grades A36
and A572 with yield siaess of 36 and 50 k€i (248 and 345 MPa), resp€ctively and
other higher-shength steels are in common use. A sliit is in progless toward 50-
ksi (345-MPa) Btrength as the prirnary steel for composite building conBtruction.
Structural concrete has excellent frre-resistive prcperties, high inherent
nass, and relatively low material cost. It can be molded into any shape to prc-
duce complex strrrctural and architectural forms, including prccasting into effi-
cient str-uctural shapes. The use of conoet€ in composite constmction is therc-
forc advantageous in th€ following applications:

.Floor slo6s where the insulating propertieB of conoete Fovide the rcqufued
fi?e and acoustical sepamtion between habitable spaces; a concrete floor
slab foms a dgid horizontal diaphagm, Iending stability to the building
system while distributing wind and seismic shears to the lateral load
rcsisting elemenh.
Columns where concrete compressive strcngth is most effectively utilized
and material costs are minimized
Eaterior fTamed.tube and. igid. moment-resisting ft'ame slstums where ptop-
erly reinforced beam-column joints can be utilized to efficiently rcsist
imposeallateral loads. Exterior concrete frame systems may be exposed
without any additional protection to completely define the architectural
chamcter of the building.
Uertico,l corc uaII lateral and. grauit! load-resistitLg slstems utilizing the
vercatility of concrete to be shaped into any required for:Il.

The choice of concrcte for composite building construction is based primarily

on compressive strcngth, moalulus of elasticifu and unit weight. Lightweight
conoete v,rith a unit weight of 110 lb/ft3 (1.?6 t/m3) is often uBed in floor slsb
construction to keep down the ovemll weight of the stnrcture a]Id to reduce or
eliminate shoring rcquirements. It is a better insulator than normal-weight
concrete, which weighs 145 lb/ft3 (2.32 t&f) and can therefore provide the
requfued fire separation betv.een floorB with thinner slabs. Heavily loaded mul_
tistory building colunns, shear walls, anal other lateral load-rcsisting elements
designed with concrcte compressive shength from 4 up to 10 ksi (30 up to 70
MPa) are common. Concrcte-filled composite steel pipe columns wiih concrete
comprcssive strcngths up to 19 ksi (130 MPa) have been used recentlJz
The connection between the two structural materials, namely, steel and
concrete, in composite construction of individual members is cl'ucial. Many
types of connectors including steel studs, channels, angles, bars, spirals,
high-strcngth bolts, and hooked bars transfening the shear alotrg steel_cotr-
crete intedaces have been used in the past for this purpose. The headed steel
stud is by far the most com]non type of shear connector today. Shear studs
arc easily welaled through the steel deck or directly to the surface of any steel
member by the use of a stud welding gun.
Formed steel ileck or prnfiled steel sheeting supporting fresh con$ete is an
integtal component in many composite systems and is used nearly exclusively
 in one form or another in steel-framed composite floor systems in the United
States. Steel deck can be used as pemanent for.rnworkfor a conventionally
reinforced con$ete Blab or may itself act compositely with the concrete slab as
the positive bending tension reinforcement. In the latt€r case, the shear con-
nection betweenthe deck and the concreteis prc\'ided though lugs, ddges, cor-
rugations, or embossmentsfolrned in the profile of the steel sheet to augment
the natural bond between the two materials (Fig. 2.1). Compositesteel deck
slabs are efTectivein reducing the overall structulal depth, increasing floor load
capacity, and improving horizontal diaphlagm action. ry"ically, the steel deck
is of trapezoidal profrle with relatively wide flutes suiiable lor through-deck

Typcalcompos te beam
andsleeldecksystem

^ /--1-E i-1'
Celular
slee decks

ffi
Blended
ce luar
decksysle.n
 welding of shear studs to the steel beams. Steel decking may also include
closed cells which accommodate floor electrfication lines, communicationB and
comput€? conduits, and power distribution. Cellular deck parels may be blend-
ed with noncellular panels as part of the total floor system design.

2-2 Loading
The design of a composite member must talie into account the joint behavior
of steel and concrcte materials which is charactedzed bv time-deDende
interaction including the effects of resistance to tempoiary consiruction
loads, load sharing. and deformation compatibility.D5r Further changes rn
load sharing are caused by crcep and shrinlage of concrete. Similarly, the
behavior of entire systems composedof composite membem, such as a con-
crcte-encased composite steel moment-rcsisting frame or framed tube lateral
load-resisting systems,is also sensitive to the history ofload application.
Dead loads include the weight of all pemanent elements including steel
framing, concrcte walls and colutrlns, concrete encasement. floor slabs. steel
deck, etc. Compositebeam and tmss design may involve precambering for all
or a portion of the calculated deadload deflection to ensure conshuction of
reasonably level floors. The trend toward frequent application of higher-
strcngth steels in composite conshuction based on little or no material cos!
premium over lower-grade steels has produced lighter more flexible members
that made cambedng a more common rcquirement.
Zire loods encompassall loads that are expectedto change after applica-
tion to the completed structure. Live loads include some archit€ctuml frnish-
es, furniture, equipment and serwicesof other trades, par-titions, and occu-
pancy loadings.
The presence or absence of shoring dudng construction has a dircct rela-
tionship to the dead- and live-Ioad shadng between composite materials. In
the past, composite floor framing systems were olten designed as shorcd to
prevent high dead-load bending stresses in the steel member due to the
weight of steel and fresh concrete. Such high stresses are tj,?ical of unshored
conshuction. How€ver, experim€nts on composite beams demonstrated that
significant stress rcdistribution tales place in the composite section as the
ultimate limit state is apprcached. The ultimate strength ol the composite
cross section is independent of the presenceor absenceof shoring duriog con-
struction. As a rcsult, cunently the entirc load is assumed to act oD the full
compositesection €ven in allowable stress design. On the other hand, dead-
load deflection estimates for unshored construction must be based on ttre
stiffness t 1- of the steei section alone. The strength design cdteria require
consideration of one additionat limit state for comDosite b€ams: safetv of the
steel beam alone subjected to constructron loading. It should also be noted
that composite beam and truss systems for buildings are today primarily of
unshored design, thus fudher enlancing the economy of these floor systems.
The use ofload factoN specifredin ASCE 7,93c33is recommended.Load fac-
tors required by AISC Load and ResistanceFactor DesignDelare essentialy
 the same. Also essentially the same are altemative load facto$ includled in
the new Appendix C of the Building Code Requiremenis for Reinforced
Concrete.Dy, t@ The new Appendix C was developed 'to facfitate tl-re propor-
tioding of building structures that include membels maale of materials other
than concrete."

23 Composite Floor Systems

Composite floor s].stemac54D23'D47,D6!,r'I?,M3
tlpically involve simply suppor.ted
structural steel beams, joists, girders, or trusses linled by shear connecto$
with a concrete floor slab to form an effective T beam resisting primadly
gravity loads by bending. The vematility of the system results from the inher-
ent strength ofthe conqete floor component in comprcssion and the ability of
the steel member to span long distarces. Composite floor systems are advan-
tageous in rcducing material cosi, on-site labor, and construction time. They
also result in simple and repetitive connection details, reduceal structural
depth and consequent efficient use of intemtitial ceiling space, and lower
building masE, which is important ir zones of high seismicity. When a com-
posite floor iaming member is combined with a composite steel deck and con-
clete floor slab, an exhemely efficietrt system is the result. The composite
action of the beam or truss element is effected by direct welding of shear
studs thmugh the steel deck while the composite action of the steel deck as
flexual reinforcement for the condet€ slab iLself results from siale emboss-
ments incorpomted into the steel-sheet profiIe. The slab-ard-beam arrange-
ment typical in composite floor systems proaluces a figid horizontal
diaphragm tiat provides stability to the overalt buildilg system while dis-
tributing wind and seismic shears to the lateml load-resistinE element!_

zll Floorslabs
The slab elements of a composite floor system may tak€ tfie folm ofa flat sofrt
rcinforced conoete s1ab,precast-concrete planks or floor panels with a cast-in-
place topping, or profiled st€el deck with cast-in-place conoete (Fig. 2.2).
Early composite floor systems involveal condete-encased steel beams sup-
porting a formed reinforced concrete slab spanning between the suppor-ting
beams. The concrete encasement of the steel beam was eliminated with the
alevelopment of economical lightweight spiayed-on frreproofing. The rein-
forcement for the slab in the direction perpendicular to the beam span is
determined through conventional continuous rcinforced concrete design for
the calculated gral.ity-Ioad moments. Light slab rcinfo?cement is placed par-
allel to the beaxo span to conhol shriakage and themal cracking.
To eliminate tlle cost and additional construction time involveal in tempo-
mry formwork for the slab, precast-conoete planks or steel deck may be used
effectively as permanent formwork which plovides an effective working plat-
form for the cotrstr.uction fuades. Precast, prcstressed hollori/-core concrete
plantrs spaining belwceDrhe s[eel lloor beam" are well suiled forjobs whcre
a repetitive orgsnization of beam spacings allows for effective prefabrication
 Composilebeam
with sreeldeck
and c$ncrete slab

Fisure2.2 Composite-bed systems,

 of the planks. TWo to tbree inches (51 to ?6 mm) of coAcrete is cast atop the
plarks to Fovide an effective diaphragm as well as a level, continuous floor
surface. T'tre condete topping must be reinforced, usually with welded-wire
fabric, to contml cracking. Composite design ofthe steel floor beams requires
that the topping ext€nds down to the surface of the steel beams and the shear
studs extend up into the topping above t}le hollow concrcte plaras.
Today, tl1e most com]non arrangement founal in composit€ floor s]'stems iB a
rclled or built-up steel beam connectealto a formed steel deck and a concrete
slab. The st€el deck corrugationE may be oriented parallel or perpendicular to
the composit€ beam span and either the slab may be comPosite with the steel
deck or the st€el deck may sewe only as the formworh for the slab For light
office use and rcsidential flools, weldeal-wbe fabdc reinforcement is used to
control cracking ofthe conoete slab. The steel deck pmvides tension reinforce-
ment for the slab, usually based on the assumption that the deck consists of a
se?ies of simply supported spans. For heavily loaded storage or mechanical
arca, i.e., flools with greater than 200 lbfft' (10 kN/m'?) live-Ioad allowance, bar
reinforcement may be placed in the deck flut€s as well as near the top of the
slab. The design of such a slab follows conventional rcinforced conclete de34n
The steel deck is chosen such that no temporary shoring is required. Strength
and aleflectronsare calculat€d ignoring the contribution fiom the deck itself.
The following are some considerations in designing and specifying steel
dectung for floor sJabs:
1. Steel deck slabs preferably are alesigned as unshored. 1\ro- alrd tlree-
inch-deep (51- and 76-mm) deck profiles are available in a variety of deck
gages. For 16-gage ard thicker decks, throueh-deck stud welding may not be
possible, requiring prepurched holes in the deck. The rcsulting Femiums for
fabricating and erecting the aleckare usually prohibitive. In addition, $out loss
though the holes can rcsult in voials sunounding the shear Btutls anal conse_
quent loss of composite actron. T$enty-two-gag€ and thinner de&s are difficult
to attach rcliably to steel framing so that the diaphragm stiftress is reduced
2. The concrete thiekness above the top of the steel deck is normally con-
trolled by f e separation anal acoustical rcquirements. The choice of either
lightweight or normal-weight concrete to Batisry these requi?ements depends
upon economic considerations which vary regionally and nationally. Adequate
concrete above the top of the metal deck is necessa?yto encase and fully
develop the capacity of the shear studs. AISC requires that shear connectors
extend not less than 172 in (38 mm) above the top of the steel deck, and not
less than 2 in (51 m]:n) of conffete cover above the top of the deck is allowed
for composite construction.

B€amsand girders
Steel and conoete composite beams may be formed by either completely
encasing a steel member in concrete, with the composite action depending
upon the natural bonal between the steel anal conerete, or by connecting the
 Working

Fisu€2.3 CoDlGite-beam sbess distdbution6.

conoete floor to the top flange ofthe steel framing member by shear connec.
tors (Fig. 2.2). The stress distributioff on a composite section at working anal
ultimate loads arc shom in Fig. 2.3. As the top flange of the steel section is
normally near the neutual axis and consequently lightly stressed, a number of
built-up or hybrid composite bea]n schemes have be€n prcposed in an attempt
to use the structural steel more efficiently (Fig. 2.4). Hybrid beams fabricated
from 36 ksi yield (248 MPa) top flange steel and 50 ksi (345 MPa) yield bot-
tom flange steel are poEsible. Also, built-up composite-beam or tapered-
flange-beam schemes more fully utilize the shuctu-ral steel matedal. In atl of
these cases, however, significant fabdcation costs tend to offset the relative
material efliciency. In addition, a relatively wide and ressonably thick top
flange must be Fovided for proper anal effective shear stud instalation.
A pdsmatic composite steel beam has two basic disadvantages over other
t'?es of composite floor framing types. One, the member must be designed for
the maximum bending moment near midspan and thus is understressed at
all other seetions along the span and, two, building services ductwork and
piping must pass beneath the beam or the beam must be prcvided with web
penehations (usually reinforced with plates or argles leading to high fabdca-
tion coBts) to allow access for this equipment. For this reaBon, a number of
composite girder foms allowing the free passage of mechanical ducts and
related seFices thrcugh the depth of the gtuder have been developed. T'hey
include tapered and dapped girders, castellated beams, and stub-girder
systemsDze(Fig. 2.5). As the tapered girders are completely fabricated from
plate elements or cut from rolled shapes, these composite members are fte-
quently hybrid, with the top flange designed in tower-strength steel.
Applicatiods of tapered composite girders to office building conshuction are
limited, as th€ main mechanical duct loop normally n]]ls through the center
of the lease span rather than at each end. The castellatealcompositeb€am is
formed from a single rclled wide-flange steel beam cut and then rcassembleal
by welding with the resulting increased depth and hexagonal opeDings. These
 Hyb d Buil-up

Tapefed-I ange
.omposne Deam
:-- : .1 Built-up and hybrid cohlosiie beams.

members are standard shapes available by serial size and are qulte common
in the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe. Use in the United States is
limited because of increased fabdcation cost and the fact that standard
castellated openingsare not large enough to accommodatethe large mechani-
cal ductwork common in modem building conshuction. The stub-girder sys-
tem involves the use of short sections of beam welded to the top flange of a
continuous, heavier bottom gider member. Continuous tmnsverse secondary
beams and ducts pass thmugh the op€nings formed by the beam stubs. This
system has been used in many building prcjects but requires shored construc-
tion, which offsets some ofthe cosi savings.
Successful composite-beamdesign requires consideraiion of various ser-
viceability issues such as long-term (crcep) defl€ctions and floor vibrations.
Of particular concem is the issue of perceptibility of occupant-inducedfloor
vibmtions. The relatively high flexwal stiffness ofmost compositefloor fram-
ing systems results in relatively low vibration amplitudes fiom transitory
heel.drop excitations and therefore is effective in reducing perceptibilitn
Recent studies have shown that for short spans of less than about 25 ft (8 m)
and very long spans of more than about 45 ft 114m) compositefloor ilaming
systems per-formquite well and are rarely lound to hansmit annoying vibra-
2.10 ChapterTwo

E
BI
Flgo@2.5 Nonpisnatic composite girders,

tions to the occupants.Particular carc for spans in the 30- to 35-ft (9' to 11-m)
range is reconrmended. Anticipated damping pmvided by par-titions, serl.ices,
ceiling construction, and the structure itself should be considercd in conjunc-
tion with state-of-the-a* prediction models to evaluate ihe potential for per-
ceptible floor vibmtions-D32 c66
It has been suggested that serviceability characteristics may be sigrrifrcant-
ly imploved through the use of semirigid composite connections. A t$ical dis-
position of such a joint is shown in Fig. 2.6. The capacity of the connection to
prcvide partial end reshaint is mobilized though the addition of a ^bottom
flange plate or angle cleat and heavier rein{orcement within the. concrete slab
in a band cent€red on the steel column. For unshored constructlon, the initial
dead-load deflection is hardly altered, but live-load deflections, and perhaps
also floor vibrations, are significantly reduced through the partial end
restraint. Reduced in-span positive moment results in a saving in st€el ton-
nage. The padial end restraint may be used to shorten the effective unbraced
length of the column as $/ell. Full benefit of the system is obtained though
shored construction where all loads are rcsisted by the semirigid composit€
connection. Experimental data are limited to beam-to-column flange connec-
 2.11

: i, '=,6 Semirieid composite-b€amconnection.!$

tions, although similar beam-to-columnweb and beam-to-sirder connections

a r e p o s s i b l F 3. A p p l i c a r i oonf r h e h a sb p e ' l i T i r e d ; $ i n q r o t h e d i c f i .
. u l l ) i n a c c u l a l p l \d e t e r m i n i n gr "h)es rmpomm e \ t r o r a . i o n . h a r a c l p ; i s r i o. rf r h e
joint. In addition, a continuous multispan column anangement is required,
as the connection is not recommended for unbalanced e).tedor and simple_
span conditions.l,5
Continuous composite-beam systems over multiDle supports have the
adr anregFsor redr.ea .reel o raniirJ a nd inpror.d sr .rre,. over simp .Lp-
)
ported composite beams. Additional slab reinforcement is placed in areas ol
n - g a r i v em o m e n l .q r r h F u l t l m a t e - l i m iqr l d l e ,i h e o r r e , " d i . r " i b u t i o n : nr h e
positive-moment rcgions is as indicated in Fig. 2.9, with the plastic neutml
axis located either in the slab, the beam top flange, or the beam web. The
ultimate positive plastic moment capacity is much higher than the moment
capacity over.the support (Fig. 2.?). The conoete slab compressivestrensth is
u. i ized r r he lorme,..bui only I ne -lab rF.rlorcemert.an bp countedon orer
the support. Consequently,with the onset ofcracking in the negative-moment
regron, a podion ofthe support moment is redistributed to the midspan. The
redistribution occurs at a higher rate than in continuous reinforceclconcrete
beams as the midspan section of the continuous composite steel beam
remains unclacked- Significant redistdbution can be realized as tong as tocal
failue in the support region due to flange or web instability in comp;essionis
precluded.British Standard BS 5950 allows up to 40 percent rcdistribution of
support moments depending on the section compactnessand the method of
2.12 ChapterTwo

Plaslrcneulral
dis in web
Figute 2.7 Plastic stess distribution for nesEtive moment.

analy3is useal. Elastic analysis including alternate-span loading is nornally

employed with cracked section propefiies u6ed over the end 15 percent ofthe
span roughly corresponding to the length of the continuous beam to the
inflection point. The detailed design of floor framing members is gtven m
Chap. 3.

2.3.3 Jolsts and trusses

heengineered, propdetary open-web floor joists, joist girders, and fabdcated
floor truBses when combineil with a concrete floor slab ale viable composite
membels. The advantages of an open-web floor frarning system include
increased spa]l length and stiffness due to the greater stnrctuml depth, and
ease in accommodating electrical conaluits, plumbing and heating, and air-
conditioning ductwork. Composite open-web joists have b€en used with flat
soffiL conc'ete slabs and sl,eel deck slabe suppoting concrete fill with and
without shear connectors. The design for these systems is based pnmarily on
test data. The maximum tensile force in all open-web steel joist is equa] to its
value at fiIst yielding. Furthermorc, the increase in the moment arm from a
noncomposite to a composite joist (Fig. 2.8) is small. ThuB the potential for
increased efficiency due to composite action is considerably leBs than for otller
floor systems. However, the advantage ofcomposite over noncompoBite alesign
for open-web joist floorc based on increased stiffness and aluctility has beed
demonstrated.55,D47
Built-up fabricared composirefloor trusses'Y combine makrial emcienc) iD
relatively long-span applications with maximum flexibility for incorporating
building serwices ductwork and piping into the ceiling cavitji The tdangular
 compositeSystems 2,-t3

-J"
1
I
l.
I

_1_
:eE z3 Momert resistanceof open,webjoi6ts

openings formed by web members of the truss allow the passage ol large
mechanical arr ducts as well as other piping and electdcal lines. The
increased depth of the compositetr-uss system over a standard rolled shape
composite-beamsystem, with building ser-vicesductwork and piping passing
below the beam, resuits in maximum matedal efliciency and high flexural
stiffness. Generally, composite floor trusses are considered economical for
floor spans in excessof30 ft (9 m). A fudher rcquirement for floor truss sys-
tems is that the ftaming layout must be uniform and repetitive, resutting in
relatively lew t)?es of husses, which can b€ rcadily built iD the fabrication
shop usine a jig. Otherwise the high level of fab cation inherent in th€ floor
truss assemblage tends to offs€t the relative material effrciency. For this rca-
son, composite floor truss systems are particularly attractive in high-dse
olfice building applications where large column,free areas are required and
floor confrguations arc genemlly repetitive over the height of the bldlding.
Figurc 2.9 shows an example of a pmject utilizing compositefloor tr-ussesas
pdrl ofan o\erall compositesipeldnd concrerebuilding frame.
Any tdaneulated open-web form can be used to define the geometry of the
fabricat€d floor huss; however, the Warren truss with or without web verti-
cals is used most often lFig. 2.10). The Warren tr-uss without verticals prc-
vides the ma-ximum open-web ar€a to accommodate ductwork and piping.
Vefiical web members may be added to the Wanen tluss when the unbraced
length of the compression chord is critical. A Vierendeel panet in the low
shear zone near the center of the span is o{ten incorporated into the truss to
accommodatethe main air-handling nechanicai duct. The spacing of th€ web
members should be chosensuch that the free passageof ductrMorkand piping
is not inhibited while maintaining a rcasonable unbmced length of the com-
pression top chord dudng construction. On the other hand, th€ angle of the
web diagonals should be made relatively shallow to reduce the number of
 l'l
'tF
99!S

Typical
composite
ftoortruss
Fisur. 2.s One North Fmnklin, Chicago, ill.

Figurc2,10 Compositelloor trus gsmetris.

 composlte
sysrems 2,15

members and associatedjoint welding. This must be balaDcedby the fact that
shallower web members result in longer unbraced lengths and higher mem-
ber axial forces,often requiring connection gusset plates, thereby inffeasing
fabdcation costs and decreasing the cl€ar area for ductwork and piping A
panel spacing roughly two to thrce times the trlrss depth is a good lule of
thumb. The floor truss configuration should be detailed such thai any sigrrifi-
cant point loads are applied at truss panel points. A vertical web member
may be inhoduced into the truss glder geometry to hansfer these imposed
shear loads into the truss system.
A variety of chord and lveb member crcss s€ctionsmay be used lFig. 2.11).
Chord members may be wide-flange tee or single-anglesectionsto allow easy,
direct connection of web members without gusset plates. Double-angle sec'
tions and tubes are less common for chord members as they requirc gusset-
plated connections.Web members are most often tees, singie angle or double-
angle sectionswelded directly to the chord tee or angle stem, although tube
sectionshave been used. The compositefloor trusses are connectedto the con-
crete floor slab by shear connectorswelded to the top chord of the truss. The
floor trusses are normally spacedsuch thai the metal deck can span between
the trusses without shoring.
The steel truss componentofthe compositefloor truss system has high flex-
ural stiffness and is most elficiently desiened unshored for all concrete-floor

[w'hl

-- : : Conlosile iruss compon€ntscctions.

2.16

Fisurc 2,12 Conpo6ite tru66 modeling.

dead loads. Camber is usually not required. Preliminary sizes lor web mem-
bers may be obtained by manual calculation assuring the full design shear
forc€s. The minimum top chord size is obtained from the dead load alone. The
use of computer analysis greatly facilitates the composite floor tn-rss design.
Figurc 2.12 indicates one ol mary methods which can be uBealfor modeling
the composite floor tluss systeD. The plane Sa]Ie model includes beam ele-
ments for all chord and web members odented along centroialal axeB. The
intemecting joints are completely fl-ied, although web member end moments
are uBually insignificant. Tb simplify the fabrication required for the web
member ends at the chord connections, the diagonals may be moved slightly
away from the node points to allow for uninterrupted welding and fight-angle
member cuts. The rcsulting eccentricitieB should be specifically modeled with
an additional short ehord beam element. The Bteel truss alone is analyzed for
concrete slab dead load and construction live load assuming unshored con-
struction. For the composite condition suppofting all superimposed dead and
live loads, the concrete slab is modeled with apprcpriate tmnsformed section
prop€rties based on an equivalent slab width determined by the standard
AISC ploviBionB for composite construction. Rigid vertical shear link truss
elements model the slab-to-top cho?d connection.
Some additional items to be considered in designing efficient composite
floor trusses include:
Vierendeel paneL Unbalanced live load should be considered in desigrling
the Viercndeel panel. Membel eccentdcities due to chord reinforcing must
be accourted for in the analysis.
Single-angle web and. chord members. Out-of-plane eccentdcity between
member cenhoids must be included in the analysiB anal desiglr of the truss.
Retrcfitting composite |Loor truss slstems. Upgrading the tluss chord load-
carrying capacity is accomplished by cover-plating. On the other harrd,
cover-plating the web diagonal members is ahfficult and expensive. For this
reason, the web membel design may incluale pmvision fo? a some\'r'hat
higher than specifred live-load allowance to avoial costly modificationB for
sDecial tenant rcoulements.
 2.17

: 3.1 Valueengineering
Many options are available to frame a floor in a steel building. The study of
the options is generally rcfened to as value engineering.A]1 example of such
studies is a 46-story building in New York completed in 1982. One type of
ftaming included in the study is shown in Fig.2.13. The parameters studied

Delth ofdeck 1%6,2, and 3 in (33, 51, aDd 76 mn)

Shength of Bteel
S1ab-to-steelconnection
15"e ofconshuction
Tl"e of desisn
Tl"e offtmins
Lightweieht and nonal weight
A36 andA572-50
Compositeandnoncomposite
Shorcd ed unshorcd
Altowable stress and plastic cohposite
various difections ofbeams and sirders

A total of 66 alternates were considered. The rcsults for the ftaming t}?e of
Fig. 2.13 arc listed in Table 2.1. There were many possible alteralates, and each

,/1 .
w1a ;;- 4 el'
-t I
ttl!
.,2.1 i i wrs 5 w1! I
//erl -

l-
wl6 !L6 .y/

s1a t wrs I wlg i

:
\l
\ 3E'-d

:: : -i Vahe engin€eringsiudy no. 1.

2,14 ChapterTwo

IABLE2.1 ValueEnginer'ngtor BuitdingShownin Fig.2.j3

436 No 3% in tishtweighr 17.2 $r2.32 f

T
2B L572-50 No 3% in lghtweishr 11.2 $12.02
2C A36 B%-in lighiweishi 9,8 $11.64
2D 4572-50 9.0 $11.43
2E A36 4%6-in lishiweisht r%6 in zo sageshored 17.2 $12.1?
2F 4572-50 No 4%6-in lighiweighr 1%6in 20 saseshored 10.2 $11.88
2G A36 4%6-in lighrweighr 1%6 in 20 caseshored 9.8 s11,49
2H A5?2-50 4%6-in lishtweight 1%6in 20 sEseshored 9.0 $11.28
2l 436 No 2 in 16 gage 71.2 $11.71
u 4572 50 No 2 in 16 gag! lD.2 $11.42

of them had its own stnrctural cost. In addition, the imDact ofthe stnrctual
depth on mechanicaland architectural requirementswas evaluatedseparatel5r
Another exampleis a 45-story ofrce building shown in Fi& 2.14. Alt€mat€
ilesignswere made of compositeframing membersfor the typical 45-{t (14_m)
spanusing beams,tmsses,or stub gildels (Fig'2.15). The objectivewas t com_
pare material quantities,floor heights,ard deflectioncharacteriEticsofthe tltree
systens. Ttvo-hourfirc separationbetweenfloors wasrequir€d.The desigN werc
basedon the AISC LRFD specificatiorDelThe results are listed in Tabler.2.
The compositefloor huss altelalate represetrtsthe least-steel-weightdesign.
The floor tmss and stub-girder systemsreducethe floor height cavit by b to 6

TAaLE2.2 ValueEngineeringforBuldingShownin Fig,2,.t4

Plincilal steel elenent

w2t t 44
Unit 6teel qumtity, lb/1lt 6.18 4.67 4.76
20 18 t8
30 50
Deadload deflection, in 2.O2 1,06 0.84
t_5 0.75
Superimlosed dead-load deilection, iD 0.34 0.10 0.30
Liveload dea€chon, in 0.68 0.Ba 0.78
NoG W21 x 44, 50 percent cooposite ilesign.
l}!ss: Tbp chod
Botton chord
We! heaheN Donde dgles 3 x 3,2.5 x 2.5,md2 x 2
Shrb girder: Botloh chord
Stuhs 5 Ii lolg
Coftnluous purlins w16 ad W12
 2.19

t+t++lu

'--- I L gf rdmr- o.po.rr'foorrJ{pm..

 Tl :
:* ! 1Et+
t-
IP
I
T-
l-

I €-
-6
6

j
F

-tP
t-
t
FlguE2.15 Value eDgineeing siudy no. 2.

in (127 to 153 mm), which can translate into signficant cost savings in exteri-
or claddtrg costs over the height of a multistory building. The stub-girder sys-
tem allows for maximum flexibility in accommodating building ser.vices duct
wolk, but it should be noted that this system includes ar addeil cost associated
with the rcquircd temporary shoring of the girders. The low matedal quantib.
indicated for the floor truss option must be balanced against incrcased fabrica-
tion cost as well as som€ premium for frrepmofing of the many component
pieces. While the simple composite priBmatic bea]n appea$ to be the least efr-
cient option, this scheme is often founal to be costeffective ovemll based on the
ease offabrication and erection and the simple detailing involved.

2.4 Composite Building Systems

TlIe success of combintlg steel and conoete into composite floor systems gave
rbe to the impetus to develop composite building sj.stems. Since 1967, thele
has been a growing realization that importart economic and finrctional benefits
can be obtained by combining steel and concr€t€in L]I:eL)ertital buitdin{ slsteru
 2,21

Economic studies in the United States have consistentlv shown that to

develop a given strength and stiffness, a concrete or composite column is
more economicalthan a pure steel column- The inlerent advantagesof stee ,
i.e., shength, speed of construction, and light weight, can be combined ith
the advantagesofconcrete, i.e., stiffness,ftueproofing,and economics.
EngineeN and constructors have used these ideas to develop a vadett' of
compositebuilding systemswhich can be broadly categorizedas:

1. Exterior compositeframe
2. Intedor compositeframe
3. Supercolumnframing

Each of them is describedin the following paragraphs.

ExteriorcomDosilelrame
Compositecolumns with concreteor steel girders, and concretecolumns wiih
steel girders or trusses have been used as discussedbelow
Pmposed by Khan(i's in 1967, composite columns llith concrete spandrels
were frrst used on the 2O-storyContlol Data building in Houston. The concepr
ofthe design and construction was clever and eleeant.
A basic steel frame was erected lFig. 2.16) rsing verj' small (W8) exterior
columns at 10 ft (3 m) on centem. The exterior columns \\.er.edesigned to
calry up to 14 floors of the steel ftaming with 6 floors ol concrete slabs itr
place. Temporary diagonal bracing in the vertical plane using anglesor cables
ilras provided for stability. At this stage of construction the exte or steel
columns were encasedin cast-in-placeconcreteusing the exterior architectur
ai precast panels (Fig. 1.3) as the major part of the formwork. The exterior
lrame system was completedwith cast in-place concretespandr€l beams onc"
again using the precast panels as the major part of the form\york. The span
drels were cast at the same time as the columns.
This system has been used on several subsequentbuildings such as the 5C-
story One Shell Square, New Orleans.cts50-story United Bank Center,
Denver, 53-story Southeast Financial Center, Miami,M1355-story First
Interstate Bank, Houston, and 75'story Texas CommerceP1aza,Houston.c6r
The combination of e),:teriorcomposite colunrns with steel girderc has rccei\'€d
a great deal of r.esealch etrod,!,,0 primadly in Japan, where many str-uctures
have been constructedusing the so-ca11ed SRC system (Fig. 2.17). Most of the
underlying researchwas concemedwith the resistanceto lateral loads.
More rccently, similar investigations werc carried out by Sheikh et al.r,o at
the University of Texas. Tbsts were conductedwith lateml load reversals to
study hysteretic behavior of steel beam to composite column ioints.
Guidelines for the design of the ioints between steel beams and concrete
columns were the result-r,' Another possibility is to use a concrete column
with steel girders or trusses as showr in Fig. 2.18. This type of construction
has had limited use, generally for low-rise structures. The girder.sor trusses
 !nnnn!trnnnnnntnDnnnnnn
!!nnrnnnnEnntnnnntnnnn
nrnnnnlnnn!!n!!trnnntnn
![nn!nnrntnntnnnntntnn
!nnntln![nnntn!!ntntn!
!ntnnntnn!!nnnnnntnnnn
nn!!!n!!tr![n!!n!trnnnnn
ntnntnnnInnnnn!!ntnnn!
tr!nnnntnn![!!!nnnnIntrn

Flqure2.16 Erectionsequence.

are provided with base plates. In case of light loads, weld plates can be
embedded in the concrete column and the tr.uBs chords field-welded to the
weld plates as shown in Fig. 2.18. For heaw loads, the cornection detail is
accompJished by bolting the girders to the colunns with though bo1ts.

2-4.2 lnteriorcomoositelrame
Sheal walls with steel frames or steel link beams and comDositecol
with welded st€el girders with or without diagonal bmcing are described
this section.
When a bdlding structwe is comprisedof shearwalls with steel trames,
concret€ shear walls arc placed in the core of the building and generally
 CompositeSysrems 2,23

:E-- 2,17 Compositecolums with sieel girders.s,

s-:'3 Exte.io. concretecolunns wiih ste€ltmssls.

formed first. A simple steel frame is then attached to the conctete walls to com-
plet€ the stmcture. Generally the conflete walls provide the entire lateral sta-
bility for the structurc. Many examples oftall buildings can be found with con-
ventional steel frames attached to the shear wall corc such as the 7?2-1t (235-m)
57-sto4' IDS Building in Minneapolisca,and the 725-{t,tau (221-m)core for the
Atlantic Center project in Atlanta. In low-rise structurcs two or more corcs are
 common; also frequently useal in such structures are condete shear walls
betweetr two adjacent steel colu]nns located independently ofthe core.
The steel frane may consist of conventionafly loaded columne. ]n some cases
the st€elftartre has been hung from the top ofthe concrete shear walls. Examples
of this t ?e of structure are t}le Russian Embassy in Brookll'n, NJ (Fig. 2.19),
and the 1s-story West Coast tansmission Building in Vancouver, Canada. The
steel structure for both buildings was hung from their concrete cores.
The desien of this trce ol construction is limited by the strength and lateral
and torcional stifness of the wall lor taller heights and large lateral loads.
From the construction standpoint, the plumbness of the wall and the result-

A. FLooF PLAN

Fisur€2.19 Ru66ian Embassy, Brooklla, N.Y

ing tolerancesfor the attachment of the steel framing members are the major
challenges.
Composite shear wal1s with simple steel ftames are a variation of the con-
struction technique descibed above.In the caseofcomposite shear walls, the
steei liame is erectedfirst. The frame includes steel columns to be encasedin
the concrete wall, steel floor beams, and concrote floor slabs. The concrete
shear wall conshuction generally lags 8 to 12 floors behind the steel. One of
the major projects utilizing this system is the twin 38 storv Pennzoil Place
Buildings in Houstono55shown in Fig- 2.20.
The main advantagesclaimed for this system are:

The steel erection is done in a conventional manner without the obstruction

of a concretewall.
The tolerances in the wa1l location are determined bv the steel core
columns and hence do not depend on the tolerancesofa slip-formed wal1.
The need for the weld plates when the wall is buiit ahead of the steel is
eliminated.

Particular care is neededin this and other systems describedbelow to make

reasonable predictions of the a{al shortening of the composite wall duc to
g"ayity loads, concreteshrinkage. and crcep. These calculations seNe as the
basislbr corrcctioN for differential anial shorteningbetweenvertical elements.
The beneficial effects of in-fi]] masonry inside a steel frame have been
obseNed for many years in nonseismicareas.Ar1analysis ofthe system using
precast-concrete in'filI $'a11s$'as reported by Weidlinged)31 in 1972. The
esscntial conceptis shown in Fig. 2.21.A type I connectionis used where the
panel forces are tmnsmitted only to the steel columrs. I-Vpe 2 connections
.s

NE

E
 CompositeSystetns 2,27

have a direct panel-to-paneljoint, and hencethe panel lbrces are transnitied

not only to the steel column but also betwe€n panels. The sysiem was used on
th€ 45-storyYasudaFire and Marine Insurance Building in Tokyo.
Analytical models of concrete shear walls with steel link beams indicate
that high shear fo es are induced in link beams in coupled shear walls. This
can result in brittle shear failures of conctete in conventional link beams
unless the reinforcing bars are properly detailed. One possible means for
increasing the ductility is to provide for stmctural steel link beams as shor.n
il,Fig.2.22. Once again the problem is the connectionof the steel link beam
to the sh€ar wall. Current researchDs3 is aimed at the develoDmentof desien
gr oelinFsfo" rhi. rypeof.lructurp bul nFeabro progeo: -ucl 'urrrherbefur.
definitive recommendationscan be made.
In taller buildings the core may be inadequate to resist all lateral loads by
itself. On€ of the remedial techniques is to link the core to the extedor
columns though steel girdem, sometimes cailed outrigger beams, contained
within the ceiling spaceat each floor (Fig. 2.23). The core is either a compos-
it€ column system or a compositeshear wall. The detail of the cdtical joint

: ' : D .on, "a6 !r 6dr r alls v: h {p" irf Deah:

:-: :i3 CohFo.ite colutu or wall with s'elded st€el gililer

2,24

Fisure 2.2a Conlosite colmn with diagonal bracjng

between the steel girder and the composite column is similar to that
described in Refs. 89, 90, C55, D59, and D92. The d€tail betvreea the steel
girder and the composite ivall is generally an extension ofthe principles used
in the steel g der to compositecolumn connection.
Diagonal bracing attached to th€ steel section of a composite column
(Fig. 2.24) is often desigred to cany the shear due to the lateml loads white
the composite columns cany not only the gravity loads but also the a-xial
components of the lateral load overturning moment. The pr€sence of the
diagonals complicatesthe details ofthe compositecolumn, since it is difficult
to prcvide the necessary lat€ral ties between the loneitudinal reinforcing
bars in the composite columns. Long studs are generally welded to the
encased steel column, the steel girder, and the steel diagonal. The column
ti€s arc lapped with the long studs. This twe of construction vras used on
the 2g-story 1000 Town Center Project in Southfield, Mich.

2.4.3 Supercolumnlraming
It has long been rccognized that the most eflicient method to rcsist lateral
loads in tall buildings is to provide only a lew large columns, called super-
columns, as far apart as possible and to connect them with diagonals or
Viercndeel {iames. A whole category of composite buildings characte zed by
the use olthe supercolumnshas been developedover the years. They include
various concrete-filled steel sections .with steel gildels, with or without steel
diagonal bracing, and compositecolumns with compositediagonal bracing.
For the system shown in Fig. 2.25, steel girderc ale weldeal to the outside
sudaces oflarge-diameter steel pipes, which are filled with conffete of6 to 19
ksi (40 to 130 MPa) shength. Ifneeded, plate diaphmgms arc welded inside
the pipes to reduce local sircsses. This constluction method has the following
advantages:

The steel pipe pmvides formwork and confrnement for the concrete.
Generally longitudinal reinforcing bars are not used, thereby simplifying
consfuctron.
 In most casesno diaphragms are used irside the pip€ for girder flanee con-
tinuity: the flange forcesare canied diectly by the pipe.

Some unanswered questions remain. The heat of hv&ation of the concrete.

th€ bond between the concrete and the steel pipe under cyclic loading, the
potential for local buckling of the pipe, and the postyield behavior of the sys-
tem need further investigation. There is obviously no potential for visual
observation of the concretealler a major seismic event. It may be of intercst
in this connection,however,that a Japaneseresearch project indicated some
berefit of deliberately preventing bond between the ste€l pipe and the in-fill

Concrcte filled steel tubes $'ith steel girders w€re used in Japan and more
recetrtly in Taiwan (Fie. 2.26). The system is simitar to the round steel pipe
system described above except that rcctangular or squaxe steel tubes were

i:' 2 2s Composite st el lipes with weldeil6iel gnd€r

-Sleelbeam passing
i throughcolumn

.qr:-:+ Cun(ret€.filledst el tu&uih steelgirdF6.

used instead. Research by Morita et a1.137 in Japan and by Aziziramini et
al.r3'in the UDited States pmvided a basic understanding of the behavior of
the cdtical joints in this t}?e of stlrctrlle.
In the case of iarge concrete-filled steel pipes or tubes, th€ arca of the struc-
tural steel is in the range ol2 to 4 percent ofthe area ofthe column cross sec-
tion, ancl since these st€el elements have to be specially fabricated their costs
are high. An alternate is to form the Bupercolumn as in a conventional rein-
forced concrete structurc and to use a rclatively light structural steel section,
i.e., Iess than l perceilt olthe cross-sectionalarea olthe column. The sh"lrc-
tural steel gi?der is embedded in the cast-in-place concrcte. The design of the
coiumns is treated as a reinforced concrete column with an embedded steel
column section. The joint detail follows the design criteria discussedin Ref.
98 for regular compositecolumns with steel giders. A t]'pical joint d€tail is
shown in Fig. 2.27. Some examples of the use of this system arc in the 57-
Etory Norwest Banh Building in Minneapolis and the 60-story NationsBank
Plaza in Atianta.css In the forrrer case the supercolumns measure 8 x 8 ft
(2.4 x 2.4 rr.) and are connectedby Viercndeel steel giders that span 100 ft
(30 m). In the csse ol the NationBBank the exterior supelcolumns are con-
nected by W36 (90-cm) steel girdeN in two directions. These ghders span 60
and 45 ft (18 and 14 m), respectively.
The design of the longitudinal reinforcement in the supercolumns is based
on standad rcinforced concrete column desig!. At the joint, additional ties
are required based on ASCE recommendations for composite column to steel
girder joints.De2 The continuity ol the ties in the region of the girder web is
generally achieved by lapping the ties with lotrg deform€d studs welded to the
web. In some cases,the ties are pass€d through holes in the web. Since the
slrpercolumns are of rclatively large size, the placement of concrct€ rcquires
special techniques to reduce the effects of the heat of hydration. Longitudinal
c?acksat the sudace have been causedby this phenomenon.Insulated folms
have pmved to be useful in this rcga?d.
The advantages of this system over the one using st€el pipes or tubes arc:

The column details can be made to ensure ductile behavior of the columD
and yielding of th€ girder in a seismic event.
The system is economical since the formwork is used repetitively.
The concrete is visible and thus can be readilv insDect€alafter a seismic event-

The disadvantages arc:

It is more time-consuming to place the longitudinal and lateral reinforcing

and the formwork.
In the casewhere the girders terminate at the joint (as opposedto continu-
ous girders) the column size is governed by the length of anchorage
--^-i --,1 l--,+L- ;-,1--

Supercolumns are often connected with diagonal bracing. Figure 1.10 shows a
 Itgr4-6 oreq.weldedto

7/8 ltlrick lace-beariig plate

TesaiS OC.

Section

Barsweld€dlo col.web

Plan

@ ::_: Forn€il cohposite sulercolunns with steel girdqs.c3s

floor plan of the s0-story T\^'o Union Square building in Seattle. Each steel
pipe supercolumn in the core is connectedby diagonal bracing to the adjacent
steel column. This type of d€sign ftansfers pfimarily axial force and shear
into the column and almost eliminat€s bendirg moments. This true of design
has also been used in the 62 story Gateway Tower in Seattle and was pro-
 o
a
l,;\

I (-r
B.)

Fisur€2.23 First BanL Place, Minneapoli6.

posed for ta structures in Asia. In some cases the gusset plate joints Ireed
be shess-relieved owing to high locked-in weldins stresses.
The overallconceptdescribedaboveis applicablealso when the
columns are formed in place. A good example of this tlpe of constuuctioa
the 57-storyFtustBanhPlaceprcjectin Minneapolis(Fies.1.3,1.4,and 2.
Addirionalcare is requiredin deldiiing LhelareralcolumDlies iD t}|e
of the diagonals.In the United States,the use of diagonally bracealsysteDsi
heavy seismic zones is generally frowned upon because of the ductili
requirements. In Japan, where a more deterministic philosophy of
design is placticed, the use of a diagonally braced system is popular
it reducesthe building movementsin the caseof moderateseismicevents
consequenily minimizespropety damage.
In the 1209-li-ta[ (369-m) Bank of China building in Hong Kong, com
diagonals transfer the gravity loads into five cooposite supercolumrs as
hat€d in Figs. 1.9 and 2.29. The main advantages of composite diagonah
st€e1diagonals is that t}ley obyiate the need for large steel gusset plat€
blies, which may need to be staess-relieved, and the simplicity of the j
details. The majority of the diagonal forces are tmnsf€red directly ftom
'a
:i,.

Frgure2.29 Bank of chiDa

2.34

Methods of Analysis
The aralysis of composite building systelns often presents a greater challelltse
than for other structur€s owing to nontypical constmction sequences,the variabte
and time-dependent properties of concr€te, and the int€raction and load shar.ing
between structuml steel and reinforced concrcte. Since commercial softwa.e
which di?ectly handles these and other special aspects of composite construction
is not generally available, designers olien rcsort to a combination of analysis
moalels, techniques, and sp€cial bookkeeping procedurcs to calculate member
{brces and deflections duing conshuction and in t}le completed stnrctule.
Genemlly, methods of structural analysis can be categorized by the degrce
to which they account for nonlinear material and geometric behavio?. Also,
methods may be distinguished between computer-based matrix (frnite-ele-
ment) approaches which rigorously enfor.ceequilibrium and compatibility, and
more spprcximat€ methode rMhich may or may not be computedzed. Since
some aspects of the behavior of composite systems such as the time-dependent
constitutive properties ofcomposite elements are difficult to quantify, approE-
mate methods are often as rcliable as more sophisticated techniques. The pri-
mary concern of the engineer should be to use analysis methods which capture
the relevant behavioral eff€cts for the imDortant limit states in a Dredictable
and efficient manner.

2.5,1 Generalc!nsideratlons
Behavioral effects that fufluence tfie response of composite structwes at vari-
ous limit states are discussed below. These arc not all of the behavioral
effects which need to be considered,c7abut they are the ones which arc more
important for composite shucturcs than for eith$ purc steel or reinforced
concrete structures. Recognition of the role these have in the structural
response will inlluence the twes and methods of analysis used.

Constructionsequence. Depending or the t)?e of composite system and the

anticipated construction sequence, the final design loads in certain members
anal connections may be controlled by conditions du ng construction.
Defomations due to conshuction loads on the partially completed structuE
a?e also an important consideration, since they will influence the final config-
uation of the structue such as floor levelness and plumb.
Construction sequence effects are most apparent in composite frames
where the steel erection elements and floor slabs are constructed prior to
placement of the reinforced concrete encasement of columns and walls that
provide for stability in the completed structure.l"M13 An example of a t:pical
construction sequence used in mid- to high-dse composite structures is shown
in Fig. 2.16. Of concem dudng conshuction is the stabjlity of the partialy
completed structu?e consisting of the steel frame above the condete enca€e-
menl. Tn addidoD,t}|e conslrucrions"quenceresulrs in a preloadingof
steel columns which may cause them to shoden considerably more th
would be predicted by an analysis of the completed composite frame.
 2.35

Materialpropenies. For analysis prlrposes,the stress-shain behavior of steel

and concrete may be ldeallzed as shown in Fig. 2.30. In addition, the time-
dependent properties of concrete need to be considered. Under long-term
loads and at loads near the shength-limit condition, the combination of struc-
tural eteel and reinforced concreteelements results in deflections and mem-
ber force distributions which can change from thos€ predicted by elastlc
analyses.For er(ample,of primary concern in tall or long-span structues arc
the long-term deformationswhich r€sult ftom creep and shdnkage in the con-
crete. Tme-dependent column shofiening in tall compositebuildings posesa
unique challenge where steel and concrcte elements with different stiffnesses
and,/orheavily and lightly shessed conuete elements deform differently. The

E= 20 000ksi

D e s c e . d i .sgo p e s d e p e . d e norn . o . f i n e m e n l
=f(i_(ir)

E.=w1V-
1,-o.2a!fiT
€o = 0 0 0 2

where w s the densty ol concrele n b/i13i

E . , f . a n di r a r ei n k s i
:-::0 ldealizedstress-sbain pro!€rties.c 11
e)rtent of the potential problem is evidenced by one example study of an 80-
story-tall structurc where for a composite column, rcughly 50 to 80 percent of
the total shortening is due to crcep alld shdnhage effects.Gso

Compositemembersand etements. For the analysis of ove$ll Bystems,com_

posite member stif&lesses are usually formulated assuming that plane sec_
tions rcmain plane and shear deformations can be igrorcd. Some exceptions
to this arc made for walls and link beams with low sspect ratios wherc-shear
deformations are significant. For elastic analysis under seryice loaals,the
stress-shain behavior of concrcte in comprcssion is olten assumed to be lin-
ear, and member properties arc adjusted to rcflect the loss in stiffness due to
cmcking. Procedwes for modifying composite member stifftresses are usually
based on methods used for reinforced concrete membersD66and composite
beams.DelGenerally, such procedures range from rough approximations ofthe
effective areas anal moments ol inertia to more detailed methods baseal on
transformed section calculations. In unencased partially composite beams,
the stiff[ess unde! ser-vice loads should a]so be modifred to account for slio
between the structural steel and conclete,Derbut in other membe$, the effe;t
of slip is usually considercd to be negiigible under serwice loads.
For analysis of the overall structuml system, it is genemlly impracticat to
use precise fornulas to include the effects of concrete crackins and sliD on
membersliffiebses.Rather.approxjmatemelbodsare u.ed io calcularethe
effective axial aod flexural stiffness of members.OA" and _Od,which lie
betv/een the transformed stiffnesses of the total unerackid section's, i.e., gross
sections, and the firlly €racked sections. For example, in columns ajld walls
whei"caxial comprFsbiveload. arc generally large enough to ir*Libit cracking,
g"oss hansforrrcd prcperties are generally used. On the other hand, cracking
under negative bending can rcduce the siiffbess ofbeams consiilenbh
In dererminir,gappropriate mcmber sliBiesses for analysis,it is imporlanLto
rccognizetle specificpur?obeofLhe analysisand whe{her rhe analvsisis for ser_
vice ot faflored ultiflare load€.fic degreeof ffacking ude. seryiceload6 will
be less Lhanundpr fanored loads,and rhe relative membersrifftressestherelore
may charge. The shear stiftress can be lower by a factor of 10 after cracking as
desffibed by Pedikaris and White.rl An analysis made to calculate service-ioad
deflections may not be apFopriate for calculatinq the member force alistribu_
tions aL the strength-liJnilstate. In parrirular, stiffresspsbasedon lactoledtoadE
should be used for evaluating forces induced by second-ordel geometic nonli}
car behavior.The sigrificance of changesin sl,iffiess from service fo facrored
load. wiJJvary dependingon LhetlTe and confguration of Lbes!ruc1ur.c.

Connections. Careful judgment is rcquired realisticaily to idealize the con-

nectioN between ditrerent t ?es Ofmembe$ in composite s].stems. A number
of bea]n-colunn connections which ale common in composite construction l
shown in Figs. 2.6 and 2.31. For design purposes,they may be considered
moment-resisting connections. On the other hand, for analysis purposes one
should consider finite-size effects and the stiffness of the conneciions and
 Type M1

TypeM2 TypeM3

iF
it
i

t-211 Momebtre6i6ting conposite conneciion6

 -N- J*
connecuon_..

"rrr"",rAt
,rr,rrSS'
Flsure 2,32 Idealized beam,colum. cobection behsvior

joint panels (Fig. 2.32). As is the case for steel or concrete structures. there
are no firmly established r-ules for rnodeling connection flexibility other than
to either (1) model the joint region explicitly in the analysis or (2) use engi-
neering judgment and general rules of thumb to approximate the coDnection
behavior.For exampJe.in sreelsrrurruresit j" romnon 10 lj"paLfujly welded
moment connections as pedectly rigid but to neglect the finite joint size
effects by basing the anelysis model on centerline dimensions. In this case.
the centerlinedimensionsare inrendedlo rellFctthe flexibilitv rnducedbv
panel zonc distotiotr iD rhejoinr. On rhc oLherhand. in re:nlorcedconcrere
stnrctures moment connections are often modeled using a frnite joint region
a8suming that a portion of the joint is perfecdy dgid.
Because of the uncertainties involved, it is impractical to attempt prccise
stiffness characteristic modeling of the joints since they vary depending on
the geometry, detailing, and load level of the joint. For many cases, it is pmb-
ably reasonable to assume that composite moment connections have a rigidity
greater than those of reinforced concrete and less than thoEe of steel and to
use similar approximate techniques for modeling joint response. Tests reporL
ed by Sheikh et ai.1,0 indicate that the defornations in connections of tv.oe
Ml are si-ilar Lo rhosein similarl) proportionedreinlorcedconcrer"joinL.
Tests on link beam connections of t]?e M4las indicate that the beams can be
considered as fully fxed at a distance inside the face ofthe condete aDDroxi-
matelyone-rhirdof the d imenqionof rhe embedmentleno b of rhe beam.
T\ro types of composite bracing connections, A1 and A2, are shown in
Fig. 2.33a. In general, modeling these as truss or ftame connections is rela-
tively straightfolwad; however, the analy'tic idealization sometimes becomes
complicatedwhen the inte$ection ofthe centerlines ofthe braces do not coi
cide with the centerline of the columns. A notable example of this is in
Banh of China building in Hong Kong where, as shown in Fig. 2.336,
in three planes have noncoincident working points inside the coiner
columns. In this case, the working points were positioned in oraler to
 2,39

_L_L-__
_[___

on p ates
nternalstflener/connect
TypeA1
(a)

Yii ..n'
ii ii cs condere .a; .'::
.!:r..i)
ii ll
rctunnl ;:" ,i'
ii li
ri !i /.;' .;?
H &,'
r :-_,2.33 Conlositebmcingconn€ctiors.

the steet detailing by avoiding complicatedthree-dimensional inte?sectionsof

the steel braces.Also, the bmce locations were dictated in large part by archi-
tectural requirements. For analysis purposes,such eccentdcitiescan be mod-
eled using frctitious rigid links or kinematic conshaints. It is impodant, how-
ever, that such models account for out-of-plane braciag forces caused by the
noncoincidentworking points.

Loacling. More than for steel or concrete shuctures, in composite structures

it is important to distinglish between short- and long-term loads du ng and
after construction. Duing conshuction, the loading and related design checks
should be determined based on the anticipated construction secuence and
methods. Tb properly calculate long-term leflections in th€ structure, one
needs the time of load application to the structure and the aluration of those
loads. A common example is the case of composite beams where the total
dellection is the sr]m of the deflections of the noncomposite steel beam under
construction loads and the elastic and long-t€rm deflections of the composire
beam under superimposed dead and tive loads.Simjlar reasoningapplie. lor
calculating the deflections in composite liam€s where, during constructior,
the steel erection members ale unencased urrder some of the load and are
later encasedunder the remainder olthe design loaal.

Uncertainties. The uncertainties in predicting the applied loads, response, and

shength of composite systems are similar to those encount€red in steel or reir-
lbrced concrcte structures. However, certain circumstances in composite strrrc-
tues increase the potential adveme impact of deviations ftom the assumed
condi{ions.For example. uicenabcjes oithe time-dependenLmaterial proper-
ties of concrete arc a major concem for design and analysis. These afrect both
the deforrnations and t]rc force distribution between members. As described by
Robertson,63 mther than trying to analyze such effects, in certain cases it is
best to design the structural system so as to mitigate the impact of uncertain-
ties in the material propertieB on the structural resDonse. Another instance
where uncenaintips are ofconcem is in t$e cons{rucrionsequencewhere con-
hactors may not follow the scheme anticipated by the engineer. For example,
in composite framed stmctures it is tjpically assumed that the steel franing
wi]l advance 8 to 12 stories alead of the concrcte encasement but the designer
should anticipate deviations. For analysis purposes, the potential impa& of
these and other uncertainties must be considereal.

The basic t}?es of nonlinear analyses may be categorized by thefu ability to

model the nonlinear rcsponse of structures as represented bv the load-deflec-
tion plot ofthe simpl€ I|ame shown in Fig. 2.84.G3c?aIn g;reml, all except
the frrst-order elastic analysis require nonlinear solution procedurcs whe;e
loads are applied incrementally to the str.ucture. As described below, the main
dillerences in the analysis methods are ho.w geometric and mate?ial nontin-
earities are accounted for
For the past 20 yea$, linear-elastic matdx stractural analysis using line-
t,?e bea]a-colu]nn elements has been the mainstay of engineering practice.
Linear-elastic methods are fairly good for calculating the response of the
structure under service loads. However, for evaluating the strength-limit
state of the structure under ultimate loads, the results of elastic analvses
need to be combined with member-based design p?ovisions which accornt for
nonlinear and out-of-p1ane destabitizing eflects. For example, the beam-col-
umn design equations in the AISC LRFD specificationDsl are a Bemiemp ical
way of taking account of second-olderinelastic deflections under combined
 composlteSysrems 2.41

axial and biaxial bending loads. This situation is changing, however as mod-
eln computer technologiesare beginning to permit the use of advancedmeth'
ods of analysis to more realisticallv model the nonlinear response ol struc-
turcs for large deformations and inelastic effects. Aspects of such nonlinear
analysesaTeoutlined below.
One example of the application of inelastic analysis to design is shoivn in
Fig. 2.35.c76This example is for a steel-ftamed structure, but the basic behav-
ior would be similar to that for a compositefiame. In this example, the frame

- Lateraldeleclon(drilt)
=;-- 23a Comlaison ofmethods ofanaly6is.

=- - 0.81

-1.0 -0.5
^r(icnesl
::-r :j5 lnelasticanaly6i6oflow dse f.ahes.Gtu
2.42

is loaded under $avity forces, aral the results shown include a plot of the
load vs. deformation behavior and the sequence of inelastic hinge formation.
The load is repoded as a ftaction ofthe total factored dead aid live loads. As
shown, the f1lst hinge forms at a load equal to Z4 percent of the inelastic limit
shength. Under continued loading as subsequent hinges form, the behavio!
of the structure changes &amaticalb f?om the initial elastic response. The
strFngthJimil point js rpachedthrough a combinarioDotmatcri;t ard seo-
mel,ricnorlirear bebayioras the "rructure fail" ;n sideswd)to th. tefi. 6ne
point to rccognize from this €xample is the obyious inability of elastic analy-
sis to predict the true behavior near the strcnqth-limit state. Never-theless. if
o n e i s w i l l i n g t o l i m i r r h e d e s r g ns r r e n g i ho f r h e s t " u c t u r er o { h e e l a s r i c
region, i.e., in the example this is the r€gion where the load ratio is lesB than
0.74, €lastic analysis providee an effective means of develoDins a conser.vative
desigr. Further examplesof ihe inelaslic limit srate de.jm of composiLe
stru(.ruresare presented b} Schleich.M

ceometric nonlinearity. By definition, first-order or linear analvses consialer

onJylorce equiJibriumbabedon rhe undeformedgeomelryoI je s{ructure.
As such, these methods do not capture the destabilizing effects associated
with sto6, drifr. P-A effects. and member bucklinq, p-6 effects.As shown in
F,g. 2.36. A refers lo defleflions a! nodpsor sron levels ajld b ref"rs to defiec-
tions betw€en the ends of members. Vadous forrnulations are available for
conside ng second-order effects, and all generally involve incremental and/or
iterative solution techniques where the geometry of the structure is continu-
ously updated.
One tlpe ol second-order approach is an updated iagTangian prccedure for
which the equilibrium equations are formulated based on the current confie.u-
ratioo ofLhe struclure.In addiLionro updatjngLhestrucruralgpomcl,ry. g;o.
metlic stiffn4s matrices, which arc a Ilnction of the cunent member forces.

Frgur. 2,36 Definitions for second,oder ilefoha-

 are added to the basic elastic stiffness at each load step.cii ?his formulation
is characterizedby the follorving incremental stiffness equilib um equation:

tK .Ap ,tq dR, R S , 12.7)

\'!here Il" = elastic global stiffness matdx
L. - geometdc stiffness matrix at incrcment t
di = global dGplacementfor increment i
dE = incremental for.cevectol for incrcment i
l? S = unbalance of exterual F and intemal s forcesfrom previous load
increment i - I

Second-orderanalysis techniques ar'e not in themsetvesmatedal-deDendent,

a - l d r h - f o r m rr a r i o n -a r d p " o ( . d u " e "a . c l h " . a r . f o r - r F e , . o r . r €! l e a
, nd
compositesvstems.

Malerial nonlinearily. Nlatelial nonlinear effects can be included in matdx

structural analysis techniques in a variety of ways with varying levels of
sophistication.At the most basic level, cracking and other inelastic effectsin
concrete and compositeel€ments may be handled by using adjusted member
section properties and/or material modulus values in an otherwise elastic
analysis. Given the capabilities ofpresenrly available computer.software. this
s r h e r . c r n i o u F n o " r f " e q u " r r l r L - " d 1 d . - i g n p " a , r , i e .H o u " r . r , - , r e
Ielined methods are availablc which are currently used in research and mav
i '"'"a- nglr "rrd u-e in ergin.pring prr(ric-
Two general types of advancedinelastic anaivsis methodoloeiesare concen-
' d r a d o l a c r i ,r l m e r h o d .e r d - p r e a do f p l a . . i . r l l n - r h o d " . t r . o r c F n r . d r p o
plasticity methods,sometimescalled plastic or jnelastic hinge methods,inatas-
tic deformations are concentratedat the ends of the beam-cotumnelements.
This is the type of analysis used by ZiemiancT6in the erample shown in
Fig. 2.37. Such methods typicalty employ strcss,r.esultantvield-sur{aceexDres
- i o 1 s , o. n o r ' r o ra - 1 oL o r r r o i 1 e p l . . r c d F f o " a l d t ' o r D
5 a : , , .D i n h -o t o f L l " -
r ' o r- l o r . u c f * - t I o d sd p p l . - dl o l r e a l- 1 . r ,I u r p sn o \ eb e e n , e p u " L e bdr porrer
P o w " . l - - . n d H . e r c r a l . T o o d t e ,c u n . e ' 1 r r d . npot . - r : c i r r j . t ^ o d "
"ro
l a v er 0 1b F A 'dl p p t" d - x r e " . , \ " 1 \r o , o r . p o - . r -pL . u c t upr - . t rh p5 a r . p . i n . i _
ples and metlodologies would apply as for steel structures. The maior diffcr,
enceis in tha shapeoftho yield surfaceused for steel vs. compositesections.
More exact methods ofinelastic analysis are termed spread of plasticitv (or
plastic zone) methods. Th€se gener.atlyinvolve discretization of the member
cross section into a collection of"fibers" to allo$,the calculation ofthe inelas-
tic menber sliffness by numer'ical integration lFig. 2.38). Thcse integlations
are typically made at the ends of the beam-column elem€nts. and the inetas-
tic section stiftuess is assumedto vary lineartv bet$.eenthe ends. The chanqe
I n F m b ' - r l l n e - "d u a L or h F- p " " , d o t i n " t a - r i c i r a\ , o n g r r e t , n ; h o r r o r -
bel.sis modeledby discretizing each membcr into severat ctements. Examples
of the application of such methods to compositecolumns have been reDorted
b) 5,h c ch. ' Rn'. Ber.r .ni, ird Itiwa ano SL""bFk '\v,,itts
"..d
 Yieldsurlacedetineslirnitol
€lasiic-plasticresponselor
composite crossseclion

-.lliql}gf-
,r'
/ lP"
/

**"
II
-:.:: ^--a
7 pt*'icitv
ziJorc"qt.
I
-____---_, i
Etasric
o€am-@tLrn
element
Fi9uE2.37 \1eld-"Lnace rpp+sentauon o'.nptae ic behsv oi

Fiberi wilh areaAr,dimensionsxrandv tromhe

@nl.oid,andwilhqdeteminedbasedonrhe
curyatureand locationoi the neltrat axis

Numencal inlegration ol inetastic

mabnal

,^,(.r*'^
parameleErhroLrgh crN sectionyields
inelstc s€clionp.openr-6s al end oi et€mont
E l y =t A E ix a
Elx=t4Erx'z
EA=I4EI

I
: Ingtaslic
beam_cotumn stement
Fisqre2.33FibelaleDentrepresentationofineiasiicbehavior
 2.45

spreaal of plasticity methods are usuauy more accurate than concenhated

plasticity methods, they generally rcquire more computations and for that
reason arc less suited to the analysis of large structural systems.

Finite-element
models
In certain instanceB it may be apprcpdate to use two- or thlee-aLmensional
firite elements to model shuctural continua which cannot be reprcsented
accurately by line elements. For example, two-dimensional plane shess ele-
ments are sometimes used to model iregularly shaped walls for in-plane
stresses, ard occasionally two-dimensional shell elements may be used to
moalel out-of-plane effects in wa s and slabs. For desigl pvactice most finite-
eleme[t ana]yses are limited to elastic response to calculate the distribution
of streBseBunder service loaals. For shength design pur?oses, the rcsults of
elastic analyses should be interprcted caxefirlly since the effects of concrete
cracting can have 4 major influence on the magnitude and diBtribution of
stressesand or1the deflections.
On occasion, nonlinear analyses have been applieal to composite structures
for very specialized studies; however, the cost to perform such analyses is
usually not wanarted for routine building design, and the necessary budgets
to peform the work are rarely available. Moreover, state-of-the-ad nonlinear
finite-element modeling of composite elements is not yet developed to the
point that it is fully reliable, so users must be very knowledgeable about the
limits of the analysis. Nevertheless, nonlinear finite-element methods are
often used in rcsearch, and cases of their use in pmctice have been reporteal.
Otre notable exanple where a three-dimensional nonlinear analysis was used
was during the deBig:nof the ?2-story InterFirst Plaza building in Dallas.cs'g
In this case the computer code Adinac2e was used to analyze the inelastic
behavior of large beam-column joints between steel beams and composite
columns, similar to joint twe M1 shown in Fig. 2.31. It should be noted that
all inelastic analyses must be a load-histoxy study, as superTosition of other
Ioad btatebib not valid.

tsr Sp€clalanalysisprocedures
Special attention should be given to column shortenin& time-dependent force
redistribution, anal cotrstruction sequence.

calculation of column shortening. Differcntial column shortening in buildings

more than about 20 stories high is one ofthe more serious effects caused by
the combination of steel and concrete elements. If measures are not taken to
avoid or compensate for differential shortening, it can lead to unlevel floors
and other problems. Several good relerences are available on the
subj€ct.c1?,c50 The methods described in these references are not directly
applicable to irnplementation in a matrix structulal analysis, but rather they
are applieal on a column-by-columr basis using loaals {lom a separate analy-
 sis. Thus these methods neglect the change in colulnn loads due to the clilfer_
eltial sho*ening. Therefore, when applied on a column-by-column basis,
these methods are or y appropriate for flerible framed stru;ures wl:ere the
a..ial stiffuess ofthe colurnns is much larger than the stiffness ofbeams con_
necting the columns. On the other hand, for rigid braced or Viercnaleel syB"
t€ms, it may not be apFop?iate to neglect the load sharinq between columns
when calcularitrginelasricbhonFning.The methods
"eferencedabovpinclude
the Bequence and dumtion of loading and other parameterc which affect the
deep and shdnkage ofconcrcte, e.g.,age at loading, size effects,analambient
temperature and humidity. More detailed discussion of the factorc alfectinE
concretefrPep and shrinkageare describedin an ACI con mirree repon.cJ
Further discussion of differential column shofiening and of creep ard shrinl_
age effects on composite colunrns may be folnd in Chap_ 4.

Time-clependent force r€distribution. In redundant str-uctural confrgurations

where concrcte and steel elements share loads, creep and shrint<age Jfthe con_
crete can transfer sigrrificant stresses to the steel above those prcdicted by
elastic analyses. In certain instances, such as th€ design of composite beams,
this effeci can be safely ignoled for purposes of strength calculations.
However, in systems where large concrct; or;omposite supe;columns are useal
in conjunction with smaller steel elements, column shortening can cause over_
loading and buckling of the steel membels. In certain cases ihis probtem can
be overcome by designing the system so as to avoid overloading the steel mem_
bers when the concrete colurrtns shorten. For example, as sho:m in Fig. 2.39,
this technique was used in the s7-story Norwest Center Buitd"ing in
Minneapolis wherc ver-tical joints in the steel columns of the Vierendeel Sime
werc installed every 6ve stories.
One approach for conseruatively calculating the distribution of member
forces between the steei, concrete, and composite membe* is to bmcket the
range ofload sharing which may occur becauseofthe relative stiffness ofthe
steel and .oncrc{p elementb.The principal un.ertainries invol\ed are lhe
F l l e ( l i \ en o d u l u so i t h c c o n r r e l ew
. h i c h i " s f u n c l j o no l i r s p l a s t i c , n s t a n t a _
neousstiffnss, and rhp effectsoflong-tcrmcreepand .lx"inkage.Wlen orher
nonnnearencfis arF amdtla nclsuperposi|lon is vdtid. the eftectof fie change
in concrerestilfresbcsn be ral.utatpd by perroming mutripleunu y.e" rldi.
longlFrm loads usjng upper- ard lower.bound,alucs ofrhe esr,naLedcon_
crete modulus. Itrdividual design member forces for long-terrn loaals can theE
be set equal to the maximum values calculated from ihe upper_ and lower_
bound analvses.

construction sequence. In principl€, analysis techdques which ca]) track the

sequenceof loading and dcnFflions during con"truoion arp no drtTereoLfro(o
biaD.da"d maLrij-basd mplhods.Howe\er.such analysebrequirpa spc.iatized
implementation which handles ihe ertra bookkeepinginvot""a \viin uaa;
memiers, updating the geometry storing member lorces from previous ana
sis steps, and refomulatine the equilibrium equations for the new
 CompositeSystems 2.47

I
t

irameelevation
Composit€

. i-- ,.3e Load shaing betNeensteel and concfet€colmns.

tion, i.e., the stiffness matdx and force and displacement vectors. In the
absence of speciatized software which can handle this, therc arc two appmach-
es one can take. One is to simply analyze the str-ucturc independently at vad-
ous stages of construction and check that strength and deflection limits are met
at each stage. The shortcoming ol this approach is that it may overlook cumu-
lative load or deformation effects which ar€ nonlinear ftom one conshuction
stage to the next. A secondappmach is to use multiple ind€pendent analys€s
but to cary foNrard member load and displac€ment information ftom one
analysis to the next. This method should always provide accurate answe$, but
unfortunately, the bookkeeping involved is rather cumbersome and time-con-
suming. Nevertheless,these measuresmay be necessarywhenthe conshuction
sequence induces behavior quite ditrerent flom that in the compl€ted str"ucture
2.6 ConstructionConsiderations
Selection of the most advantageous composite framing system alependson
cost, speed of erection, architectural rcquiements, marketing considirations,
height-to-footprint ntio, and wind and seismic conditions. TLe follo\\rine is a
generalized discussion of conshuction considemtions for several commo; svs-

2.6,1 Typesot structures

Four t}?es of structurcs are discussed: a concrete core combined with a steel
lia]lle, concret€-fiIled €teel pipe supercolumns combined with a st€el frame, a
composite system with forrned composite supercolumns, and an exterior com-
posite tube.

Concrete corc-steet frame. A composite system using steel members liaming

lnto a concrete core provideB several construction challenges (Fig. 2.14).
Phasing of the concrete and steel erection and effrcient utilization of the
equipment affect the economics of the project. When the core can be started
and substantially completed dudng the lead time required for stmctuml
steel, maximum benefits are achieved. If the site is congesteal and access to
pickup points is limited, logistics become a prcblem.
Selection of the core-forming system depends on the building configumtion,
_
local practice, and need to coordinate with steel erection. Jr_rmofor'[rs. self-
jacking forms. and siip forms for ihe core each have rheir apptjc;don. During
core construction, vertical hanspodation for pelsonnel can be provided by a
man hoist, usually located in an elevator shaft. Matedal hoisting require_
ments vary with the selected forming system.
Tte core dsing above the steel limits the swinE anil location of steel erec_
tion crancs. unless a to\ er cra$e is used ro ercct rhe corc and ;q adequate Lo
erect the steel. The cono€te corc progressing independendy ahead of steel
election permits an efrcient concrete operation a]ld early comptetion. Early
completion of the core allows an early start on the permanent elevators ani
eliminates them from the cdtical path to oecupancy.
When steel erection columns are located within the concrcte core walls aIId
the walls follow st€el ercction (Fig.2.2O) out-of-tolerance prcblems are elimi_
nated buL at the expenseof increasedconcrerecos{ and loss of {ime. The
foming of the walls should follow placing of the concrete slab. The elevator-
shaft side ofthe s.alls should be gang-folmed ard the other face formeal \rith
panels sized for convenient handlins.
In^all forming systems vertical plumbness and contml of twisting rcqu e
careful pla[ning aIId monitoring. If out-of-plumbness of the wa]ls exceeds
reqnircd tolerances, adjustments to steel members or chipping of the concrete
add cost and time to the erection. Provision for steel connections is customari_
ly provided by weld plates in the core wall to receive clip angles. Weld plates
embedded in walls should be oversized to allow for minor discreparcies in
location.
 2,49

Concrete-filledsleel pipe supercolumnswith steet hame. For tall buildings a

composite system comprised of steel ftaming suppoded by large-diameter
steel pipe core supercolumns and small-diameter steel pipe perirneter
columns fitled 6'ith very high shength concretecan be a fast and ellicient sys-
tem (Fig. 1.10).Low unit weight of steel can be achieved,bul a local sourceof
satisfactory agg"egatesfor very high shength concreteis required as $ell as
expe ence in the batching and handlirg of the product Erection rates of a
tier in 3 days are obtainable, but concreteplacing in columns and slabs must
be maintained close to the erection level for structural stabilitv Erection
equipment should not impose loads on the unfiiled columns. For maximum
efficiency the high-strength concrete should be placed on a night shift and
two tiers of columns filled at a time. Concr€te is pumped into the bottom of
the columns to prev€nt voids, and no vibration is required. Slumps of 8 or 9 in
(20 or 23 cm) at the pump are required. Heat of hydration in the super-
columns is adequateto protect the concretein cold weather.
Successful handling of very high strength pumpable concrete rcquires a
well thought-out quality control and quality assurance program and close
monitodng and control of the moisture content of the sand and aggregate.
The concretehas a truck life of 30 min or less, once it is on-site and plasti-
cized. To complete concreting of all columns in a single shilt may require
morc than one batch plant and one concrete pump as weil as a mechanized
svstem to handle hose relocationsfrom column to column.
Shortening of columns dufing erection, caused by a-.ria1loads, requircs close
monito l1g of elevations and adjustments as determined by the design engineer.

Composite systems w:lh tormed composite supercolumns. Structural steel

framing with formed reinforced concrete composite supercolumns presents
€onstluction problems not experienced with circular steel pipe composite
supercolumns. Particular difficulty is experienced with interior composite
columns (Fig. 2.2.1)oling to core wind bracing \thich connectsto the steel col-
umn within the composiie column, thus penetrating the form\tork.
Furthermore, the placing of reinforcing bars though and around strrctural
membels requircs holes in the steel or welding of bar anchors to the mem-
bers. The erection rate ofprogress may be determined by the installation rate
of intedor column reinforcing bars.
The difficulty of forming amund penetlations and the hoisting of forms in
the congestedcore area makes the use of a stick foraning system most eco-
nomical for intedor columns. Custom forms and lilting systemsare applicable
for use on pedmeter columns. Column forms are frlled from the bottom up
with pumped concrcte,which avoids the necessityof either external or inter-
nal vibration. The heat of hydration is adequate to protect the concrete in
cold weather provided the columns are immediately sealedand wrapped with
insulation louowing st pping.
The prelerred erection sequenceis for fioor siabs to be placed plior to col-
umn rcinforcing bars, to provide a working platfor.m. Column completion fol-
lorvs 10 to 12 floors behind the erection level, and €onsideration must be
2,50

given to imposed construction loads prior to the development of the sbength

of the supercolumns.

Exterior composite tube_ A composite tube system utilizing closely spaced

composite pe nleter columns and spandrel beams with str.uctural steei inte_
rior columns and beams which frame into the exterior columns and supDort a
compocircde.k ic efficien{ for very rall buitdirgs wirh a sma foolprint.
Additional economies result since the ertedor concrcte framing folms ; wal
completetri{h window openingEand is a ready suppon for exteriorcladding
and the secufing of window ftames.
Since light steel erection columns and spandrcls supporl the steel fiaming
system prior to conoet€ placement, the stability of the shucture during ercc_
tion is critical and requires prccise sequencing of operations to mainteln the
required minimum number of flools between steel erection anal concrete.
Standby proyisions for supplemental bracing in the advent ol urusually high
winds is also mandatory A highLlymechanized concrete forming sysiem-is
required to ensue that the concreting operation can maintain pace with the
steel ercction, which generally progresses at the rate ofa floor every B work-
ing days. Figures 2.40 and 2.41 show the forming and tifting system utilized
during the comtr-uction of the Z5"story Texas Comm".ce plaza in Houston.
Tbl. An enrirc side of the building was formed as a unir wifi an ai,tachedself_
lifting system.
The placing ofthe reinforcing steel in the columns anal spandrels is critical to
_
th€ schedule since the steel erection columns and spardrels eliminate the possi_
bility of.p.relabric€lion ot reinforcing-barcage.. ga.h Uar.tie. and srin-up must
oe DotvrduarrJ ptacedbut sfilt maintajn the same completjonrate per floof as
the stmctual steel and concrcte. For the perirneter columr]s and ieams, the
reidbrcing steel can be placed immediately afier the concreting of the floor
slab€.since thF bars arc suppod,edb) t}e erectjon colu]lru. Figurl 2.+Zshows
the spquenceot con.frucrionusedon tbe TFxarComme"ceplaza,$hjrb had
interior shear walls through the 60th floor to compensate for interaupting the
exiedorlube ar onecomerof the buildingrFjg.1.5,.
Logstically.rhe maLerial-haDdling demandscan besrbe met by uri[izinga
self-jacking forming system, pumping the condete anal hoisting reinforciLg
bars during off-houm s.ith the steel €rection rig. Winter weatler requirei
tahing the necessary measurcs to ensure adequite concrete set in the very
limited time allowed by the ercction rate. Such measues inclualethe use ol
insulated forms and the wrapping of concrete with insulation immediately
lbllowing stripping.
Axial colunrn shortening is a major consideration owine to the alifferetrtial
compression rale belweenthe steel interior column. and the oerimetercom-
p o s i l ec o l u m n s .E \ e r y t w o L i e r s .L h ee l e v a t r o no f t h e l o p o f t h e c o l u m n g
should be surveled dEd rhF rebulrq ,epoj-lcd ro ihe design engineer lor catcu-
lation or whal acljus{menismust be made by shimming columnsin $e npxt
tier. Since th€ concrete colunrns are subject to different ioad conditions and to
creep over time, the pedmeter €olumns will be held to an elevatior differeDt
tE za{) Fotuvork system for Tm Commerce FHa.

from that ofthe intedor columns so that in time and under tull-
load conditions, the floors will come close to l€vel.

2.6.2 Sitetactors
Ofthe mary items that must be consideredfor a particular con-
structior site, at least the following five deserve brief discussion:
erection schedules, equipment selection, selection of concrete
placing systems, labor and staff rcqufuements, and quality-con-
or prcgmm.
 Lifling

Spandrel--
oerng

Flgur. 2,41 Fomwork lilling system.c6m

 Ereclon

g
E
9 g
ti
;
E

:-rL€ 2.a2 Conslruction sequence.c6l

Erectionschedules. In all the aforementioned svstems the rate of construc-

tion dependsless on the type ofsystem than on the fotlowing factors:

1. Number ofcrane hooks which can economicallvbeused

2. Nunber ofpieces of steel per floor
3. Local practice and rest ctions
4. Experienceand skill ofthe conhactor
The systemswhich require the placing and stdpping offorms for v€dical con,
crete can progr€ss at the rate of a floor every 3 days. Slip-formed cores
progtess at the rate of 1 ft (0.3 m) per hour. The conoeting ol in-frlled steel
tubes is paced by the st€el ercction rate. The steel erection rate with all sys-
tems should be a two-floor tier every 2% to 3 davs.

Equipmentselection. The crane and derrick selection processis driven by the

steel erection requirements and site logistics. When the concrete core pre-
cedes steel ercction, the same crane might be utilized for both operations;
otherwise forming and concreting are independent from steel and require
their own equipment.

Selectionof concreteplacementsystems. With the exceptionof where the con-

crete corc prec€dessteel erection, concreteplacing can be handled most effi-
ciently by pumplng. Concret€core constmction noranallyutilizes a crane, and
th€refore hook time is available for placing concrete by bucket. Since very
high strength concrete is susceptible to segregation, it should be placed by
pumping.
Pumping rates vary with the activity (slab, columns, and walls) and *-ill
 decrease with height by as much as 50 percent at the top of a very tal build-
ing. Pumping rates of 75 yd3 (58 m3) per hour are achievableon lower-level
slab poum.

Labor and stall requirements. Any system requiring significant quantities of

concrcte will be more labor-intensive than structrllal steel systems. However,
the conshuction trades involved in concrete work are generally available
locally, and concrete labor and matedal cost should be adequately offset by
the reduction in structuml steel cost. The contractor's management supervi-
sion can be expectedto requtue an additional supeNisor to oveNee the con-
crete operation.

Quality-controlprogram. The composite systems requiring other than stan-

dard quality-control programs are those using very high strength concrete
and those requiring the concrete corc to precede st€el ercction. The design
mir. for high-strength concrete requires a minimum of 6 months' effort to
achieve a satisfactorJ pumpable mix. A firll-time quality control inspector is
recommendeddu ng the conclete placing operation. The construction ofthe
concrete core requires constant attention to asswe plumbness within the
required tolerancesand accurateDlacementof embedments.

2.5.3 Cosl factors

Cost compadsonsfor the various systems fluctuate with location and chang-
ing market conditions.Each individual project requires its own cost analysis.
An experiencedcontractor should have no pr€ferencebecauseof degreeof dif-
ficulty between all concrete, all-steel, and composite construction and be
equally adaptable to all thrce provided the design has been executed by a
knowledgeableengineer in adequatedetail.
Some composite systems hav€ additional advantages in how they affecr
nonstructual items. The exterior concrete perimeter reduces waterpmofrng
and insulation requirements and is an in-place supporl system for attach-
ment of the exterior skin. When the concr€tecor€of a steel frame structure E
completed early, it allows an early start of elevatom which are frequently on
the cdtical path to coopletion.

2,6.4 Conslructionof TexasCommerceTower

At 75 stod€s, this Houston, Tex.,c67building is cunently the tallest structure
in the United States lvith a compositeframe and is an appropdate cas€histc
ry for the review of major construction issues. This building, owned ard
developed by Gerald D. Hines Interests and Texas Commerce Bank, wa-.
designed by L M. Pei & Partners. The structural enginee? was CBII
Engineers, Inc., and the general contractor was T\llner Construction Co.
Figure 1.5 shows a iypical floor plan with pedmeter composite column-.
spaced10 ft (3.1 m) on centers with compositespandrels,an intedor structut-
 2.55

al steel fiaming syBtem, and interior con$ete shear walls. The shear walls
rise to the 60th floor to compensate for the interruption of the exterior tube at
one tace ofthe building.
During ercction the sfuuctulal steel floor framing was supported temporari-
ly by pedheter lightweight steel columns and spandrel beams until these
lightweight members could be encased in reinforced concrete. The steel
perimeter columns werc designed to support 12 floors ol steel framing and
floor slabs. Thus conoete encasement was mardatory be{ore ercction could
proceed to a higher level. Since Houston is in a hurricane-prone area. it was
necessaryto have a contingencyplan ro provide addiLio;al s{abitity wirh
standby cables and braces in the event ofhigh winds.
The building iq supportedon a 9-ft 9 inieep LJ-mrconcreremat 63 fi (l9
m jbplow gradpand 40 ft ,12 m ) belo\ lhe exis{ingwaLcrrabte.The s.,eighlof
the volume of €xcavated eafth was equal to the weight of the building to min-
imize settlement. TtIe retention system was composedof a series of drilted
reinlbrced concrete piers extending well below the bottom ofthe mat and lat-
eraly supported by tiebacks drilled thrcugh the 1-ft (0.3-m) space between
adjacent pie$. A temporal]' well-point system was installed outside the piers
and spaced to avoid the tiebacks. The water table was lowered to 4 ft (1.2 m)
below the bottom of th€ mat to prevent uplift of the subgade prior to place-
ment of the mat. As basement work progressed a permanent well-point sys-
tem was installed thrcugh the foundation walls.
the foundation walls are composed of reinforced conoete pierB with 8 in
r0.2 m) oI reinforcedconcr"{eapplied to Lheinner faceofthe piers.To Fxpe-
dil,eLhe.chedulethe 8 in r0.2 m, ofconcrerewas apptiedtop down b1 grnit-
ing as the eicavation pro$essed so that the walls wor:ld be completed bv the
time crruclurals[eelwhich framed into rhe waltbwas sraned.The lb.E0bvd
, | 1.900mr, mat was placed jn rwo approximalely equal pours. Tbc con.rr-uc-
tion joint was formed with metal rib lath on a metal frame to eliminate striD-
ping. ULilizing5 barch plants. 153 lru.ks, and I2 concretepunpq, Lhe fir;r
mat pour was placed in 15 h and the second pour took 12 h. Work was oer-
forued on a weekend night ro avoid rraffic conlesr ion.
Structual steel for the tower was erccted to the 4th floor level by mobile
cranesoperalingin rhe crcavaLion. Al rle 4th floor level a guy derrick was
erect€d while the mobile cranes completed erection of the sunoundinq stluc-
turc l,o the plaza level. Meanwhile concrele encaaementof tbe Lowe,perirre-
ter columns and spandrels in the basement levels was pushed so that tower
steel erection could resume. Since the concrete for.rnwork was nont)?ical ilom
the mat to the 4th floor level, the formwork was basically hand-set using
modular unit6 to the extent that they were practical. With completion of th!
sunounding steel and steel deck to grade, the portion of the plaza requireal
for the steel delivery trucks sewicing t}re guy derrick was concreted anil erec-
tion oftower steel resumed.
lrom almost the start of excavation, work was in progress designing and
-
fabricatiDg l,besteFl prefabrical€d forming dnd self-jacking by6km ;hich was
lrrst rnslalledon ihe t$ical 4ih noor.Tfus sophislicatedsysteE formed the
 qt
columns and spandrels into essentially four urfts one for each side of the
building. Each unit calried vrith it a safety net and was jacked in one piece to
the ne{ level. The forming system haal no loose parts. CanI fasteneN locked
the hinged form sides together as they folded into place. When stripped and
folded open, the ent e unit was rolled out and jacked to the next level and In
rolled back into place. The foms had an adjustment to allow the depth of the
columns to be reduced. The width of the columns was constant, since they G
formedthe sidesofthe windowopenings. Ih
The contmct rcquired that the structurc be erected at the rate ol a floor r-
every 3 days for the typical floors. The forming and concreting operatioD
achieved this pace but at the lower levels required a large crew working over-
time. As \irork prog"essed, the crew size was reduced by 75 percent and the
wo?k was pedormed in a standard work day. The 72 l€vels from the 4th
through the mofwerc accomplished in 11 months using Satudays as mak€up
days for inclement weather.
Considerable stualy also went into planning the rcinforcing-steel opelation,
since it had to be placed around the steel columns and spandrels, which made
prefabr:ication impossible, yet the 3-day cycle had to be met. Perimeter col-
unrn rcinforcing bals were placed in trvo-story leneths and connected with
mechanical comprcssion splices at varying elevations. Spandrel
bars had to be theaded through stirups and past the columns using
longest lengths possibleto minimize lap splices.
The sequence of operations required con$ete to be placed every day
i n g w i r h l h e d e i k p o u r . e r e n f l o o r sb e l o wr h e d e r r i c ko n d d y 1 C o n
shear walls at nine floors below the denick were ooured on dav 2. and
perimeter columns and spandrcls fol]owed on day 3, averaging 275 ydi (2
mr) of concrete per day.
Concreteplacementfor the entfuestr.ucturewas by pump located at
level and pumped thrcugh a single riser Placing rates of 75 yd3A (57 m3,&)
the lower levels fell off to 40 yd3/h (30 m3lh) at the upper level
Superplasticizer was used in the columns and spandrcls du ng the wj
months, which thanhs to Houstonh moderate climate-proved adequate
next-day stripping on most days. Forms were cleaned with a wate
prcssed-atujet.
In addition to the rigidity the compositetube design provided for this
tall slim structure, it also eliminated the needfor a structural support
for the building's granite cladding and also for water?roofing and
the exterior walls. I'be pedmeter columns arrd spaltdrels formed a
concrete envelope except {or the window openingE. The ganite and wj
washing tracks were bolt€d dfuectly to the concreteenvelope.Preglazed
dow units werc bolted to the columns in the openingsfonned by the
and the granite cladding.
A11trades subsequent to dhe structural work, ircluding tenant finishes,
lowed closely behind at the same 3 day per floor schedule. By utilizirg a
porary podable airconditioning installation at the ground level outside
bu,lding and by zoning all mechanical,plecrrical,plumbing, and li"e
-iBLE2.3
AdiustmentolColumn Etevationsc6l

Zones(Fig. 2.431

D
t7.3 210 251 26.7 24.8 26.1-
26.7 21.8 24.1 24.3 24.1 25.4 24.1 25.4
2.1.8 22.2 21.6 19.1 22.2 23.5 21.6 23.5
22.2 19.? 20.3 I',t.l 21.8 2:1.6 203 21.0
r9..,1 1r_.1 17.8 r5.2 lll..1 19.1 1?.8 19.1
r6.5 15.2 752 1.1.0 l?.1 17.1 1b.9 1?.1
r3.3 12.1 721- 11.4 1,1.6 t,1.0 14.6
L0.2 9.5 9.5 8.9 121 12.1 L2.l 12.l
rll adjustm.rts are nr in.les

systems, initial occupancywas achieved 3 months after topout of concrere.

Subsr"r , ial co,rolerion ol rhe br,i dirg s a" ac,on p isbed;n J2 n onrl-..
The structulal engineer had calculated the anticipated vertical movement
in aII thc columns from settlement, mat deflection. and axial comDression
(?ab1e2.3 and Fig. 2.43). The first tier columns were increased rn l;neth to
co noensarpfor and mar defl.nion. [s erecr:onpfo,FedFo,th; e]p-
"prrlpmpnr
vation ofthe tops of columns was checkedevery four flools, and the engineer
provided instructions as to the shimming necessaryto compensatefor diff€r-
ential shortening. Since the concreteperimeter columns and the intedor steel
columns compressedat different amounts and rates, the floors were actually
cast slightly out oflevel at a uniform thickness to allow for the differencesro
dissipate as the building became lutiy loaded. Since the actual comirressron
w r h i l d " l o r y h e g h r * a " o r l y ' . i r . 2 . a m m , . i r w a s n o r n e c e " " . r yi o m a i n
tain the theoretical floor elevation. as this amount could be absorbedir the
stone joints, etc. All adjustments werc made to achieve level floors over time
as the building was loaded. The compositetubular frame pedolanealas antici
plr, d ano wcc i:lhoLr quecrion.n er,,:ellenr sorur.orfor;corornicat,"amins
ol this building.

: :onstruclion of Two UnionSquare

The dcsign and construction of the composite frame of the Trvo Union
S o " d " e ' ' p r o i p . i r S e a rl e . \ a : h . , r a k " . i r i n r e r . . r , n e c ^ m p d r i " or no r h .
Ta\a" Comn p.cF Toser. This s6 offce b.r:ldincoal.t6d.000 gros- fi
(164,000 m') was built for Unico"rori Properties, Inc., by Tbmer Construction
Compant"s ScatUe office. The architect was the NBBJ Group and the struc-
r u r r r d e . i c r q- a . ' J . . : " h F o b 1 S k i l l i r g .W a r d .M a g r u s s o re, a i t
"h r., tn.
The height-to-footpdnt ratio was much less severe on T\vo Union Souare
r 1. r r har or r hp T.x.s Cormerc. Iorver,and r\F .ufl cjn $ all F\rFrior^b\ iu-"
FisuE 2.43 Axiai shoriening conlemation.cm

ly did not rcquirc a stone cladding support system, so the structu?al

cdteda differed significantly. Code requirements for both projects
demanding, since Seattle is in a Seismic Zone 3 and the Texas Co
Tbwer is located in a huricane zone.
As in most projects, the cost per square foot of the frame (consistent
meeting all ?equirements) was an important consideration in the selection
the str-uctuml ftaming system. In order to best utilize the differing s
aalvantages ol conoet€ and steel, a design using lo-fLdiameter (3-m) su
colurnns consisting of a steel tube f led v/ith very high shength concrcte
developed. This reduced the strrctuml steel required to 14 lb/ft'z (68
TlIe foul main load-bearing supercolumns were located i]r the core while
crete-filled l4-in-diameter (350-mm) columns $rere used at the buil
perimeter. TtIe basic floor plan is shown in Fig. 1.10.\ryind loads and sei
forcFswere rebistedbJ the core supercolumnsand braci-rlg.
 Initial concrete requirements werc for concrete with a strength of 14-ksi
(97-MPa) concrete.but successfr tdal mixes resulted in consistent rcsults of
19 ksi (131 MPa), and the specilication was raised to the higher strengrh.
This resulted in a higher modtius ofelasticity ofthe concrete.
Fu*her economiesin the ftame were available at the time by utilizing steel
fabricated in Korea. However, the use of forcign steel, pafticularly on a proj-
€ct rvhere 12,000ofthe 22,000 pieceswere unique, requircd extersive coordi-
nation and monitoring olthe detailing, fabrication, and shipping processes.A
local fabricating plant was used to handle mlssing and misfabdcated pieces.
The excavation of the four basement levels rcorired a tieback soldier Diie
dnd lagging sysremdnd the underp'nTng of an adJa(erL J6 br ld:ng.
"roD
Ramps were used to truck out most of the elcavated matedal, but the last 20
lt (6 m) q'ere removed with mining conveyors.The tower was supported on
bel1edcaissonsand the buildings in the adjacent parkirg, retait, and plaza
area by spread footin$. It took 9 months to completethe foundation rcquired
fur Ih" sld"l ol sreelerectiun.
A stdke at the Korean fabricating plant for 50 days extended the time to
completethe ftame to 8 months, but steel erection rates as high as a tier (two
floors) in 3 days were achieved using two tower cranes. Structural requirc,
ments called lor columns to be concrctedwithin slx floors ofthe erection deck
and for floor slabs to be placed within eight floors of the salne. The erection
pace forced a demanding schedulefor concreteplacemcnt to avoid disconti.u
iiy of work. Since adequate floor space was available at the top of the
columns, all concretewas pumped into the base ofthe columns.
lnitial attempts at concreting a padial number of columns in a tier as
welding rvas completed proved inefficient. The concrete operation evoived
\tith closecoordination $ith the steel erection into economicaiplacing ofthe
high-strength concretein all the columns for two tiers in a single secondshift.
T$o pumps were required to place the 700 yd3 1535 m:r) of concrote.
Standpipes were used and were supplied by a dedicated batch plant with
another plant on standby. Mechanical assistance$'as required to move the
hoses efnciently from coluinn to column and to minimize do$'ntime and the
rcsulting loss of slump in the standpipe and possibleblockage.Line blockage
caused by delays resulting from concrcte ariving with the improper slump
was an early problem until uniform moisture content of the sand was
achievedbJ' using a water spray bar on the €onveyorloading the bunker pdor
to mixing. This addition along rvith doublins up the moisture content test
procedureresr ted in uniform pumpable mlles.
The prcject construction team required only 28 months ftom staft of er.ca-
vation to initial occupancyin spite ofthe challengesof an innovative framing
system, foreign steel, and very high shength concrete.
 rl
Chapter

3
Composite
Beams

l1 Componentsand Systems
Composit€ beams have long been recogrfzed as the most economical elements
for floor systems built of a concrete slab and supporting steel sections. Their
ease of constr-uction,superior strength and stiffness-to"$Teightratios, and
favorable firepmofing characteristics make them the preferred system compo-
nents in applications wherc the floor is required to carry p madty gral/ity
loads. Three variants on the traalitional comDosite beam have been develooed
over *te years to meet height limitations and r,heneed for complex mechani-
cal, electrical, and communication installations: composite beams with web
openings, composite joists and truBses, and stub girders (Fig. S.t). These sys-
tems are irtendeal to provid€ high Bpan-to-depth ratios while rctaining flexi-
bility in relocating building services. The design of truditionat composite
beams and of these innovative alternatives is D?esentedin this chaDter
Before loofung at design. however. Lhe frrndamenralsof composiLeaction are
iliscussed to foster an insight into the limitations and necessary simplifica-
l,ioDsinherenl in l,hepmposedapproach.
Each of the thrce components of a composite floor system-beams, slab,
and connecto$-has its own material characteristics. The beams are h.'Dical-
ly made from ASTIII A36, A5?2, or A36/A572 sreet.Derailed information
regarding these steels may be found in ASTM publications.css Frcm the prac-
tical desigr standpoint, their Ioost impotant charactedstics are (1) the
sharply defrned yield shess which allows their strcss-shain characteristics to
be accurately modeled by an elastoplastic curve, and (2) high ductilities that
ensure lhat the plastic capacity ofthe cmss section car be reached.
The concrete uBed for floors varies considerably, ranging from extreme
lightweight to normal weight. The charucteristics of str-uctural normal-weight
coneete are well known and are not repeated here.c72,c76 Because ofthe need
to limit the sef-weight, lightweight concrete is commonly specified for com-
 ChapterSlx

beamshowing
Composiie rcinforced-web
opening

jojsiortrusswithdouble-angl€
Composiie rnembers

-lIT_-
Ir- lI

pelPendiculdnoor
Stubsider sysiemshowing beans
Flsure3.1Composiie
floo! systehs,

posite floors when available. It typically mnges in st?ength from 3 to 5

and has strcss-strarnchamctedsticssimila?to those of normal-weight
crcte.e8 Although some lightweight concrete has lower shear and be
capacity, the ultimate flexunl capacity of the section is the sa]ne as fbr
mal'weight concrcte of the same strength. If, however, the ribs are n
ard the slab is thin, longitudinal shear must be checked in the slab,
cracking along the top of the ribs can occur. Na ow ribs and thin slabs
exceDtions rather than the r-ule in U.S. Dractice.
Serviceability characteriEtics such as creep and Bhrinkage vary consi
ably from normal-weight to tightweight concrcte. The latter tends to be
with porcus, coa$e aggregates that are chamct€dzed by high absorption
low modulus ol elastici8 both of which can have sigrrificant impact on
tenr behayior It is thercforc advisable to evaluate carefi ly the long-
responseof lightweight concreteproposedfor use in compositeflools.
The steel element aIId the conoete slab are most often mechanically
ed using headed steel studs rtelded to the top flange of the steel
(Fig. 3.2). Other tlTes of shear connectoru include rolled steel channels,
::- :3.2 T!?€s ofsh€ar connectoN.

reinforcing bars, and plates and bars welded dircctly to the top of the steel
oeam.The srud sheof conreclor-are useoln rhe Ur ired Sraresiu rhe -lmo.L
completeexclusionof other t}.pes.The AJSC specificationD6lrel for the designof
buildings and the American Association of State Highway and Ttanspoftation
Ollicials (AASHTO) specificationsrss for the design of hishivay b dees include
data for stud and channel shear connecto$, and the American WeldinE Societv
'AWSj Sl,ucturalWF o irg CodpD'"ircluoe"a rhdpreror .1ud ,'.ld;rg iner goi
elns materials, welding procedurcs,and inspection.
Originally most compositefloors rverebuilt with solid concrcteslabs cast on
removable forms. During the 1950sit becameapparent that a comDositeslab
.y-rem. in wh'ch a stcel sl-ee-i. u.ed as rfe f;;m*ork b" rl-e con(rereand
left in place after casting, would have many practical advantages.This led to
the developmentof a great vadety ofcold-formed steel decks (Fig. 3.3).t50,D31
The main difference between a solid slab and one cast on a steel deck is the
presenceof voids immediatelv above the steel beam. The voids can influence
significantly the effectiveness of the shear connection by reducing the
strength and stiffness of individual connectom. Empidcat rules have been

, . : "ofiled sieel deck srab.

 derived from test data to ensure that the reduction in shear caDacitv is
account€d for in design.

Fundamentals ol ComDosite Aclion

The most common type ofcomposite construction is a compositeb€am, v/here
a steel wide-flange section is intermittently connected to a concrcte slab. In
gene?al temrs it is assumed that thes€ composite beams are loaded primarily
in flexure, and that the steel beam carries all ofthe tension and the slab part
or aI of the compression. To hansl€r the horizontal shear at the interfae
between the steel beam a]ld the concrcte slab several mechanisms can be pos-
tulated, including adheEion,friction, and bearing. Except for steel sections
fuliy encased in concrete, adhesion and friction are generally disregarded
because of their lack of reliabilitj'. It is assumed for most composite bearDs
that the shear connection is provided by steel elements welded to the ste€l
beam and embedded in the concrete. These elements transfer the force
between the steel beam and the connector by shear and betrveen the connec-
tol and the concrcte by bear;ng.
The degree of connection pmvided at the steel beam {ooclete slab interface
gives rise to a broad range ofbeha.v.ron
1. At one extreme it could be assumed that there i€ no connection at all
The steel besm and the concrcte slab respond to loading indep€ndently, and a
reliable ultimate strength is given by the plastic capacity of the beam alone
(Fig. 3.4) as in many older steel structues where no mechanical connectors
werc provided between the beam and the slab. In realitv most of these strua-
tures tend to respond to load as compositeat the servicelevel becauseoffi:i
tional forces and adhesion. This t]?e of construction is seldom built todat
sinc€ the cost of prcviding mechanical connecto$ is usually lower than
of pmviding a larger steel-beam section capable of ca?rying the loads by
2. At the other exbeme one can assume perfect connection. The steel b
and the confiete slab rcspond as a single unit (Fig. 3.5) because there is
discontinuity ol strains at the int€rface. Perfect couection requires a
tor with infinite shear, bending, and axial stiffnesB. Since no mechanical
connectoris capableof providing this de$ee of stilftress, perfect connection

,-","-rR%'--T
""o ) -l_
Defomed shape Strain

Figu@3.4 No interaction-
 Shain
Deformedshape
=€@ 3.s Comllete interaction.

not pmctical. However, a small amount ofslip at the intedace does not rcduce
significantly the capacity of the section provided that the connectors can
hansfer the required maximum shear Assuming that the conuete cannot
resist tensile forces at ultimat€, the most economical design for this system is
the one in which the connecto$ can transfer as a shear forc€ the sma]]er of
either the tensile capaciry of the steel beam 44 or the compressive capacity
of Lheconcreteslab 0.854"/": Known a. compleid inreraction or firll shpar con-
nection, this solution provides the maximum possible cross-sectio[a] strength
lor a given beam and slab geometry.
3. Between no connection and complete interaction lies a region known as
incomplete interaction or partial sheaf connection (Fig. 3.6). In this case the
amount of connection provided is less than the smaller of 44 and O.SSA"{:
The strcngth provided by partial interaction can be taken, consi:rvatively, as a
linear interpolation between no and complete interaction (Fig. 3.7). As x'ill be

Defo.med St|aii
shape

iE 3.6 Incompleteinteractior.

(%)
DesEeor iileraction
ri= !7 Calacity vs. deFee ofi.i€raction,
3.6 ChaDter
Three

discussed in more detail later, the real intenction curve falls somewhere above
this straight line. Partial shear connectioa is popular because in most cas€sthe
cross section of the steel beam is larger than the minimun needed for zul
intemction while the number of shear connectors can be tailored cloEely to the
required minilnuln. Because some degree of aluctility is desfuable ater a section
reaches its dlesign capacity, codes limit the minimum amount of intemction to
between 25 and 50 percent of full composit€ action. Very low percentages of
interaction may rcsult in a sudden shear failure ofthe conlection.76,1x
A dgorcuE elastic anal].sis of paltial interaction is given inApp. A This t}?e
of analysis is valid only for the case of service loads $.herc both the stiff1ess of
the studs and the stress-strain characteristics ofthe steel andl concrete can be
assumed to be linear. As the loads incrcase, the stifiiess of the studs begins to
dlecrease,as is discussed in Sec. 3.3. A.s lone as the conffete and steel ftrIu
elastic, a linear st€p-by-step alalysis ca]! be iarried out to determine the forces,
moments, and Blips. Once the steel anal coneete become nonlinear, however, a
tull inelastic iterative analysis is required. For design purposes this level of
sophhtication is not wananted, since a simple plastic a[a]ysis, as is discussed
in Sec. 3.4, gives excellent results for the ultimate-strenE"Ur-limit state.

3.3 ShearConnection
3.3.1 Principles
of shearconnection
Shear connection at th€ steel-con$ete interface is the kev element for achiey-
ing composite action in siructural members. An ac;urate quantjrative
descriptioD of the shear connector strength is rcqufued if one is to precisely
calculate the strength of a composite beam. Various means of shear conn€c-
tion have been used i[ the past,secdTbut thout question the welded head€it
shear stud is the moBt prominent in construction today. The remainder of thjs
section deals exclusively .$.ith the headed shear stud.
The firndamental principle by '"vhich all shear connectors are designed is
[ha[ Lhey must resisi the horizontal shear force developed at the inrerface
between ihe sLeelbeam and *re concretestab. Thi6 force may rarge from the
full leld strength of the steel section, as in complete interaction design gov-
erned by the shength of the steel section, to a rclatively small percentage d
the steel section yield strcngth, as in a design with the minimum pemitted
amount of interaction. Additionaly, the stud connectormust resist bending
and the tendency of the slab and beam to sepamte vertically as describealin
App. A. Neither vertical separution nor bending forces in the conn€cton is a
mode ofbehavior that is b?ically checked in desien.

3.3.2 Behaviorand strengthof studs

The behavior and strcngttr ofwelded headedshear studs are most olten stu&
ied on the basis of push-out test data. Although the push-out test was devel-
opedin the 1930s,3eD33 to this day there is no g€nerally acceptedor standard-
 ComposlleBeans 3.7

'1r' I
ii rl
't"{i 3 / 4S t u d , H = 3
ll Ir
ll ll
rl ri
I nJ.
I ""1 tl
ii

SECT]ON
.:, .3.3 Oonvenlionalpnsh out teslspecinen.hl

ized procedurefor fabricating and testing push-out specimens.Consequentlt',

researchercthat have investigated shear stud behavior have often used simi-
lar but yet different proceduresfor conducting the tests. The results typically
consist ofa load vs. slip relationship lbr a shear stud, with the test conducted
to failure ofthe specimento resist 1oad.
Most of the push-out specimens are similar to those tested at Lehigh
Univcrsity by Ollgaard et al-,61as shown in Fig- 3.8. A problem associated
\iith this configuration is that the concrete must be cast or two different
days, resulting in varying concreteproperties for the two sides.Altelnatively,
formwork for the specimencan be built such that the slabs are cast vertically.
This alleviates the problem of different concretebatches but causesthe plas-
tic concreteto settle and cure in an atypical position.
Modifications to the twical specimen can alleviate the problems identifred
in the previous paragraph.l{r One modificatioD consists of forming the speci-
men in halves. Each half of a push-out specimenis corstructed by altaching
formwork to a stluctural tee. After the slabs arc cast and curcd, two halves
are bolted through the stems of the structual tees to form a complete speci-
men. This manner of casting permits the slabs to be cast horizontally and
ftom the same batch ofconcrete. This procedurcavoids the problems associat-
ed with casting the two concreteslabs either at different times or in the vefti-
cal position. Overlapping the stems of the tees induces an eccentricity in the
built-up steel section,as comparcdto using a rol1edH shape.The effect due to
this eccentricity is deemed negligible. Fudhermore, the eccentdcity can be
eliminated by butt \relding the two teesraaor by bolting with two splice piates.
An additional dodification has been rccently introduced to improve the push-
out test prccedue.l44To prevent prematue separation bet$een the slab and
the steel deckin the direction noruEl to the slab surface.a yoke deviceis placed
on the specimen. This manner ofloading simulates the $avity load placed on a
 Trc i1/4' . 1 1/2')ilarsteetba6€achsLde

Elevalion
Figue 3,9 Morlified lush-out test speciden.u4

slab of a floor. A load cell and hyibaulic lam are part of the yoke assembly. The
specimen configuation with the yoke in place is shown in Fig. 3.9.
Specimensare placed in a univeNal testing machine on a bed of plaster of
Paris or on an elastomeric bearing pad, which rninimizes the effects caused
by ally unevenness in the bottom of the specimen. Shear load is applied with
the testing machine to the steel beam in load increments equal to apprcxi-
mately 10 percent of the expected specimen capacity. Displacement control is
used once the load levels r€ach about 80 percent of the expected capacif,t
Load normal to the slab surface, applied using the yoke assembly, is moni-
tored rrith a load cell and controlled with a hydmulic hand pump and ran
The normal load is incrcased along with the applied shear load. Results simi-
lar to those shom in Fig. 3.10 arc tr?icaUy obtained. The test is generally
run monotonically, but an unloaaling curve is shown in Fig. 3.10 to illustrat€
the urioading behal.ior alter significant s)ip has occuned as in the case of a
major overload event. The unloading charactedstics may have sigrifrcant
impact on the systemt serviceability
Generally the basic relationship between strength and slip has an exponen-
tial form t}?ically given by
 3.9

: {sheaf)

S (SLp)

-:,8 3.10 Shear slip cuNe fo. headed6tud comector

Q:Q"(r e'bP (3.1)

where Q,, is the ultimate strength, s is the slip, and A and B are constants
derived ftom curre fitting to test results. Ollgaard et a1.61give A - 18 and B
= 0.4 for the results of numerous tests conducted at Lehigh University and
elsewhere.This t]?e of relationship is useful if the behavior of a composite
beam sectionneedsto be hacked through the noniinear range.
Tests of push-out specimenssuch as those shown in Fig. 3.E vere used to
determine the ultimate strength of studs as reported by Ollgaard et al.h' The
nominal stud sheneth 8", which has been incorpomted in the AISC LRFD
is given by
specification,D'gL

Q": o.5A""\ E.f.= A""F, (3.2)

whereA., = crcss-sectional
areaofa stud shearconnector
/; = specifiedcompressive
strengthofconcrete
,B": modulusofelasticityof concrete
4 : minimum speciftedtensilestrencthof stud steel
The modulusof elasticityof cc'ncrcte.a in Eq. (3.2)may be computedfrom
the enpirical expressionD'gs
P , : w ) E\ f , (3.2a)
wherc the units ofE. and /; are ksi and that of the unit weight of concreteu
is 1b/ft3.
Two distinct limit states are indicated in Eq. (3.2), one governed by con
cret€ and tho other by the sieel shear stud. The shear connector strength
increases with increasing concrete compressive strength up to a maximum
value equai to the tensile strcnsth of the shear stud. The relationship given
in Eq. (3.2) appeaN to indicate that failures in push-out tests would be con-
holled by concretefailure (e.g.,pullout, splittingJ for relatively lolv values of
3.10

3,11 Stud defomatior in conqete.

conoete compr€Bsive strength, and steel failure for relatively high values of
concrete strength. HorFever, Ollgaard et al.6a rcpoded that vttually all tests
exhibited a combination of concr€te and st€el failures. Earlv results of a
r e s e a r c \p r o g r a mL r n d p r w aa) r v i r g i n i a P o l Jr p c h n i cI n " r i t ; l p a n d S r a i e
Universitylla at the time ofthis wdting have indicated similar behavior That
is, tests with calcolated strcngths governed by concrete shength have exhiL
ited a combination of concrete and steel failurcs. The experim€ntal shenstbs
are in rloseagrcemcnrwi[h lhe calculaledvalues.
The apparcnt inconsistency that arises if one compares the oredicted and
experimental lailure modesis closelyassociatpdw'rh the reason whv the
shear studs exhibir ducrile bFhavior.The ducrility is rhe resulr of high tocal
strcsses: the concrete is undergoing inelastic permanent deformations or
cr_ushing locally around the lower paft of the stud, cteating a void that per-
mits the stud to deform (Fig. 3.11). Thus, even if the predicted strength
appea$ to be based on a concrete failurc, the overall shear connector bel1av-
ior is still ductile b€cauBeof the deformations occlrrritrE in the stud. The
rhear forceand Lhemoment in rhe srud have their maxrium vdluesat the
weld cornecting the stud to the beam flange and dec?ease rapidty with the
distance from the weld. For studs with larye length,to-diameter ratios the
values may become negative, similar to the behayior of a cantilever suDDor-ted
on an elastic foundation.

3.3.3 Studs in a formedsteeldeck

The str€ngth of shear connecto$ located in the ribs ol a lormed steel deck
rnay be reduced frorn that in a flat sofnt slab because of the influence of deck
geometry. Empidcal exp?essions for this reduction were developed bv evalu-
aLing Lhe resulls of numprous compositebeam tests.? The reducedstud
 3.11

shength is obtained as a prcduct of the nominal shength ofa shear stud Q,

from Eq. (3.2) and a strength-reduction factor. For dbs oriented perpendicu-
lar to the beam,the stud shength-reduction factor -R is

')=',
"

",":ffi?(+ (3.3)

where -^/. : number ol studs in one db at a beam inte$ection

u, : avemge rridth of concrete rib
7, : -^-i-"1 .i] }'aidh+
11"- length ofshear stud after welding
W}len the ribs are parallel to the beam,the stualstrength-reduction factor Ep"
is given by

E.:o6t(+ 1)=10 (3.4)

E$rations (3.3) ard (3.4) were developedas a part of a Lehigh research pro-
glam.7? They have been in design specifrcations in the United States and
abroad for many years, resulting in shuctures with satisfactory recoral of
freld experience. However, in rccent yeals several researchers have rcpoded
that Eq. (3.3) is unconsewative in certain configulations.Tl'105'107Modified cal-
culation pmcedureB have been proposed but no consensus has developed
regarding the best design apprcach as a replacement for Eq. (3.3).
Ttre reason for the discrepancy between rccent experimental results and
those predicted using Eqs. (3.2) and (3.3) is not clear. However,it is clear that
a significant data base exists to substantiate the presently used procedurcs. A
review of ihe data rcpo*ed by Grant et a1.,77Henderson,Taand Klyce107
reveals two important variables that may relate to the discrepancy. At least
some of the tests reported by Grant et al. and all tests reporteal by Hende$on
werc detailed vrith stuals placed in patus within a given rib. The single test
reported by Klyce had two-thtuds of the studs placed in pairs. AIso, the deck
used in the specimens of the test program at Lehigh Univercity that repre-
senteal the basic part of the much more extensive studies reported by Grant
et a1.77did not have a stiffener in the bottom flange ofthe steel deck. Both of
these details, i.e., the use ofpatus ofstuds per aleckdb and the absenceofthe
siiffener in the deck, appear to make the position of the shear stud within a
rib ofthe deck less of a concern. These and other details are under inveEtiga-
tion in several research studies in plogress at the time of this waiting.
Equations (3.3) and (3.4) were derived from teBts of beams since beams
simulate closely the behavior of shear connecton in practical applications lt
call be aqued, however, that arr accurate evaluation of the shear connector
strength must be made using ca?etully contmlled push'out teBts because the
sensitivity of stud shength to va?ious para]netels is difficult to discern if the
strength is back-calculated fTom beam test results. The best approach is a
3.12 ChapterThree

combination ofthe two t)?es of specim€ns: use the push-out tests to evaluate
a wide mnge of parameters and to formulate shength relationships, and the
b€am tests to check the applicability of the results to stluctural €lemenls m
praclrce,

3,3.4 Designcriteriafor shearconnection

Equations (3.2) to (3.4), presented in the previous sections, represent the
strength ofheaded shear studs and account for reductiom due to the use o. a
steel deck. On the demand side of the inequality, the horizontal shear force
requiredin positive-moment regionsis the rDinimumof 0.8bA-f-,A .F. ard
IQ,. ln negaLive-momentregions. rhp required borizontal shear force'js thp
mrnimum.of.A{,. and IQ,,, where only properly developed reinforcing bals
can oe lnctucledrnA-.
The required number ofsh€ar connectors must be placed between the point
of maximum moment, either posifive or negative, a;d the adjacent point of
zero moment. Thus, for a simply supported uniformly loadeil beam me
requfued number of shear connectors must be placed between mialsDan andl
the beamend. *re full requjrednumberon each;ide ofmidspan.
Beeause of the ductility of the headed studs, the connectors requireal
between the points of maximum and ze?o moments mav be distdbuted arbi_
harily along the beam within some limits. Uniform spacine is the comon
plactice. Minimum and maximum spacing limitations, desc;bed later in this
section, must be satisfied. If the beam is subjected to concentrated loads,
additional stud-distribution checks are necessarl,. Specifrcally, the number of
shear connecto$ between a concertrated load and an adjacent point of zero
mome[t muEt be adequate to develop the moment at the concentrated load.
This flexibility in the placement of shear studs contributes favorably to the
economyof compositebeams.
One important parameter pedaining to stud placement has been over_
looked previously but was identified in recent research studies: the Dosition of
the shear stud rclative to the stiffener in the bottom flanse of the steel deek.
Most deck profiles manufactured in the United States haie a stiffener in the
middle of the bottom flange, thus maling it n€cessary to weld shear stucls off
center (Fig. 3.12). Tests have shown differences in shear stud shenpths for
the two available locations. A stud placed on the side of the stiffener nearest
the end ofthe span is shonger (strong position) than one placed on the side of
the stiffener nearesi the location of maximum moment (weak oosition).
The difference in streneth might be atrributed to the difier;nt thickness of
concrcte between the stud and the web of the deck that is nearest to midspan.
Research has indicated that the shength of stud connectors ia ihe weak posi_
tion is not a function of concrete sireDgth but rather depends more on the
properties of the steel deck.laa The problern can be minimized by specit/ing
that the studs must be placed in the strotrg position; this would require coor_
dination between ttle design engine€r and th€ contractor instalhngihe studs,
and may not be realistic in many situations. Fortunately, the problem seems
 CompositeBeams 3.13

Weak Svong
- : , _ . 3 . 1 2 W €a k a n d s t t u n g s r u d ! o s i i i o . 6 . L a

to be critical only $'hen there is just one stud per lib. It is recommended,
therefure, to reduce the stud design strcngth by 25 p€rcent from the value
glven by Eqs. (3.2) and (3.3) in caseswhere a rib contains only one stud.
Recommendationsfor spacing and lateral cover of shear connectors have
been developedover the yearc on the basis of a combination of available test
data and practical considerations.The distancebetween the surface of a shear
connectorand a free srrface ofconcrete. that is, a surface not coveredby steel
decking, must not be less than 1 in, but a greater lateral cover is desirable.
The nadmum stud spacing should not be greater than the lesser of eighh
tim€s the slab thickness or 36 in (0.91 m). Studs placedin a steel deck should
be spaced a minimum of four stud diameters, center-to-center',in any direc-
tion. On the other hand, in installations without a steel deck, studs should be
spaceda minimum of sir stud diameters, center-to-center,along the length of
the beam and foul diamete$, centerto'center, in the hansverse direction.
Finally, tests have demonstrated5sthat when the stud diameter exceeds2.5
iimes the plate thickness, the stud shear connectorfails prematurcly b), Lear-
ing out of the plate. It is recommendedthat unless the stud is placed over the
*'eb ofthe Eupportingsteel beam, a diflicult requircment to ensure rnder field
conditions,the stud diameter to flange thichness ratio should not exceed2.5.

. : Desigrfor Flexure
The design of str-ucturalmembers by LRFD places emphasis on the ultimate-
strengthlimit state. Compositeb€ams arc no exception,and thus the flexural
design of these memben rcquires accumte assessmentof the strcngth ofthe
individual components:the ste€lbeam, the concreteslab, and the connection
3.14 ChapterThree

3.4.1 Cross-sectionlorces
The steel beam and the concrete slab resist intelnat forces that arc in equilib-
rium. Their chamctedstics arc discussed in this article.

Sleel beam. The minimum strcngth of the steel beam for the case ol lull
intemction can be reprcsented by A,4, where d is the area ol the steel sec-
tion and 4. is the nominal vield strels of the steel. Tests have shown that
wide-flarg6 steel beams are capable olreaching and exceeding their lull plas-
iic capacities (i.e., they can be consideredcompact) when used as composite
beanls with a concrete slab of a size sufficient to resist horizontal force equal
to or exceeding A"1r. It should be noted, however, that once the concrete
hardens the correct limit state in a composite beam is distortional buckling
rather than the lateral torsional buckling which is the basis for current code
limitations.Dsl Nevertheless, at least in part owing to ignoring the stifening
effect of the slab, American specifrcationsDelare generally conservative. -i
During construction, when the steel beam acts as a noncompositesection,the
bracing effect of the decking and any bridging prcsent arc usually sufncient I
I
to prevent lateral to$ional buckling problems. rl
When the effective portion of the slab is small or the degrce of intemction is
low, parts ofthe steel beam are in compression. Tests have shown that most
steel beams can develop their yield capacity in tension and compressionif
local buckling ofthe vreb is avoided. The LRFD specifrcationDel permits use of
the full plastic capacity of the cmss section as long as web slenderness /r/l. of
the steel beam is less than 640/\f-Frr where 4/is the yield strcss of the s;€el
beam flange. In practice this is not a serious limitation since onlv one rol1ed
section faih to meet this $iterion, and the additional restraint of the slab
ad& some margin of safety. In summar.l,, the force in the steel beam is easy to
quantify and is pmbably the besi known of the three components.
Another matedai characteristic that may need consideratior in design is the
effect the actual shength in excess of the minimum specifieal valu€ may have
on the ductility of a composite beam. The values used in design for ( and fj
arc basedon 5 percent exclusionrules; i.e., 95 percent ofthe materiah lave ai
least this strcngth and probably substsntially more, while the values for shear
studs are mean values; i.e., 50 perc€nt of the studs arc stronger Thus, even
though the strcngth of a beam is certain to equal or €xc€ed the dtimate
design moment M , the mode of lailure may be contrclled by the studs. In such
a case the beam may rcspond to loading as one with parlial interaction eveD
when connectors are prcvided in the amount requfued for compl€te interactioo-
Thus a simple substitution ofA572 crade 50 steel for A36 steel may lead to a
change in the mode of failure arrd possibly also to some loss of ductility.

Concreleslab. The compressivestrength of concrete is also seldom a prob-

lem. The compressivelorce in ihe slab can be iahen as 0.85A"/:, where A" is
rhc eflecrrvecomprcssiona"ea./. is Lhe nomrFalconcrelcd;;g1h, and ihe
0.85 factor accountsfor the idealized shape ofthe shess block and other vari-
ables. However, becauBethe conoete is generally about 10 times weaker than
 3.15

|t-o..+]

-r
I
sirss in theslab
of compfessive
Distribution

_I
I

Equivalenl width
€fieclive
=ej:3.13 Ef€ctivewidth defiailion.

the steel, a large area of the slab must be activated to balance the forces on
the closs section. The pmblem is aggravated by the thin concrete slabs locat-
ed abovethe steel dbs, often as little as 2 in (51 mm) thick.
The effective arca ol the slab A" is the pmduct of slab thickness snd its
effective width. Figue 3.13 shows a slab spanning several equally spaced
beams. Becauseof shear lag effects,the elastic distribution of shains assum-
ing perfect interaction between the beam and the slab is not uniform.5673,D5'
The shains arc large immediately above the beam and decrease with the dis-
tance from the beam, as is illushated in Fig. 3.13. Assuming linear elasticity,
the force 4 that car be caried by the slab attached to any given beam is

o,t"dt (3.5)

whereA : beamspacing6
f. = elabthickness
o" = stressin the slab
The elfective width 6" can then be de{ined as the portion of the total width 6
that can caral' the same total force assuming that the shess is uniform and
its valueis equalto that overthe beam,i.e.,o-"*:
3.16

'."4: (3.6)
"*\b
The value of6" depends pimarily on the true of toading and the ratio ofbeam
spacing to beam 1ength.56Based on manv strdies, the effective width on
either side of a beam was generally taken in the past as one_half of the beam
spacitr€ (6/2), one-eishth of the span tensth 0/8), or eight times stab thick-
ness. Tests and analysis indicate that the slab thickness seldom if ever eov-
erEsand that Lhereis no rarionatbasisfor rhis requiremcnt.The AISC_LRFD
specifrcationDer requirements for effective slab width are based onlv on beala
s p a c i n g .t h e " p a n I e n g r h . a n d t h c d i s i a n c c f r o m L h ee d g c o i r h e s l a b .
VallenillaDt, has proposed recendy that the effective widlh should also
dep€nd or the degree of composite action. He proposed b" = l/12 for b€ams
with less than 50 perc€nt interaction and 6. : l/8 for beanis with more than
50 percent interaction. Al1 excellent discussion of this topic can be found ir
papers by Adekola56 and Vatlenitla.D6,

Shearcapacityat the interface

The design of composite beams is conholled pdmarily by the magnitude of
horizontal shear force transfened between the concr;h slab anithe steel
beam. This force transfer is usuauy provided for bv headed stud or other
t]?es of shear colrrrectom, atl of which are characterized bv similar load_slip
behdvlor.Fi$re 3.10 sho\ s a Lypicalrelalionship b"rween r,hehorizon{al
shear and the horjzontal displacement (slip) between the coneete slab and
the steel beam for a headed shear stud obtained from a push_out test. It cad
be seen in Fig. 3.10 that the load-stip rctationship is'nonlinear from the
begiming of loading. However, an elastoplastic aptroximation such as the
one shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 3.10 can be ;e;d to describethe gener_
al characteristics ol the inteface. Three quantities, the shear stiffne'ss &-
the ultimate shength of the connectorse; and the ma_aimumslip s_",, ari
needed_tochamcterize this elastoplastic iurve. I.Jle value of A. j; us%*fulin
determining the seryiceability characteristics, i.e., deflection's and vibra_
tions- The value Q, is needed in determining the ultimate strength of t.h€
beam, and the value of s_* is important in evaluating the ductility of the

Figuie 3.10 shows aiso one unloading cycle atudng a monotonic test to fait_
ure. At first, the unloading cuwe foltows essentially the iritial slope of the
monotonic load,slip curve. However, at loads substantiallv less than ihe max_
imum reachedbelore lhe start ofrhe unload,ng,large stip reve.sal rales
place, suggesting the presence of penranent deforrnations of the stud ard
padicularly of the surzounding concrete. Under full load reversals,
this
pinching behavior results in redistribution of forces to less strcsseal con]lec-
tors and may lead to significant loss of composite action anal resialual cleflec-

The force bansler in a composite bea]n can be visualized by drawing free

 ComposileBeams 3.17

+t++++ T
2t
T +,t++f,
T

a'\
\
*-1
|
-/
\
i!,+6MB 2.1

\l ,/

F-- & --3

=r- 3.14 Fofcesactine on a compositesection,rl!

body diagrams of the beam and the slab (Fig. 3.14) and writing equations of
equilib um ofthe componentsand the overall system. For the linear elastic
case,i.e., baning any nonlinear behavior ofmaterials and assuming that the
slope of the load-slip curve for the studs is constant, it is possible to $rite a
clos€d-form solution.57,n3,r,e,113,D34 The complete treatment of this case is
given in App. A, whe?e solutions for the forces and displacements are given
for the cases of a single concentrated load, dist buted load, and constant
moment. The reader is encouraged to study App. A carcfully, since the results
are not alwa$ intuitive. For example, it should be noted that becauseof the
lack of a continuous connection between the beam and the slab and other
characteristicsofthe componentelements of a compositebeam, veftical sepa
ration can occur between the steel beam and the concrete slab, as has been
demonshat€d in tests of full-size compositebeams.,3This gives dse to l'edi-
cal forces,and the need (1) to incor?orate the axial stiffness ofthe connector
A. into the calculations and (2) to provide a vertical force-tmnsfer mechanism,
i.e.. the h€ads ofstud shear connectors.
 3,18

3.4,3 Plasticstrengthtor positivemoments

Experiments performed on composite beams have shown that the true
moment capacity of a section subjected to positive bending can be closelJ,
apprcximated by assuming that either the structural steel section is fully
yielded or the con$ete slab is stressed to 0.8b/; though its fiiI depth. The
effective cross section for plastic analysis consiBis of the steel beam and the
effective slab shown schematically in Fig. 3.15 together rMith a plastic stress
dishibution diagram. The compression force C in the concrete slab is the
smallest of

C : A"F, (3.7a\
c :0.85f;A" (3.7b)
C=2Q" (3.?c)
whereA : area of concreteslabwithineffective width
A" : area of structural steel closs sectiotr
l; = specified comprcssive sfuength of concrcte
: minimum speci{ied yield shess of steel
4
E@" = sum ofnominal shengths of shear connecto$ between the Doint
of ma-Rinum oosirive momenLand rhe point ofzero momeni r,o
either side

The eflect of longitudinal slab rcinforcement on tlrc proDerlies of the con-

posjtecrossspclionis gpnerallynegligible.A possibleexceprionmay be the
casc where lhe compressjon force C is govemed by the strengrh ol Lle slab
and Lheslab is heavily reinforced.[n bucb.ase,the area ofihe loneiludinal
rcinforcement wiftin rhe cffecli\c width of Lhe slab limes the vield-stress of
the rcinforcement may be added in determininq C.
The dpplh of LheconcretFcompressionstresJblock o is eoual ro or less r.Lan
the sldb thicknesb.Tl is obtainedhom the equilibrium oi horizonralforces
acting on the slab (Fig. 3.15) as

C (3.8)
" d.Bsf[

F _8

Py+c
ll _l " -----
I
Jr_
FIgUE3,1s Pla6tic strss distdburion for posftive bendinsj,l
 3,19

E . 8qt;

Fy
i:rrc 3,16 Modfi€d plastic stress distibuiio n ,D'g1

wherc 6" is the effective width of the con€reteslab Replacing the stress dis-
tdbution shown in Fig. 3.15 with the equivalent strcss distribution shown in
Fig. 3.16leads to a simple, general solution ofthe problem The noninal plas-
tic resistanceis obtained by addine the couplescausedby compressionC and
teNion P, with resp€ct to the compressionforce in the steel sectionDel:

M,= Ctdr+ dz\+ PrQ- d2) (3.9)

: tensile strength ol steel section equal to A.4

dr : distancelrom centroid ofcomprcssion force C in concrcteto top ol

d 2 : distance from centmid ofcompressionforce in steel sectionto top

of steel section:for the caseofno compressionin the steel section
d": o
d3 = distanc€from P] to the top of the steel section

Equation (3.9) is applicable to steel sections symmet cal about one or two

Normal1y,there is no rcason not to use padial composite design lor most

commercial buildings. If a building is to be subjected to harsh fatigue load-
ings, such as lift trucks, fully compositeconstruction and well-rcinforced con-
crete slabs mav be the prudent solution. Such, however, is not a common
design situation. For nearly a1l composite flools partial interaction leads to
the most economicaldesigns.
" e c t i o ni s n o l a r e a s ) t a ' k
T n e c o n _ p 1 edr "e . i g n o ' a p a r l i a l c o n ' p o s i l F
D'gb
unless desigtr aidsD5o oI a computer rNlth a suitable design pmgram are
used. Three methods are presented here, an approximate m€thod which can
be used for prcliminary designs and two exact methods which are based on
the actual physical and geometrical properties ofthe composite section The
use ofthe word "exact" is inaccurate, as the methods are noi really exact. The
beam models used for the exact methods requirc that the actual properties of
the beam be modihed somewhat to accourt for the frllet areas befiveen the
web and the flanges ofa mlled section.
TWo difierent models of the beam section can be used (Fie 3.17) The mod€l
norrnally used has two equal flange areas each equal to the product ofthe flange
thickness and flange width, and the web arca is equal to the total beam area
3.20

l-'- li'
I ;F-*
d
II
I
I ___u_, (b)"Exacl

= (As - 2 b
lw (modiried) -2t
fr f) |ld l)
k w ( " e x a c - l ' ) = i A s - 2-bl w
f i f( d- 2 k ) l / t 2
( k _r f )
Figure3.l7 Models for steei I bem6.

less the two flange areas. The web thickness used for desim is equal to the mod,
fied web arca divided by the beam depib less bwice the flange thickness (Fis.
3.17a). A more exact model can be used for computer programs. This moclel has
two flange arcas equal to the product of the flange width and depth. The web
area is equal to the product of the web thickness and the b€am web depth is
equal to the distance between the inside laces ofbeam flanqes less the A dimen-
sions of the beam. There are two adilitional areas each witb an area equal to
one half of the total beam area less tbe two flange areas and the web area-
These two areas can be taken as rectangular and are located between tle
flanges and the web in the position defined by the,4 distance dimension and the
flange thickness of a beam at both the top and bottom. The use of this modet
results in a slightly more efrcient design when the plastic neutral axis is located
in the web of the composite section. This is the model used in the DreDaration of
the Composite Bea]n Selection Tables in the LRFD manualte. and accounts for
the slight differcnce found between the tables and manual catculations.

Des;gnfor positivebending
ThIe€ design examples are included to demonstrate approaches baseil on zul
and padial interaction. Both approximate and exaci designs are given for
padial interaction.

Full interaclion. Find the madmu]n ultimate moment capacity ofa W16x26
14 = 7.68 in, (50 cm,); d = 15.69 in (0.4 m)1, I'r = 86 ksi (2b0 Mpa), with a
3%-in-thick (83-mm) iightweight concrete kt) : tIE tb/ftt 084 Um3)tf:: 8.5
ksi /24 [4Pa'l slab poured over a 3-;n-oeep.76-mmtcomoo.iresteel decL
using th€ AISC'S LRFD specifrcation.D,rThe orientatron oi the deck ribs u
perpendicular to the beam. The beam span is B0 ft (9.1 m) and the spacingrs
1011(3 m) on cente$. Find the total number of 3l-in-diameter (19-mm) head-
ed studs requircd to develop this uttimate moment.
 l

3.21 {

7. Checkconlparitnessciterid

n" _ 1b.69- 2(0.34b) 2(0.50)

t_ 0.25
- 6'4n
s 6 . 0 .# 107
"lt
Thercforc, a plastic section analysis iE valid.
2. Determine effectiue bidth for trpical interior beam

b?=848 - 2 1 3 - 6 0 l - s o l n

6._ 2lt - 2!=?.Q)

_ r2om
2

b"-90in

3. Deternirc C
c: A"r', : 7.68(36): 276.5kips
c: 0.85/;.4": 0.85(3.5)(90 x 3.25): 8?0.2kips
C : :Q"-assume it will not govem
C - 276.5klps
4. DetermiE diatancesta centroid,of forces

276.5 = 1.03in
0.85f;b" 0.85x 3.5 x 90

dr : deckd€pth+ slabthickness 9L
2
= 3 + 3.25 144: b.?3in

4:g:r5f9:7'84
5. Computeultimate capacit!
M,:276.5 )<5.73+ 276.5x 7.84- 3752in-kips
: 312.7ft-kips
 6. Determinethe designmoment

M": 6M"_ (0.85)(372.7)

: 265.8ft_kips

7. Deternirg required.number of3/4in-diameter shear studs

Q": 0.5A".(f;8")05
< 4"F,
: 0.5 x 0.44x 13.5(115)15(3.5)05105
: 19.77kips < 0.44(60): 26.4kips

Checkfor reduction due to deckgeometryOulcm{t S \.LI deck):

i. = 3.00in
H" = (3 + 3.25 t.5) - 4.78iu
w, - 14.75+ 0.8(7.25 4.25)l- 6.00in
N'=1

R-
p.3J
'o.ss'p'a{!1 1,= 6.99

Q" = 19.77(0.99)
: 19.6kips

a" 19.6
Total requircd number ofstuds = 28.2. Use one stud per flute. Thus the sturl
designstrength must be decreasedby 25 percent for a total of3g studs:

2'4,- 0.78(J8xt
-i: 9.6l -
2791-ips C O.K.

Severaldesignaids are avaitable.Dso,Des The AISC LRFD manualDs6includes a

seriesof tables (pp. 5-5 to 5-6b)that simplify the designprocess.For thi*
exa]:nple,the distsnce from the top of the steel beam to the co[crete flarge
{brce dr : 5.73in. Entering the table on p. 5-28 with y, = 6 in gives]4, : 2tf
ft-hips_.Interpolating between & : 6 in and y, : S.tin yietds
% : l.7b in
and M, : 266 ft-kips, or the same answer as obtained from the abovelong_
hand calculatione.

Partialinteraction,appro mateapproach. Design a compositebeam with par_

tial intemction for ultimate design Ilrorrrleut
M,- 2i6 ft-kips (820 kN_m)-
Assumethe sameproper.tiesas for the frlst examile.
 Beams
Composite 3,23

As shown in Fig. 3.7, the actual strcngth of a partially compositebeam is

somewhat higher than that given by a linear interyolation between the steel
only and the full compositecases.For preliminary desigrrpurposes,therefble,
the reducednumber ofstuds may be calculatedusing the equation

^,' - N M,, M^,"

(3.10)
M 11

where N"", = 11s-1r". of shear studs required for padial interaction

N = numberofshearstudsfor full interaction
- minimum moment for estimatins studs
=,1P"(0.5dy\2
ME = fleiuml strcngth of a fully composite b€am
= P ,e/12

This formula is conservative only if the ptastic neutral axis is in the steel
flange or above. To begin the design, several sectionsare tried and listed in
Table 3.1, where M1 is calculated in the same way as ibM,,in Sec.3.4.5,Nd is
the actual number used in design, and M, is the exact capacity ofthe partial-
ly compositesection.
From this preliminary desi$r it is clear ihat the W16x26 is the most aco-
nomical section and that the number of studs could be reduced from the pre-
liminary estimate of 12 to perhaps as fe*' as 10 studs per half-span.

Partialinteraction,exactapproach. Using exact formulas, analyze the W16x26

ftom the precedingsubsection.Assume the same propedios as in Sec.3.4.4.
I . Detern.in.e C

c : A.r.r : 7.68(36)= 276.5kips

c = 0.8544"= 0.85(3.5)(90x 3.25): 870.2kips
c - IQ,,: (10)(19.6)
= 196hips

: j 1.1 PreliminaryDesign-Parliallnteraction
lMM.N \", N,

128 215 18.4 r!.5 256

119 266 14.1 Ll.5 ;; 253
l t9 266 1t 240
r:19 266 10
180 384 18.9 5.2 6 268
:. of tt-,,,. i1.i, a.d tl are ft kips
:.r evlarstior of leadirgs seeSeo.3.1.,1
 2. Determine d.istance to centroid. of cowrete force

c_
'= o.sis.4=
o.ss.ffi . go o?3io
dl = deck depth + slab thickness
;

=z+s.zs_y
= 5.89in

3. Deternine distance to centroid. of conpressi.on in the steel (Bee Fig. B.l

and no{e6/ 5.50 in lor W16 . 26)

P,
^c2 = 2te.s tg6 = 4o.3hips
2
Assume that d2 is less than the flange thickness:

2d,-(r#l/!T.
r-o.2oi"
Checkthat d, is in the flange as assumed:
2d2:0.20 <+= 0.345in O.K
dz=010in

4. Determitued.istancefrom P to top of the section

x

, --i d
,1 15.65
'- _ 7.8ain

5. Computcultimolecopa.a:ily

M" = (196X5.89+ 0.10)+ (276.5X?.84

- 0.10)
: 3314in-kips
: 276.2ft-kips

6. Determinethe d.esignmoment
M,: 6M^:0.a5 x 2',16.2
= 234.8ft-kips
7afE3.2 ComposlleSeamEconomyListing
t- Wide-Flange
Sectlons
w30x108
-:0x12 w30x116
--:x14 w21x50 w33x118
--1x16 w24:55 w33x130
t:2rI9 w24\62 w36x135
w24x68 w40x139
.'-4t26 w36x160
w2?x84
t--ix31 w40x183
._-:<35 w40r192

This capacity is just short of the desied 236 ft-kips; say O.L or rcdesign with
11 shear studs per half-spa]}. Interpolating linearly in the tables in the LRFD
manual will lead to a moment of 236 ft-kips.
The beam sections should be picked from an economy table arranged for
plastically designed composite beam sections (Table 3.2). The measure for
efficiency for composite beams designeil on ar1ultimate-strcngth basis is sim-
ply the product of the beam arca and the beam depth. This arrangement of
sections is similar to but not identical to the economy table for flexure which
appears in the AISCT LRFD ManualDs5 for noncomposite beams on pp. 4-15
to 4-25.

PanialInteractiondesignwith a cover plate

An existing floor system consistB of A572 W21x44 beams spaced at 10 ft
(3 m) and spanning 45 ft (13.7 nr). The beams arc connected with 30 %-in-
diameter (19-mm) studs to the floor slab made of3,in (76-mm) steel deck and
3.25-in (83-mm) topping of lightweight concrcte with /;: 4 ksi (27.6 MPa).
The floor syqtem.originally desjenedlor a ur 2.35 kips/fr ,.[0.4 kN/m,,
Deadsro be checkedfor rhp srorageloadbrequired b) a np$ tenant which
incrcases the live loads by 50 lb/ft, (2.39 kN/m,). If the existing system is
inadequate, investigate cover plating the beam to incrcase the capacity.
1. Determine cuffent capacit!. Taking the strength of one %-in stud
reduced for the effects of lightweight concrcte and steel deck geometry as 21.9
kips, the compr€ssive force in the slab is limited by the available shength of
shear connectors:

c=>Q"
: 15 x 21.9kips/stud
: 329kips
 329
0.85x120x4
0.81in

Yr:3.00 + 3.25 !€!

ftom the AISC manual, interpolate between f, : 6.0 in and >@" : 958 kips
(M" : 623 {1-kips) and y, : 5.5 in and >e" : 260 kips (M, - 861 ft-kips). The
capacity 0M" is roughly 603 ft-kips.
The requied capacity computedfor the cunent load ar, : 2.85 ft-kips is

M"- 235;!E - 595ff-kips- 60ali-kips o.K.

The additional 50 lb/ff1 loaalhanslates into an additional factored load. Ihe

total factored load add the correspondingmoment are
,r,,r: 2.35+ (0.050x 10 x 1.6): 9.15kipsft

M _ 3.t 5_lij, zqz

" ' " R_kips
I

The cunent capacity of 603 {t-kips is way short of the rcqutuedZ9?fi-kips,

a coverplate is ne€ded.
2. Assume a 1/, x 71/r-incouer plate uith F,: 50 hsi and use the
stressdistribution of mg. 3.1d. In addition to the compressiveforce in
slab g th€ fo[owing tensile and compressiveforcesacting on the steel
are present fFig. 3.16):

P," : cover plate tensile yield force

= b@tqF,= 7.5 x 0.5 x 50 : 18?.5kips

Pr. = tensile yield force in the rolled shape

: (4 - birl4 : t13.0 (6.50x 0.45)tx 50- 504
P/: top flange compressive yield force
: bftf\:6.50 x 0.45 x 50 : 146.3k]ps

Pr, - compression Iield force in the web

: 18?.5 + 504 146.3 - 329 : 216.2 kips
 The depth of compressionyielding in the web is

d,, . - 216.2
b . r dL n
6=5 . 2.5b.-

Calculate the nominal capacity of the section by taking moments about the
comprcssivelbrce in the web:
.l4 : sum ofyield forcesmultiplied by distanceto the
compressiveforce in the web
Coverplate = 188(0.25+ 20.66 0.45 3.09): 3266
Roled shape: 650(10.33- 0.45 3.09): 4414
Topflange: 293(0.225+ 3.C9)= 971
Slab:329(6.25 0.405+ 0.45+ 3.09):9088
M, = 3266 + 44L4+ 3088 + 9?1 : 11,740in-kips

,ra 0 85 --L.1.740
12 esz n-kip" o.K.

R€quired
numberof studs
There is no dircct way of detemining the proper number of studs requtuedfor
a partial compositesection.A method of estimating is illustuated below. The
method is generally conservativewhen the plastic neuhal axis lies within the
beam flange. When the plastic neuhal axis is in the w€b of the steel sectiorr,
the results may be unconservative.Any estimate made using Eq. (9.101
should be carctully checked.
Another method for estimating the number of studs requircd for a partial
compositesectionis illushated in Fig. 3.18.The frgurepertainsto a W16x26,
:
4 36 ksi (250 MPa), with 90 in (2.29 m) effective1,l'ialthofconoete flange, a
S%-in-deep (83-mm)lightweightconcreteslab offj: 3.5 ksi (24 MPa) caston
a 3-in-deep (76-In]n) compositesteel deck. The calculated flexuml shengths
are plotted for the number of studs varying from 14 (fully composite)to the
minimum recorrmended(4). The required number o{ studs for a given flexur-
al strength is defined by the line betweenM. = OP"e/12whrch equals 266 fi,-
Lipsr36l kN-mraDd14"n - d,Pttd,2'tLz wtrih eqdls lb4 ft-kips,209tJ\-m,.
The plastic neuhal axis is located in the web for four and six studs; for all
other points it is locatedin the flange. One can obseNethat the moment
capacity is rcduced at an almost constant mte as long as the plastic neuhal
a-\is is locatedin the flange of t}le beam.
A nu]nber of differcnt rolled shapeshave been checkedto verit/ the accura-
cy of Eq. (3.10). Ii appearsthat for light sectionsilr any group the results arc
 260
q 240
z 220
E zoo
E
9180
160
140
o 2 4 6 410 12 14
Numberofstuds
FiguB3.13Mr inur r @bs oIsiadsipd comc.i,B.

very good, generally vithin 1 or 2 percent. As the sections get heavier,

estimated number of studB requircd becomes more conservative, up to 6 or
percent too high. If the plastic neuhal axis is located in the web, the
are mreliable. It should be noteal that in most cases for floor beams. the
mum mmber of studs rcquiecl for minimum spacing'vill resuli in a secti
that places the plsstic neuhal ajds in the flange ofa rolled shape.

3.4.7 Elasticpropertiesof pa.tially

compositebeams
There are two elastic p?operties which may be needed for the design of
tially compositesections.First, if an elastic shess analysfu of the
section is rcquired, as in the case of cheching for fatigle, the elastic
modulus must be known. If deflections are to be calculated, the
moment of inertia of the partially composite section must be kn
ADDrcximate formulas for boih follow:

t:r +
,ffiu,'-'"'
-P,",.
"",
wher€ 1, = effective moment of inertia of a partially compGite section
s,
: eflective section modulus of the partially composite seciion
>Q"
: su]a ofthe nominal strena4hs of shear connectors between the
of maximunl moment and the point of zem moment to eitler side
C - compressionforce iD coDcrerefor a fully compoqitesection
I. - momentof inerl,ia of the luJly compositeuncrackedtransformed

1" : moment ofinertia ofthe steel section

 = section modulus ofthe lully compositeuncracked transfonned sec'
tion referred to the tension flange
: sectionmodulus ofthe shuctural steel section refened to the ten
sion flange

It has been suggestedthat the values of the section modulus and the moment
of inertia should be a dircct ratio ol IQ'/C., thus reducing the value ol the
section modulw and the moment of ineftia for a partially compositesection.
Becauseof ihe difficulty in calculating deflections accumtely, this suggestion
doF"ror .pem I ka a reabonable rFquirempnrfo" desgn.

Plaslicstrengthfor neqaiivemoment
Assuming that concrete has no tensile strength, the design of composite
beams under negative moments reduces to the case of the steel section and
the longitudinal steel reinforcement located in the slab within the efiective
slab width. The solution requires finding the plastic centroid ofthe cross sec
tion and computing moments about it. It is necessaryto ensure that the steel
section does not buckle locally, that the slab reinforcement is properly d€vel-
oped, and that appropriate shear connectionis provided.
Refening to Fig. 3.19, the tensile force ? in the reinforcins bals is the
smaller of

T=AF (3.13d)

r: trl (3.136)

where A. = area ofproperly developedslab rcinforcement parallel to the steel

beam and within the effective width of the slab
4, : spccifledyield shength ofthe slab reirforc€m€nt
:'Q^ : sum ofthe nominal shengths ofshear connecto$ between the
point of maximum negative moment and the point ofzero moment
to either side

The nominal plastic resistance of a composite section in negative bending

may be expressedas follows:

Fy
Plastic strcss distdbution for negntive
 ChapterThr€e

M": T(4+ d,) + P!.d3 - d,) (3.14)

where Px. : the compressiveshength of the steel sectionA"F]

dr : distance from the centmid of the longitudinal slab rcinforcement
to the top of the steel section
d, : distance from the centroid of the tension force in the steel section
to the top ofthe steel section
d:] : distance from Pr" to the top ofthe steel section

3.4-9 Designfor negativebending

Determine the negative moment capacity and elastic section p?operties for aD
A5?2 $ade 50 W18x50 section with 10#5 erade 60 bars in the slab. Assume
that the slab is 3 in (76 mm) thick on top ofa 3,in (76-mm) deck, and that the
bars have a f-in (25-In]n) cover
1. Detertnine noment capacitJ. Locate centroid of tenBion force in the
beam:

?:A.4,: 10x 0.s1x 60: 186kips

P!,: A"F! = 14.7 x 50 : 735 kips

P T
j_.:j_____ --- - .^^
_ /,rD r6b _ r?r' < tins
22

Force in flange = 6rtF, :7.495 x o.57 x 50 = 213.6 kips = -+

Force in web = 274.5 213.6 : 60.9 kips = .&'

"'F,,, __L_ ald1 i^

50 0355 ""'

Cenhoid of the compression force in the web:

,
tF 0 . 5 + -\ ' F , - \ ' 0 . s o t l
' n-
rf r ru

( 2 1 3 . x6 0 . 5x 0 . 5 ? ) + [ 6 0 .x9( 0 . 5 7 + 0 . 5x 3 . 4 3 ) ]
274.5

60.9+ 139.2: 0.73in

274.5

a": $- rI.fs= s.oo

i"
dI:3+3-1-5in
 3.31

Thereforc:
- 0.73)l= ?140in-kips
M" = t186(5+ 0.73t + 1735(9.00
= 595 ft-kips

M"= 6M": 0.85x 595 : 506ft-kips

Note that this is very closeto the positive-momentcapacity of a similar par'
tially compoBitebeam with the plastic neuhal axis in the web and y, : 4.5
in, and is about 72 percent of the complete interaction capacity of a similar

2. Determinethe noment of inerti@&tLd.elastic sectionmod.ulus. FirsL

deteraninethe elastic cenhoid by adding moments about the bottom of the

Slabbals : 0.31x 10 x (17.99+ 5.00) 7r.3

Topflange= 7.495x 0.57x 17.71
Bottomflange- 7.495x 0.57x 0.285 1.2
Web-16.85x0.355x9.00 53.8
Total: 202.0id

Cenhoid = 202 : 11.35in

3.1+14.7

Distance between steel and composite centroid

11.35 (0.5x 17.99)= 2.36in

\
s l a bb a f s o . 3 r, n . ( r 7 : s s 5 . o o 2.ru] 4rs.7

Steelbeam: : 800.0

Steelbeam: 14.7x (2.36)' : 81.9

Total - 1302.0ina

1302 - 111.9in3

_ 1302 1 1 a7 1-'. ;
--..
1135
3.5 Serviceability
T'he conmonly acceptedspan/depth ratios (1000/4 or 800/4) and the usual
checkfor live load (l/360) are generatly sufncient t6 ensue a'dequates€rvie
ability, since most shucturcs are seldom loadedto their full ser.vice1oads.IL
som€cases,however,these commonlyacceptedfimits do not give satisfactorJr
results.
In particular, the long-term deflections due to creep anal sbinaage need to
be considered if spars are long, if a large portion of the live load is prcsent
over long pedods of time, or if th€ matedals used for the slab are sensitive to
creep and shrinkage. The use of shallower and slender beams maale Do
by LRFD and the widesprcad use oflightw€ight aggregates certainty result iD
larger deflections and more vibmtion problems unless a carcfirl aBsessmentof
serviceability criteia is made.
Another serviceability ffiterion which has not received much attention
the past but which could become more impodant in the future is excessiye
cracking of the slab. Cracks result from (1) settlement of Dtastic corcete.
volumetricinsrabiliiies.'3' 6t'ucruralaction,and ,4 | udnr;Dded res{rainLs.
No guidelines are available as to the amount of crackins and clack width
may be alloweal. In generai these cracks do not endanger the safety of
structue, but many discussions between the owner, the desig[er, and the
tractor arise because of this issue.
Floor vibrations have been extensively studied, and many guiatelines
contml their impact have been issued.c26,c23Problems with floor yibrati
are usually associated with (1) a matching of the loading frequency with
ftequency ofthe stuuctule and (2) low damping characteristics. The vibratj
ftequercy dependsprimarily on (1) the superimposedmass, (2) the degree
reshaint or continuity, (3) the stifircss of the beam, ard (4) the sDar
The span length is known, and the superimposed mass and stifiiress of
beam can be calculated {airly well. The impact of the degree of end rc
or continuity can be very sig?rifrcant,but little or no data is available in
area. The same can be said for damping, wit}l recommendedvalues for
posite floorc mnging ftom 2 to 3 percent of critical.

3.5.1 Dellections
The exact calculation of deflections is complex even for a fafuly simple
ture like a silnply suppor-tedcompositebeam. From the structunl stand
there are at least ihree main reasons for this complexity. Ffust, loads
dur{ng the life of th€ structurc and thes€ changes cannot be predicted duii
the design stsge. Second, the sh.uctural modelins cannot easilv account fo
{hree-dimensionaleflecls and Lrninleniionalsrrucrural continuitv ihar,i
almost always present in stluctules. Third. the nonlinear characteristics
the connection pmvided by the shear studs are iEnored. From the materi
standpoint the main complication that arises is the chanse in material
erties (modulus of elasticity) with time due mainly to crcep and shfinhage.
The computation ofdeflections in a structue can be subdivided irto th
for instantaneous deflections artl those for long-terur defleetions. The former
include the deflection when the slab is cast in an unshored floor or when
shores are removeil in a shored one, and the deflection due to a live load of
short dumtion. The lol1g-ter:rn defleciion calculations may need to inc]ude
deflections due to creep and shrinkage ofthe co[crete, and chatrges ofmateri-
al properties with time.

Insta.taneous d€tlectlons. hocedurcs for calculating instantaneous deforraa-

tions of composite beams are baEed on linear elastic analysis and nolninal
matedal properties. the main variable in these calculations is the moment of
inertia a€cribed to the composite beam. It is well knowl that, at least for deflec-
tion calculations, the current allowable stress design provisionsm? assume an
optimistic value for the effective width of a slab in a composite beam.
Comparison with experimental results shows that using elastic moments of
inertia based on this methodology underestimates deflections in the service
range by 15 to 25 percent.e3Dt2lthe results of a linear elastic analyBis can be
improved by accourting for shear and the slip between the beam and the slab.
Both of these facto$ are seldom if ever included in desie[ calculations. The cal-
culal,ioDof deflectionsby Lhe LRFD specificalion;s basedon an ultimate-
strcngth analysis, with a strcss block smaller than that assumed in linear elag
tic transfomed section anal].sis. In gene?al the LRFD procedure limits the size
ofthe concret€ flange to the smalest ofthe total force on ihe steel section and
the sumnlation of the total force on shear studs. mile this assumption of
equivalent concrct€ flange is entirely reasonable in ultimate-strcngth calcula-
tions, t,}Ie deflections uraler service loacls arc at signficantly lower streBs levels.
Therefore, the use ofa plastic moment ofirertia for a computation in the elastic
range is theoretically inconect. On the other hand, the procedure tlTically
results in better conelation with experimental rcsults, since the plastic
moment ofinertia is 20 to 30 percent lower than the elastic one.

Long.term deflections. Exc$sive deflection and cracking of composite floors

shortly a{ter buildings are finished are among the most conmon problems
encountercd in comtruction. Creep and shdnkage ofthe conoete slab are the
most likely cause. Creep and shdnkage are generally treated together
because they share some basic charactedstics. First, the dimensional insta-
bilities known as creep and shrinaage arise from the removal of absorbed
water ftom the cement paste, and are partly reversible. Second, most of the
factors that inlluence creep also affect sMnkage, resulting in very similar
stmin vs. time curveB fo? both effects. Finaly, the magnitud; of creep and
shrinkage shains in ul1restlained concrete specimens is similar and equal to
between 600 and 1000 microshain.
To study the deflection beharrior in semice, four full-scale specimens were
tested at the University of Minnesota.D?l Each specimen consisted of a
W18x35 beam with a 4.s-in-thick (114-mm) 96-in-wide (2.44-m) slab on a 3-
in (76-mm) steel deck. The composite beams were 32 ft (9.75 m) long and
were designed as tully composite with .\36 st€el and /: of 4 kBi (28 MPa), uti-
3.34

.s
.9
E
g

Ase tdays)
_ Beam#1 _ Beam*2 __F Predicflon
Fisure 3.20 Predicied vs. measued shinkage deflections adjust€it for humidityr,?3

lizing normal-weight concret€. t\vo specimens were used to monitor

terrn shrinhage and creep (beams 1 and 2), while the other two were used
study the unshoredvs. shoredbehavior(beamsS and 4). Fizure J.20 shr
Lhebehaviorof Lhefirs! rwo beams.Beam(I and 2 wereide-ntical
the fact that at 28 days a "xcept
percent
sustained load equal to about 25 of
desigr lj'e load was addedto beam l. The effecrofshdnkage cao be cle
seen, as the deflections continue to infiease until around 200 davs afier
ing. In conhast, the effect of crcep is small, on the order of one-tenth of
shrinkage. Sirnilar results have been rcported ftom two studies conducted i
Canada by RobinsonDa?and Kennedyeawhich indicate that the
deflectionof typical simply supportedcompositebeamsand tr-ussesdue
drl'ing shrinlage can approachl/1200to l/1000.
In many cases aleflections due to creep and shrinkage can be ignored if
tain span-to-depthmtios are adheredto or if continuous construction is
In continuous reinforced concrete construction creeD and shrinkase
act agaimt one another and have about the sa]ne ord€I of masnitude.
their net effect is to cancel each other and to prcduce small net aleflections.
simply supported composite construction, on the other hand. the eflects
creep and shrinl<age are genemlly additive, and it is therefore
to ierlore their contribution.
When a floor slab is fiftt cast two types of shrinlage, thermal and
occur. Thermal shr{nAage is associated with the cooling of the member,
 drying shrinlage is associated srith the loss of moistue. For most practical
situations in buildings, themal shrinkage can be ignored. On the other hand,
drying sbrinkage can induce appreciable deflections. The amount of drying
shdnkage will depend on the mix p$portions, the age of the concrete, the
ambient humidity, and the geometry ofthe member. The two most commonly
useil procedures for estimating drying shrinlage are those prcposed by ACI
Committee 209Ge and by Comit6 Ewo-Intemationale du B6ton (CEB).G63
Both of these estimate the sMnkage strain as the prcduct of some ultimate
strain multiplied by a series of facto$ to account for the rnl.< proportions, cur-
ingpedod, age ofconcrete, and sulface-to-volu]Ie latio ofthe member.
At least one simple method of predicting the amount of deflection due to
shrinkage is available. The idea, first present€d by Viest,Dl5 involves replacing
the shdnkage strain with a lorce acting at the centrcid of the effective siap as
shown in Fig. 3.21. The pmcedue requtues that this force, acting eccentuically
to the neuhal axis of the member, be replaced with an equivalent moment
applied at the ends ofthe section. The magnitude of€. (the drying sMnkage)
ean b€ obtained from tests, from the ACI or CEB procedurcs, or from an
informed estimate.
The ACI and CEB procedues are tealious and requte data that are in general
unavailable to the designer A more reasonable approach, and a long-accepted
one, is to assrme the shinkage stnin to be 200 microshain as prcposed by
\./iestDl6and assume a simplfied model such as that showr in Fig. 9.21.
Creep is a stres€-relieving mechanism that results in increased shortedtrg
of the slab in compression and produces additional dellections of the compos-
ite beam. Cleep is generauy important when the ratio of dead load to live
load is large or when a large portion of the live load is present for long perr-
ods of time. Current codes do not differcntiat€ between shortsterm and long-
term live loads. While codes do not specily what pelcentage of the live load

+rrbl lorcedusinga .letormqtion

!.slent tothotduetoshrinkdge

.=a. a c o n c r e l ec o v e r (L.a,r.!

-Assuned lnitorm moh.ni diogrom

. M".1, F€A.1,
fi^+'r?i'?;r..
:=-:

lr 3..n Calcrdauon ofsbrinbse deflcdioB.na Coudanlrehtutp

 ChapterThree

should be considered to be long-term, studies have showTl that in the absence

of better infomation, asBuming about 25 percent of fuIl live load to be long-
terrn load is reasonable for most buildings.
The t}?ical expression for creep computes the creep stlain at time t as the
product ofa cleep stmin at a rcfercnce time i : 0, corrected by multipliers tI
account for ultimate creep, for the time at which creep strain is desircd, the
age of loading, relative humidity, volume-to-surface ratio, slump, amount of
fmes in the concrete mix. artl air content. These calculatiolls are valid for
conoete under constant stress, Because the conqete shrinks and c?eepswith
time, the computed ffeep stlain must be adjusted. A simplified approach to
this procedure has been prcpoEed by Bazant,c2s who uses the concept of aII
aging coefrcient. The coefficient is used to final an effective modulus of elas-
ticity for concxete. ThiB new modulus of elasticity is then used to compute a
modified modular mtio, and the cleep deflection is calculated using elastic
analysis formulas and the modified n and -& values. Shown in Fig. 3.20 is a
prediction rnade using an age-adjusted modulus apprcach that included care
tu1 modeling of the relative humidity conditions with time. The age-adjustql
modulus seems to give very good prealictions.

Elfect of end restraint" The de$ee of fixity at the end of a beam car have
significant impact on the total deflection. Ttrerc is a large degree ofcontinui
in most composite floors, including additional rcinforcemeDt over the
Iines to decrcase the size of cracks. Figue 3.22 shows the centerline
tions lbr a composite beam attached to a column vrith seveml differ€nt
restraints. For a connection consisting of double web angles and 8#4 rei
ing bars in the slab, the reduction in deflection was over 60 percent. For
connection made up of a large seat angle and the same amount of rei

0.0

"o2
I
-04
-

-0.6

-0.6
0 6d 12A 92 256

O]siANcEALoNGBEAM(i.)
Figue3,22 IblluenceolpDdrpsrrainron deJleclion6,
 metrt in the slab, the decrease was close to 70 percent. Finally, for a connec-
tion consisting ofa welded bottom plate, web angles, and the same amount of
slab reinforcing bars, the reduction in deflection was almost 80 peNent.

352 Camberand shoring

The methods used for composite construction include a number of cornbina-
tions of cambering and shoring. Most conhactoE prefer to use u]lshored con-
struction with camber in the beams and girders to overcome deadload deflec-
tions. It also appears that most designers now employ camber in the beams
and possibly girderc to overcome the effects of dead-load deflections. Others
design for shored constmction.
If shored conshuction is specified and shores ar€ placed only at the center
of the filler beame, the effects of initial shesses in the steel beams are par-
tially offset. Ifthe supporting str.ucturc caDnot safely support the wet load of
the new slab, shoreB may be placed at the 7a or { points of the fil1er beam
span in order to minimize the effect of wet load on the supporting structure.
One Bhould note that when shoring is specified, once the shores are removed
the entire dead load is supported by the composite section. This method has a
distinct disadvantage: When the load is released, as the filler beams deflect,
the chance ofa crack's opening up at the centerline ofthe girder along a row
of studs is increased. These qacks are often unsightlt and therc is some
question as to whether they have aalverse effect on tLe shength of the com-
posite section even though such an effect, if present, is likely to be small. If
this method of conshuction is usecl, it is especially impodant to place crack
contml reinforcement over the supporting girdels.
For unshorcal construction, camber is uBually called for beams and some-
time€ for girders to overcome the dead-load deflections that are resisted by
the steel section alone. One must be careful not to speciry too much camber. If
beams have too much camber, the shear studs may not have pmper covex For
beams useal in most buildings, the tolerance for overcamber is % in (13 nnl)
and that for urdercamber is zero inches. However, only about thrce quadels
of the camber can be expected to remain after shipment of the steel to the
site.D67Camber obtained by heat is mole likely to remain unchanged than
that obtained by cold bending. In addition to the pmblem of getting beams
with the proper cambe" to the job site, the beam's end connections may offer
reshaint that realuces the calculated dead-load deflection. The most common
pEctice is to require cambering for somewhat less than the calculated dead-
load deflection.
In situations where the beams are neither cambered nor shored and the
slab is poured to a constant elevation, an allowance for the extra concrete
should be made. For a frller beam, the ext?a concrete does not reduce its
capacity, as the extra depth is sufficient to provided adequate strength.
Howevet the extm concrete may afect the design ofgilders and columns.
Additional information on shoring is given in Sec. 3.6.5 aAd on camber in
Sec.3.6.6.
 Floorvibrations
Millions ol square feet of composite floor systems have been built in the
United States in the last 35 years. A few of these projects have experienced
severe vibration problems cauBed by walking of the occupants. The problem
has been addressed primarily by Murraycr6 arrd the Steel Joist InstituteDds itr
the United States and by Allenc,s and the Canadian Standardscoo in Canada.
Mu.Tay and Allen have EcenUy joined efforts to prcduce a consistent set of
recommendlations.Ds2
Two cdteria have been used in the United States in the Dast. One was Dro- t
mulgated by Wiss and Parmelee.GrbModifrcations to thrs slardard were sug-
gested in the Steel Joist Institute guide.D63Mullaycro proposed a standaril
based on the percent of critical damping, the ma-{imum initial amplitude of a
the floor Bystem due to a heel alrop excitation, alld the firct natuml &equency E
ofthe floor system. The paper byAllen and MuIIayDs, follows the standad of
the Intemational Organization for Standardization (ISO), which sets upper
limits on peak acc€leration for a given natural frequency (Fig. 3.23).
Unfortunately, the natural frequ€ncy of most floor systems is in the mnge of
the lowest acceptable acceleratiors
Special care should be taken for long-span structures without obvious
sources of damping such as floor-to-ceiling paditions. In this t}?e of structue
(e.g., large dance halls and open-space floors in department stoles) if the fte-
quency of the activity matches the natuml ftequency of the floor system, a
resonant response may occur. The use of deeper floor beams and gj
addition of mass and damping devices, and supplementing simple
tioos with end reslrainLsare examplesof possiblepre!enl,iveor remedi
measures. However, an increase in end reshaints is of little help if the
nance occurs with only one bay loaded.

3.5.4 Cracklng
Some cracking can be expected in alnost all concrete slabs. In composite
slabs, the cracks tend to occur dtectly over a line of studs, whether it be
filler beam or a girder. Evpn in shored .)slems lhe slab concreteis
placed on an unBhored steel deck. As a result only loads applied after the
clete has hsrden€d incrcase the deck's initial deflection- The nature ofa
posit€ slab is that slip must occur between the st€el deck ard the
slab before the dech embossments engage the concrete. This slip and
accompanying deflection tend to creat€ a crack over the filler beams. In
cases, welded wfue fabric reinforcement of the slab is assumeal to adequa
cont"ol the size of these cracks- An alternate method is to Dlace
bars over the filler beams. Il a floor slab is subjected to moving vehicles
as li1}trucks, the slabs should be designed as ordinary rcinforced conclete.
In shorcd systems, it may be er'?ected that some cracking will occur
the suppoding girders. This is due to the deadload deflectioa of the
beams and othe? factorc already discussed in Sec. 3.5.1. As stated e
therc is no reason to €xpect that these oacks reduce the strength of the
 3.39

30
+ Floortrequency
rcnge

s€erp (.0.35
b)

6
20 exp f0.35lo)
5

Ofiic€s

Shoppnq

e exp(-0.3s
b)
,6

c 2 4 6 810 12 14
FunGirental
narural
f€luencl to,Hz

i- : 3.23 Floor iccelefarians.aalt.Canddnnlnstitute of Steel

posite section significantly. In the case of the beams tested by Leon and
AlsamsamD?3one of the beame was unloaded after the ma.:imum strcngth
was reached and a large crack along the studs had formed. Upon reloading,
this beam reached more than 85 percent of its marimum strength and
exceededits nominal plastic capacity.
In unshored systems the dead-load deflections affect only the steel beam
section, not the composite section. Therefore, the tendency to crack is less
severethan in shored systems.Nevedheless, it is recommendedto place over
the tops of girders reinforcing bars with an area equal at least to that of the
usual temperature steel.Der

:: Knocking
Knocking is a pmblem causedby the abrupt slippage into bearing, under ser-
vice loading, of tully tightened high-shength bolts. Wlen the slippage occun,
 a loud, sharp ringing or knocking sound iB heatl altd a sha4 floor vibratioD
is felt. Occupants of buildings where this has occuned apparently find this
phenomenon very disturbing and fear for their safety. Although at this time
the eient of thiB problem is unknowq it is ceftain that knocking does not
occur when the bolts arc designed as slip-critical. The problem is under study
by the Steel Buildings Committee ofASCE.cT3 The easiest way to prcvent
knocking is to install high-shength bolts snug-tight rather than firlly tight-
ened.

3.6 Other Design Considerdtions

3.6.1 Shear
In geneml the shear capacity of composite beams is not a governing criterion,
but shear should be checkedin any case.The prevailing practice is to assune
that all shear in a composite beam is caried by the steel beam, so that the
shear capacity is calculated as for a barc steel beam. An important exception
are beams with substantial web penetrations common in both new and retro-
fitted structures. The desig! of beams with web openings is discussed in
detail in Sec.3.7.
Alother case where shear is impor.tant rclates to the shear strength of the
slab when the dbs of the steel deck are parallel to the beam. If the ribs are
high and narow arrd the slab is thin, the horizontal shear capacity ofth€ slab
at the edge ofthe beam flange may be inadequate.Da7

3.6.2 Floorassembly
Perhaps the fimt decision faced in the design ola composite beam is the
tion of the floor assembly, that is, the selection of the type of
whether lightweight or nornal-weight; the depth anal gage of the com
steel deck, t}?ica]ly 2- or S-in-deep (51- or 76-mm) decks with gages
from io. 16 to no. 22; the thickness of concreteover the top of the steel
t ?ically 2 to 47, ir (51 to 114 mm); and whether the deck assemblvis to
fireproofed or left unprotected. These questions are answercd by
tion ol a number of factoN discussed be1ow.
Experience has shown that it is usually more economical to leave the
assembly unprot€cted and to mahe the concrete slab thick enoush to achj
the 2'h firc rating rcquired by most building codes.In such an assembly
the supporting steel beams must be sprayed with freproofing. Buitdings
high seismic zones, padicularly of multifloor conshuction, may be an
tion since in a laterai-load'resisting system it may prove more economical
reduce the floor dead load by using the thinnest acceptable floor slabs
spraying the whole deck assembly to achieve the 2-h firc mting. Fire
bly ratings for composite floor systems may be found in most steel deck
ufacturer catalogs and in the Fire Resistance Directory published
Undelwdtem Labomtories, Inc.H5 They arc usually based on the total
 3.41

thickness including the depth of the steel deck and the thickness of concrete
over the top of the aleck.
The decision between 2- and 3-in-deep (51- and 76-mm) steel decks depends
on the desired beam spacing and span length. TFo-inch-deep decks can ttTi-
cally span ? to 10 ft (2 to 3 mi while 3-in-deep decks can span 10 to 15 {t (3 to
4.5 m), depending on concrete thickresB and deck gage. To span 10 ft, it is
common to use a 2-in no- 18 gage steel deck combined *.ith a lightweight coII-
crete slab 3% in (83 mm) thick above the top of the fibs or an overall deck
thickness of 57a in (133 mm), whil€ a 3-in no. 16 sage composite deck with a
total thickness ot 6la h (1,59mm) is common lor a 15-{t span. These deck
assemblies have ar unFotected 2-h tue rating and are t ?ically built without
shores. For normal-weight conoete unprotected floor assemblies, popular
altematives are 2-in no. 20 gage decks spandng ?.5 ft (2.3 m) with a 67r-in
(165-mm) total slab thickness, and 3-in no. 16 and no. 18 gage decks span-
nins 10 and 12 ft (3 and 3.7 m), rcspectively,with a 7%-in (191-mm) total slab
thickness. Similarly as for lightweight concrete, the data are for unshored
construction. Most deck manufactuers publish catalogs that aid in the deck
selection for various types and thicknesses of slabs. Composite Bteel deck
desig! criteria arc published by the Steel Deck Institute.Dsl
Ponding ol concrete caused by deck deflections betrFeen the suppor-ting
beams must always be accounted for in the selection of the composite steel
deck and in the design of composite beams. It is customary to limit the steel
deck defle€tion due to the weight of fresh concrete to the smaller of l/180,
where I is the clear deck span, and % in (19 nrrn).

L6J Steeldeck slab reinforcement

Composite deck slabs typically contain only nominal slab reinforcement
because the steel deck itself is bonded to the concrete and pmvides for the
positive moment. Tenperature and shdnhage steel is customarily provided
either as welded wfue fabric or as reinforcing bals. The amount of such steel
should not be less than about 0.00075 times the area of concrete above the
deck, and 6xG (15x15 cm) W1.4XW1.4 welded ririrc fabric is generally con
sidercd the lightest product usable for this purpose. Such quantity of steel
conhols cracking if placed near the top of the slab with % to 1 in (19 to 25
mm) nominal cover. It is, however, quite common to provide more than twice
this amount over the tops ol composite beams and gi lers, more in the range
of 0.0018 times the groBs concrete area which is equal to the shrinkage and
tempersture steel re$ired by the ACI building code. The purpose of this or
even heavier reinforcement is to control more effectively the frequently
inevitable negative-moment crackine that occlrls randomly along the beam or
gtuder length. ffiile experience and linited rcsearch evidence suggest that
such ffacks have no significant effect on the strength of composite beams, the
cracks car pose sewiceability pmblems ifnot prcperly conholled. It is impor'
tant to realize, however, that reinforcement cannot eliminate $acking of con-
crcte. it ca]l onlv contrcl it.
 Grade of slructural steel
The selection of sieel ilepenals on local availability and cost ol dilferert
grades. With the LRFD procedure for composite beams, it is very com]non for
50 ksi (345 MPa) erade steels to rcsult in more economical desieTrsthan A36
steel. This trend applies to spans mnging ftom 25 to 50 fi (7.5 io 15 m). For
Iighter office-tpe loading (50 lb/ft, live load; 2.4 kN/mr) and unshored coF
str'uction, the size is often dictated by constmetion loading during concrete
placement. For heavier mechanical or storage loads the design is us{rally gov-
emed by the stuength or by live-load deflection of the composite beam. For
shoreal construction, beam sizes are almost always contmlled by live-load
deflection, nolmally limited to /360. The trend to higher-shength steels is
being accelelated by the availability of dual certification steels (A36/A5?2) at
little or no cost premium.

3.5-5 Shoredvs. unshoredconslruction

A number offactorc affect the choice whether the composite deck, wet conffetq
and other construction loads arc to be supported by the barc steel bearn alone
or by t€mporary shoring. Should no temporary shoring be used, the steel beam
must support all of these loads as well as its own weight. It is the customary
practice to assume that all loads applied after the concrete has attained ?5
percent of its 28-day stlength are supported by the composite section.
In many practicalcascsofcomposirebeam deqignfor ofilcelivc loads
size of the steel beam may be controlled by loads applied to the bare
beam during construction. In such cases it seems reasonable to assume that
more ecoromical design can be achieved if tempora{. shores are used to
pod the construction loads so that all desigTl loads are rcsisted by the
posite section. However, when the follorFing factors ate considered, it
apparent that this conclusion is not vahd:
1. Theoretical studies and actual load tests have shown that the uI
strength of a composite bean is the same whether shoring is used or not.
2. Ttre cost of the shoring operation tends to offset any potential sa
€ven when the bare beam carrying the construction load controls
bearn design.
3. Shored composite beams have the diEadvantage in that alter the
qete hardens and the shodng is removed the slab tal<es paft, through
posite action, in carrying the dead loads. As a result, the composite bea]I i
subjected to shri.kage and creep forces parallel to the beam. The net effect
a deoease in concrete slab shesses with a corespondinq inqease in the
stressesas time progresses.Additional deflection is the practical cons
ofthe stless hansfer Although the additional time-dependent deflection
be compenBateal for by an increased initial camber, the shess hansfer
Ibr increased sizes of the steel beams. Past exped€nce shows ihat
increase more than offsets any potential savings, esp€cially when the cost
shoring is considered. One iustification for shored constr-uctionis the
 i
sumed advantage in contrclling floor levelness. As this advantage is mitigat-
ed when long-time deflections ate considered, the disadvantage brought on by
creep and shrinkage assumes particular importance.
4. Apart from the exha cost incurred by shorirg, the shoring opelation
itself can be difficult to effect in plactice, particularly where settleEent of the
shodng is possible.
T'he conclusion from the above discussion suggests strcngly that shorcd com-
posite beam construction usually cannot be justified ftom the standpoint of
ei[her economyor practica] execution,

constructionltems
Miscellaneous
This section is focusealon some of the pmctical problems ihat must be consid-
€red in the application of composite beam construction.

Support for slab reinforcement. One practical Foblem is cmcking in the com-
posite slab. Such ffacks have olten been very alarling to ownerc who tended
to believe that the ffacks rcprcsent serious stnrctural problems. Composite
slab cracks are cauB€alby several lactors including shdnhage and tempentu€
forces built up in large condete pours and by negative moments in the slab
that occur over the tops ofbeams and girders. The latt€r cracks tend to paral-
lel the axis of the beanl or gtder and in many instances can be as wide as % in
(3 mm) or more. Composite slabs in which the steel deck serves as positive
reinforcement are usually designed as simply suppoded. Thus these negative-
moment ffacks are a natural shess-rclief mechanism. Tbe question with this
t}?e of crack is whether it decreases the capacity of shear connectorc, since in
many instances the clack runs through the line of studs. Although little specif-
ic research has been conducted on this p?oblem, experience and the limited
available eyidence seem to shov. that the ultimate composite bea]n capacity is
not impaireal, at least not to any significant degree (Sec. 3.5.4).
l)pically, composite slabs are very lightly rcin{orced by welded wire fabric
that oftel is pusheal to the very bottom ofthe slab during concrcte placement
anal rests on the metal deck; thus its effectiveness in conholling slab cracks is
drastically reduced. One rcmedy is to use a heavier welded wirc fabric that
can successfully be chaired up during the placement of concrete. Such prac-
tice reduces the size and extent of slab cracking. The negative_moment cmcks
over the beam and girders can be controlled by placing additional reinforcing
bars exteniling 3 ft (0.9 m) or so on each side ol the centerline. The bals
should be chaired up with a 1-in (25-mm) top concrete cover and tied to longi-
tudinal bals to conhol their spacing and position.

Construction iolnts. In pouring large areas of composite floorc the contractor

is often required to use comtmction joints to breah up the pours into man-
aseable sections, typically 7500 to 15,000 ft' (700 to 1400 m'z).The ioints
should be carefully placed to avoid any compromise to composite beam action.
3.44

It iB prudent to place them no closer than S t1(1.b m) fircm the lonEitudinal

a..is of a beam or girder and lo crosq lhe beam and girder ayes n.*-th"
""o-
ter of their span. Such practice will ensure that the constmction ioint do€s
nor impair ihe flangeactionolthe compositebeam.

Beam camber. With the itrhoduction of LRFD, there is a strong tendencrr

toward smaller beams, particularly with the widespread use and economy of
high-shength steel. For unshored construction and longer beam spans, wher€
composite design can rcsult in large savings, there is a need to compensate
for the large bare beam deflection rcsulting from loads applied p:ior to com-
mencement of compositeaction. Beam camber of2 or 2% in (51 to 64 mm) is
common {br the longer spans, say 38 to 42 ft (12 to 18 m). Determinine what
camber is neededand the end product of beam cambering can be very inexact
processes that may lead to field probtems. The t€ndency to overestimate the
dead load and underestimate connection restraint in simple beam connec-
rions ofrenresulls in membersthar are ovei-cambered. so thal the beamsare
bowingupward after all deadtoadis in placc
There are two ways to place a concrete steel deck floor Oae wav is to sDeci-
57a uDiform slab lhicknesr which conformsto lh" de0ectedsuppon,ng bean
The other way is to specifj' that the top ofthe slab be horizontal, resultine in
a non unilorm slab thickness. Beam carber is obvioustyvejf, importart toihe
lattel method because it €an rcsult in the final producth having a thinner
slab than rcquired and less than the specifred cover over the top of the studs.
It is prudent to specily that camber shol\,n on the dmwinqs is the amount
required at the lime of ercction and then monitor the loss ofcamber r-bat
ineyitably occurs from the time the beam is canbered in the mill or fabricaL
ing shop and its arrival on the job site. The camber may have to be field-
adjusted to ensure a level beam in the end.

shear connector placement. Stud shear connectors can be vrelded to st€el beams
either in the field or in the shop using semiautomatic stud welding equipment
Shop-applied studs may be damaged during beam shipment arrd are alio a safe-
ty hazard in the field dudng bea]Il erection. Therefore, field wetdinq of 6tuds
a-RererccLionofrhc sreel is preferred.The ceramic lernrle used Ln Lheweldie
processshould be removpd Fom around tie sr,udbody prior to concrereplad
ment. The AWS D1.1 Structuml Welding CodeDe,contains general r€quire-
menh for welding steel studs and stipulates specific requfuements for

1. Mechanical properties of steel studs and ?equirements for oualfication of

srud baseb
2. Workmanship, preproduction te6ting, operator qualifrcation, al1d testing
for application qualifrcation
3. Fabrication and verification inspectior of stud welding dudng production

It is impodant to prescribe connector placing guidelines for beams vrith coF

cenhated loads. In the absenceofsuch guidetines the field personnel is tikely
 to install the studs with uniform spacing along the beam length. It is, of
course,imperative that the stud placement in the Iield accordingto the guide-
lines is practical.

1.7 Openingsin Webs

Web openings in compositebeams can gyeatly enlance th€ economyof steel
sbuctures by allowing the use ofshallower floor systems.Openingsallow utili'
ties to be passed thrcugh the webs of the steei members, reducing overall floor
thickness and decreasing both the exterior surface and the int€rior volume of a
building. The us€ of w€b openings during rctrofit opemtions in existing struc-
tures p&vides owners and designers with extra flexibility in the placement ol
utilities, while having a minimum impact on usable building space.On the
negative side, web openings can slgniflcanUy rcduce the shear and bending
shength of a beam.
Over the past 25 years, a great deal has been lealned about the behavior of
both composite and noncomposite steel beams with web openings. The earliest
design procedues heated composite and noncomposite members, with and with-
out opening reinforcement, as four dishnct problems D5!D60D6sG1cG30 G3!L*6cni(t.le
In most cases, the design procedrues were higbly consewative. Research effods
culminating in 1990,7q30,1o1,D53
ho*'ever, have established that the behavior of all
structural steel beams with web openings is quit€ similar independent of com-
posite action or the prcsence of opening reinforcement. This has allowed for the
development of the urlfied design approach presented herc.

: _.1 Behavior
This section g;ves a brief oveNiew of the forces that act on a beam in the
vicinity of a web opening and describes the response of the beam to these
forces.Figure 3.24 illushates the forcesin a beam near an opening located in
a region ofpositive bending. Above the opening, in the top tee, the member is
subjectedto a compressiveforce 4, shear {, and secondarybending moments
Mi ald. Mh.In the region below the opening, in the bottom tee, the member
is subjected to a tensile force Pb, shear vr, and secondarybending moments
M61and.M66. Equilibdum at the opening results in the follo\a'ing relation-

13.1Ea)
V=Yo+Y, (3.15b)

Vba" = Mbt+ M6h (3.15c)

Y,a.: Mu- M* (3.15d)

M = Pz + M,h+ Mbh-
v""
{3.15e)
2
 'fi t--Et i.)-

Fisuro 3,24 Fores arouil a web opening.Ds

wherc a" : opening length

z : distance between points about which seco[dary bending moments
are calclrlated
M = primary bending moment at centerline of opening
Y = shear at centerline ofopening

The deforrnation and failure modes of bearns with both solid and dbbed slahg
depend shongly on the latio of moment to shear MM at L]neopening. For a
high moment'shear ratio, the opening deforns primarily in flexure, with the
steel in tension belo\i'rthe opening and the conffete in comprcssion (Fig. 3.25aI
Depending on the size and location of the opening, the steel above the opening
may be in tension or in both tension and compression. Shear and secondarJr
bending play minor rcles.
As the moment-shear ratio decreases,the shear ard secondaly bending
moments inclease, causing an increasing diff€rential, or Vierendeel deforma-
tion, though the opening. The top and bottom tees usuallv exhibit a well-
degn€d change in curvatwe, as shown in Fig. 3.25b. Secondary bending caus-
es tension in the top of the section, at the low,moment end of the opening
resulti4g in transverse cotrcrete cracks. Depending on the moment-shear
ratio, the concrete at the high-moment end of the opening is either crushed cr
fails in diagonal tension due to prying action across the opening.
 Composlte Bsams 3,47

Fisur. 3r5 Delonation nodes

tE 3.26 Slab dacking at high shed zone6,N

For beams with ribbed slabs ir v,.hich the ribs are transverse to the steel
member, failure is preceded by rib cracking over the high-moment end of the
opening (Fig. 3.26). Rib clacking appears to be a manifestaiion of diagonal
tension failue. Large amounts of slip take place betwee4 the conerete deck
and the steel section over the opening, even for very high moment-shear
ratios. ThiB slip is sufficient to place the slab in compression at the low-
moment end of the opening, although tne adjacent steel is in tension.
3,48

Figure3.2? Derkseparatjon 063

i
E

Fisurg3,2s Intefaclion betw€en

6heaf and moment.Ds
 The concrete slab in composite members contributes signifrcantly to the
shear strength as w€ll as the flexural shength of beams at web openings
This contrasts with the standard design practice for composite beams rn
which the concrete deck is used only to resist the bending moment and sheal
is assigned solely to the web ofthe steel section.
Failurc at web openings in composite beams is, in general, quite ductile
Failure is preceded by Bajor cracking in the slab, yielding of the steel, and
large deflections ofthe member. Strains in the concrete remain low, lorg after
the steel begins to yield. Firct leldine in the steel is not a rcliable prcdictor
of the shength of the section. Tests show that the load at first yield can vary
from 17 to 52 percent of the failurc load.7'g'30104 Peak loads are goverrredby
failure ofthe concrete slab. For solid slabs, failure is alue to crushing for open-
ings with bigh M,ry'ratios, and to diagonal tension for openings with low M/y
ratios. For beams with transverse ribbed slabs, failue is goverared by a con-
crete failu?e arcund the studs, which may vary from a pullout failwe at the
high-moment end of tfie opening to a shear failure at the low-moment end of
the opening and between the low-moment end and the point ol zero moment
For beams with longitudinal ribs, longitudinal shear failule occurs with the
stem of the rib sepamting from the upper portion of the slab.
Shear connectors above the opening and between the opening aIId the sup-
pod strcngly influence the capacity at the section. As the capacity of the
shear connectors increases, the strength at the opening increases. The
increased capacity can be obtained by increasing either the number of shear
connecto?s or the capacity of the individual connectors-
Sepamtion ofthe slab ftom the steel section, referred to as bridging, occurs
primarily in beams with hansverce ribbed slabs (Fig. 3.27). Bridging takes
place more readily as the slab thiclmess increases.
The intemction between bending and shear at a $reb opening is relatively
weak. As illustrated in the interaction diagam in Fig. 3.28, the shear capaci
ty is laryely unaffected by moment until the moment capacity approaches the
peak strcngth of the section.
Construction loads, as high as 60 percent olmember capacity, do not affect
the strcngth at web openings.33

L72 Design
In North American practice, the strcngth of composite beams with web openings
is determined using momeni-shear interaction diaglams. A few detailed
research models generate momentshear dia$ams point by point 7'g3033J0aFor
design, however, it is prefemble to genent€ an int€raction dia$am (Fig 3.28) bv
establishing the maximum moment capacity i4 and the ma-ximu]n shear capac_
ity V- and coDnecting these points with a curve or series of curves that accurate_
ly repr€sent the intenction between bending and shear A number of different
reprcsentation€ have been developed following this procedure.?s&'D53'D6e These
lepresentatrons agree on the methods used to calculate tr4, but differ on the
methods used to calculate V- and the curve connectimgM-ta V^.
 Based on the work of Danrin and Donaley,D53 Darwin and LucasD6edevel-
oped a procedure that is both accurate and easy to apply. Their model per-
tains to both composite and noncomposite membels with or without openillg
reinforcement. For composite membels, the slabs may be solid or ribbed, ard
the bs may be either parallel (Iongitudinal dbs) or pelpendicular (trans-
verse ribs) to the steel member. The model was compared with tests of 85
composite bea]ns, 22 having ribbed and 13 solid slabs. The overall mean ratio
of the test to predicted shength was 1.039, with a coefficient of variation of
0.092; the corr€spondingvalues for beans with fbbed slabs were 1.002 and
0-073,and those for beamswith solid slabs were 1.101 arld 0.090.r2?,D6s
For the comprehensive design procedure for composite beams with web
openings the reader is refened to thrce excellent publicatiom.D6s,D?3,D7s 'Ihe
procedue is applicable to rectangular and circular web openings, both rrnrr
inforced and those r€inforced with horizontal bars wetded to the web beloy
and above th€ opening.

3.8 ComDositeJoists and Ttusses

3-8.1 Descrlolion
anduse
Composite tuusses are arother form of composite flexuml member. When the
trusses ar€ simply supported, the concrcte slab resists the comprcssive force
of the itrternal couple while the bottom chod of the truss resists the tensile
force. As for composite beams, the vertical or transverse shear iB assumed to
be caried by the steel web system. The slab is usually cast on a steel decl
and is connected to the top flange of the supporiing steel truss by sheal coD-

Composite trusses are used principally in the floors of high-rise bui

where thetu unique advantages can be exploited effectively. Table 3.A lists
sample of buildings built during the last few decades with composite
or compositeopen-websteeljoists in the United States and Canada.
table provides data on a few major characteristics of the composite s
menbers. The composite open,web steel joists generally are spaced
closely on centers, because of their limited flexual capacity, than the tr
designed for a particular application. Both can pmvide long clear spans,
shown in the table, mnging from about 3b to 80 ft. Span to overall
raiios of composite trusses of 14 to 20 have been used, the fiIst at
Plaza in Edmonton and the second at Sears Tower in Chicaeo.c6a
flexibility of oflice layouts is obtaiEed with column-free floor space
the cenhal core and the perimet€r columns_
Composite husses designed for a specfic buitding would tend to be
expensive, because of fabrication costs, than composite rolled beams,
ing the latter werc capable of the same clear sDans. However, fabri
costs are reduced on a unit basis where sisnifrcant numbers of iden
trusses are required for a number of identical floors. Camber is
obtained by jigging the trusses in fabdcation. Thus, when unshored
tion is used and camber i6 provided for the total dead load that acts
 3.51

_raLE3.3 Bulldings with Composlle Jolsls and Tiuss€s

ll72 Wodd Tlade Cent€r Ne{ York 110 owsJ 60 3.3

l?;2 Amoo Building 80 60 10

26 owsJ 4l 4.9
:li3 Fourth Fin&cial Center 10 80 15

109 75 15
-:;4 Guardian Boyal Exchage 23 owsJ 47 7.5
:-::7 Odod Squee Towers owsJ 39 6.6
:-r;a R€publicP1&5 56 10

l-:;8 Edmonlon Centre 3 29 35 9.8

-=1 EdDonton Cetrtre5 32 35 9.8
,+3 Ciiy Cor!. Pl@a 40 15

5l Pribciprl Pl&a 25 39 9.8 HSSchords

--5t 303 W Madison 27 50 10

-;r,= Quar@ cafer Chicaso 38

--9 AT&T Buildins 67 48 15

-+l OneFinanciat Pldce lt 39 9.8 qSS chodr

-:-ql BcE P]ace,Cafrrla IYu6t 55 46 9.8
-31 l&milton Cenhe 15 36 9.8 I{SS chods
-+1 1000De La Gauchetrere 47 49 9.8

-:*2 BCE PlaceII 46 9.8

,:4i2 Firdt Century Tbwer 19 44 9.8 HSS chorrls

the conqete sets, the cotrcrete can be scrcealed to a flat plane. Furtherrnore
the web openings in the truBsea can accommodate ductwork for heating, air
conditioning, and other services with rclative ease and thereby reduce the
ceiling-to-floor depth. When even larger openings are rcqui?ed, it is not diffi-
cult to prcvide a Vierendeel panel in rcgions oflow sheax with chord stiffen-
ing as requircd. Ribbed steel deck supports the weight of wet concrete anil
other loads between the trusses during construction and then acts composite-
ly with tlle con$ete in caxrying firrther applied loaalBfrom truss to tluss. The
composite trusses vdth significant contdbution from ttle concrete slab arc rel-
ativelv stiff.
3.52

Rapid conshuction is possible, particularly xrith unshored constr.uction. For

the ultimate-limit state, which probably controls the design of most elements
ofthe truss, the concrcte floor slab acts as the compression chord ofthe truss.
The internal lever arm is maximized with all the tension steel at the lev€l of
the bottom chord. 111eweb steel mass is reduced, as compared to that in a
beam with a solid web, with the tmnsverse or vertical shear being most efr-
ciently cauied by co[centrating the steel iD axially loaded web members.
Composite husses therefore provide a lightweight floor framing system by
combining the virtues of husses with composite action.
It should be pointed out, though, that each and every element ofa tluss is
critical. To obtain the desired ductile mode offailure ofyielding ofthe bottom
chord, other less ductile modes must be prevented. Experimental studies in
Canada73,133,D33 and the United States,6.,e,10,indicate that eitler failure of a
comprcssion diagonal or shear stud failules can signficantly impact t}re per-
folmarce ofthese members. While the ultimate load obtained was close to or
greaier than that predicted, the ductility was limited in some casea-
Brattland and Kennedyl33 v/eat so far as to recommend that truss diagonals,
shear connectors, alld connections be designed tor forces coraesponding to tbe
yield load in the bottom chord multiplied by the ratio of 4/4 ofthe bottom
chord material. This is equivalent to reducing th€ resistanc6 factor for the
other components in the inverce prcpodion. Altematively they suggested to
assigr realucealresistance factors to members subiect to bdttle fracture
modes, an approach similar to that generally accepted for connections.A
recently proposed composite joist specificationDlol suggested lowedng the
strcngth-reduction factor for diagonal compression members liom 0.85 to 0.?5
Loreducethe probabiliry ofthejr premarure failurp.

3.8.2 Selectionot steelmembertype

Other factors aside, the number of irusses rcquired is minimized when
span of the concrete slab acting compositely with the metal deck is
mized. Repetitive usage of the basic compositetruss unit in buildings
extensive floor areas means that altenrative steel membem alld
tions for the compositetrusses can be studiealiD detail to detelmine the
suitable one for the padicular building. For the architect, suitability is
ed to form-long clear spans with acceptable ceiling-to-floor depths. For
mechanical engineer, the needs are space for ducting and services. For
shuctural engineer, the serviceability and ultimate-limit stateB must be
isfied. For the fabricatorerectot ease of fabrication and ercction \Mhich tr
late into economy of constmction are clucial. Consultation with potential
ricators ca]l be valuable in determining which shapes to use.
The data in Table 3.3 indicate that tees (WT), hollow shuctuml
(HSS), and double angles (2L) have been used frequently for chords of
tlusses. Combinations ofweb and chord member sections are listed in Table
in the ascending oraler of cost, as given by Chien and Ritchie,tu? for the
basie web conigr:ratiots of Pratt, WaIIen, and Warren witl! verticals. The
 3.53

ofChord and WebMembersin ComposiieTrusses

Combinatlons

I]5S HSS
2Ls

T T
L,2LS L,2Ls

2Ls 2Ls
lISS rISS
HSS
HSS HSS
HSS HSS
HSS
:ahed in ihe ordaf of.scending cosi
i::hont or Hit! vorhcrls.

membem are connectedto the chordswithout gussetslor reasonsofsimple fab'

dcation and economy.
Apad from cost, factors influencing the choiceofmemberc and the web con
figumtion lncludeiDrT
1. Shorter, morc efficient compressionweb membeN in Pmtt web systems
2. Larger web openingsin Warren web systems
3. Shorter panel lengths of the top chord for bending due to transvetse loads
in a Wanen system with vedicals
4. The depth ofthe chord available to make web-chordconnections
5. The smaller number ol v'eb components when single angles are deemed
satisfactory or when Wanen web svstemsare used

With the availability of computer-aided design and analysis software, the

designer has the opportunity to compare several options within the limits of
the architectwal and mechanical constraints.
The triangular layout sho1{ndiaerammatically in Fig. 3.29a with the a-xes
ofweb membeN intersecting as closely as possibleto the axis ofthe top chord
appears natuml and indeed reduces in-plane joint eccentricity moments for
the case whed the unshored bare steel tluss is sllpporting the weight of wet
concrete and attendant construction loads. The altelnative lavout in Fig.
3.296 \i.ith the projected axes of the web members intersecting at the mid-
depth of ihe cover slab was proposed by Bratiland and Kennedy,lr3 who
argued that this triangulation was consistent with the ultimate behavior of
the truss when the cover slab forms the compressionchord. Evaluation oftest
results of trusses with this triangulation by Maurer, Woldegiorgis, and
Kennedy150,1e shows that a pin-jointed iruss analysis is consistent rlith mea-
sured axial shains: i.e.. the comDositetruss behaved as if the web members
3.54

Fisub 3,29 Alterut€ layout of composite truBses

extended to the middepth of the cover slab. For the ultimateload conalition
the diagonal web membels are both steeper and shorter a:rd therefore cury
the shear mote emciently than those of Fig. 8.29@.This advantage has to be
weighed against the possible increase in size ofthe steel top chord due to the
joint eccentricity moments developed particularly in the unshored construc-
tion phase. Limiteal calculations suggest that the configuration of Fig]rle
3.290 is better for husses with T chords aird that of FiE. 9.296 for tluss€s
wiih HSS chords. This appea$ to be r€lated to the geate; flexural efliciencjr
of hollow stluctural tubes as comDarealto tees.

3.8.3 Resistanceat ultimateload

In LRI'D, struetures and their components are designed to meet the ultimate.
limit state requircments during construction and the tife ofthe shuctwe,
the serviceability-limit states dudng the life of the stmctirre. The ultima
limit states consialeredfor designtherefore dependon the method of
tion. As unshoredconstr-uctioniB generally used, it is assumedto be
method of conshuction in what follows. For shoreal construction the
can deduce what limit-states design checks can be onitted.
It is conmon pBctice to Foportiol or size as many elements of the tr.uss
possible for the in-service factored (ultimate) load condition and then to
for other loading conditions including serviceability. The selection of the
chord of the steel truss is an €xception:It is basedon conditions during
struction.

Flexurai resislance, As no ruIes are Eiven in the 1993 AISC-LRFD

for the design of compositetrusses, the limited number of ruIe€ alevel
specifically for compositetrusses or joists in the Canadian steel design
dad Limit States Design of Steel Structurescso and a proposed new Ameri
specificationDlol served as a basis for the recornm€ndations presented
Both documents assume (1) that full shear connectiotr must be
 3.55

between the concrete slab and the steel top chod, (2) that the neutral axis
must lie in the slab, and further (3) that the area of the steel top chord is
neglected in deterdining the ultimate moment resistance.The required fac-
tored shear connector resistance is therefore based on the factored tensile
resistanceofthe bottom chord. The requircment for 100 percent connectionis
a conservativeinterpretation of Robinsonet al.,D33 who showedthat at least 75
percent connection\{as requircd ifthe top chord was not to fail by buckling in
compressionand if it werc to developtensile strains eventually With geator
than ?5 percent connection,the initial compressio1lstratns in Robinson'stcst
reversedand tensile sirains developed.In t$-o tests with about 50 percent con-
nection failurc occuned by buckling ofthe top chold. In one casethe buckling
followed failule of the arc spot welds, the only connectionbetween the steel
deck and the top chord and thercfore between the conoete slab and the top
chod. In this test the overall ductility *'as also severelylimited.
Thus the simple expedientof requidng 100 percent shear connectionhelps to
ensure ductile behavior related to shaining of the bottom chord. It is obtained
by precluding failue ofthe top chod by buckling downward with the concomi-
tant overloadingof the shear connectorsin tension as well as their failule.
With th€ rcquircment that the plastic neutral axis lie in the concreteslab,
neglecting the area of the steel top chord in determining the tensile force of
the intemal couple is a further conseNative simplification lFig. 3.30).
Robinsonet al.,D3s Brattland and Kennedy,133 and otherssee,o,report Nhatsig-
nifrcant tensile straining ofthe top chord occurred,although it was recognized
that, q'ith the small lever arm to the compressiveforce in the slab, the con i'
bution of the top chord to the uliimate-moment resistance was small.
Neglecting this contribution, the top chord is seen to act, at the ultimatelimit
state, principally as a longitudinal connectorbetween the shaar studs and the
steel web membem.

/2

Ll"t

. : 330 Equilib.ium for cohlosite l.nss sections.Dr;

::rn Institute af E eel Canst"tL.tioL.)
3,56

The factorcd tensile lorce of the intemal couDle of the comDosite tmss is
baspdon the gross area of rhe bolom chord because,with welded connec-
tions, the net area A" is equal to the gTossarea A". In the new proposed
American specification,Dlol the tensile resistance is the lesser of the factored
yield force ?.6 on the gross section and the factored fracturc load ?. on the

T,c- 6,4"4 (3.16)

:f*= 0.85+tA"4 (3.1?)
in which d,, the resistancefactor. is taken as 0.90.
Equating the two resistances gives a ratio of 1.25 tor F,/F". Wit:n F,/E
rarios of lo$- and medium-srrenglh stFelsjn the rangcof 1.3to 1.5.Eq. rJ.li
corresponding to yielding olthe gmss cmss section will contrcl fol welded ten-
sion members. As much of the steel used for joists has rccently moved
mini-mill dual-gradeA36/A572 matedat, wlose 44 is lower than for
tional mild steels,the 0.85 factor irl Eq. (9.1?)may nbed to be adjusted to
vent tensile fractur€ from governing the desrgn.
The depth a ofthe compression stress block in the conoete slab is found
equating the concrete compressive force to the tensile rcsistance of the
tom chord:

o.856"b"af; = +tA"F!
where 4 is the area of the bottom chod of the tluss. The depth o must
less than the thickness of concrcte above the ribs to emure that comoress
doesnot govern the design.
The factorcd moment resistanceis then

1,1:74 = !A"F"d I
where d is the distancefrom the tensile fo?cein the bottom chord to the
prcssive force in the slab.
Equations similar to Eqs. (3.16) through (3.19) are used in the
standard.s6 However,the Canaalianstandard is based on oartial safetv
rors u.ing d,,of 0.90for yielditrgand fracrurpof steeland d- of 0.6 for cl
ing of concrete. The latter recognizes the greater variability in con
shength as evidenc€d in its probability density funetion. Thus the Can:
specifrcation rcsults in an additional safety margin against comFessive

Shear resistance. The tlansverse shear manifests itself in a:ial folces in

web membe?s which may also develop both in"plane and out-of-plane
moments depending on the joint geometry. In-plane moments develop
the membels at a joint do not intersect at a point (Fig. 3.81). Secc
moments develop when the huss joints rotate when the truss deflects.
and Korol et al.ca7show that the secondary moments dissipate with j
 B€ams
Composit€ 3,57

(d)

:.= 3 31 Ecc€ntriciti€s ir comloslte truss comcctions.Dll lcdnadian Iu ute af

end rotations, and therefore it is recommendedthat the secondarvmoments

not be included in the member end stress rcsultants. A plane ftame analysis
of a dgidlyjointed truss would give both the joint eccentdcity and secondary
moments in all the huss membem.The use of such moments for desie1l$ould

Shear studs can be modeled as short links at each connector locatioo.

Careflrl examinations after the load tests revealed that. when shear connec-
 tom fail in bending mther tha.n in shear, their upper enal rctat€s in the con-
clete (Fig. 3.11). The bending stifrrcss characteristics ofthe 6hear connections
can be determined empirically ftom load-slip curves obtained in push-out tests
duplicating the proposed conposite truss slab, metal deck, and top chord
When lbe shearstudbare modeledelas{icalJy, rhe disrributionolsheaF jn the
studs at ultimate-loadl condition, when the shea$ tend to become unifom
because ofinelastic rcdist bution ofloads, is not modeled welt.
Out-of-plane joint moments develop, for example, when each member of a
double-angle web member is eonnected by one leg ody. Brattland an<l
Kennedyua and Woldegiorgis and Kennedyls2 show that about two-thirds of
the out-of-plane moment is rcsisted in the joint itself and only one-thid acts
o11the end ofthe member.
A valid shategl, for the design of such membels is to determine the net itl,
plane joint eccenhicity moments, without secondarv moments. and estimate
the out-of-plane joint moments. These are then rcsolved about the DrinciDal
ar.cs.and rhe n ember is desigred using appmpriate biaxial loadlmomeot
interaction diaglams. As the member-end shess resultants are beine used in
*re anajysis. ir is appropriaLero u"e the cenler-ro-cenrerdisranceas "rheeffec-
tive length. Arguments could be made for using ihe clear distance between
connections, as suggested by Chien and Ritchi€.Da7
Tte principles presented above can be applied with proper modifrcations to
other tlTes ofweb membem.

3.8.4 Web-to-chorctweldedconnections
These are all gussetless connections. Bmttland a]ld Kennedyr33 recomrnended
thal doubleanglFtorhord connections be desjgnedlor lhe a_yialload and tbe
in-planejoinl eccenrr:cilymoment rhar coerjsisal {hp uttima[p-limit sraie
Out-of-plane moments are not considered,as proposed by Blodgett.ci5 This
approach is substantiated by the facts that the welds need Drovide onlv the
tensiie component with the compressive component carried in bearinq. E
also lhai the inrer6q1fu.djrgT.rn lor welds subjectro r ransver"eand lonsi
dinal shearcssis quite convex.A computer program has been developJd
and modifiedby Kpnnedyrzlro deiermrnethe ulLimaresrrcnslh or frllei wl
groups of arbitrary geometrywhen subiectto axial load and moment based
the concept of rotation about an instantaneous shear center and. of
mode)ing the inelastic behavior.

3,8.5 Resistanceduringconstruction
Having sized the web members and bottom chord for the totai factored
cy loads, tbe top chod is the only member likely to be cdtical dudng
tion. In unshorcd constmction two loading stages should be check;d. Duri
deck placement, while the constr"uctionloads may be relativell. small, the I
ported length ofthe top chod for lat€Ial torsional bucldinE is €ither the di
between bridging lines or the entire span ofthe huss. Bending moments of
top chord due to diskibuted gravity loads arc likely t be relatively small.
 With the steel deck, sh€ar studs, and slab reinforcement in Dlace. the Bteel
truss with a laterally suppor.t€d top cbord now has to support the weight ofthe
deck, rcinforcement, wet concrete, and construction loads. Chien al1d RitchieD4?
Fopose conBtruction loads to be used at this stage. This loading is likely the
critical stage for the top chord as it is subject to axial loads acting as the top
chord of the ste€l tmss, in-plane joint eccentricity moments and bending
momenh due to the deck, wet concrcte, and construction loads actins tmns_
ve$ely. At this stag€, ifthe in-plane joint eccentricities rxing the web confrgu-
mtion ofFig. 3.296 are too severc, Ieading to an increased size ofthe top chod,
the confieuEtion of Fig. 3.29a shoutd be considered. As the top choril is con,
shained to deflect in-plane, appropriate interaction equation; to check the
qoss-sectional strength and in-plane bending strength should be used.

Dellections
Suggestions for approximate calculations oftruss deflections are given belov,

Llve-loaddeflections. Short-term live-load deflections can be found using

apprcpliate values lor the short-tern modulus of elasticity of the concrcte in
comlressiol and, as discussed prer/iously, for the elastic properties of the
studs. Alt€rnatively, the follos/ing approximate procedures of Brattlard and
Xemedy. 13calibrated ro rheir resr results. can be used:
1. Determine the moments ofinertia ofthe steel truss 1- and ofthe comDos_
ile rruss /i babedoD Lhearea ofLhe sreelchordsand rransformedconciere
cover alaD area.
2. Divide each ofthese values by 1.10, as an allowance for the flexibilitv or
the web stiffness. giving values I and I, rcspeclively.
3. Compute Lhc elTecljvemomcnt of inenia a< t" | - O.1j \/ I-l ro
accounLlor rhc fle\.ibiliDofthe srudband intefaciat;lip.
4. When cold-form€d hollow str.uctual sections are used for the steel tr.uss
cholds, multiply the effective moment ofinertia I" by 0.80 to obtain deflections
at the specified load level. This allows appmximately for the nonlinear strcss-
strain curve ofthese sections which is exacerbated by residual stresses.

Shr;nkagedeflections, The compositetruss deflectsdownward as the condete

shrtul<s. Brattland and Kennedyr3s proposed an equilibriunl moalel based orr
l,he free-bodydia$am and rhe €hrinlage s{rain vaiiarion shown in Fis. g.S2
BecausFBranson'smethod"ris also baspdon equiJibriumand srrain cJ:noaui_
bility the two methods arc equivalent provided that the same values are used
for the free shrinlage strain and modulus of elasticitv ofthe concrete.

l,l: Floorioists design

Design a composit€ joi6t to span g6 ft (11 m) and carry a unifolrnly distrib_
uted dead load of 80 lb/ft, (3.83 kN/mr) and live load of I0O tblft2 (4.7g
kN/m'?).Assume construction dead loads of 60 lb/ft, (2.87 kN/mr) and live
3.60

'!--------l
r-----
F-r-*l
rt-|"
Fl-J
\I I
\lt\1
Flsure 3.32 Strain distribation in a @mpo6ite irusB,

loads of 30 lb/fl1 (1.44 kN/m'?).Use 4 : 50 ksi (345 MPa) and normal-weid

concretewith /: = 4 ksi (27.6 MPa),'and assumea 2-in (51-Inm) deck v,rith
4-in (102-mm)topping. Use double-anglemembelsif possible.
1. Detzrmine loads. Assumea lo-ft spacingfor ihe compositejoistsl
( 1 . 2. 8 0 . 1 . 6\ 1 0 0 ) l 0 - ^ - - . . , ^
1000 z oo Klps/rr

r80+ 100' .-19_

z, -
*" t.SOkipVn
1000
(1.2.60T1.6.30),r0
., - 1000
- r.zu Krps/rr

2. Desigtt bottam chard.based.on ultimate strength

!8

- 4980in-kipF

Assu1le ajoist depth of21 in so that the total depth 4 is

dt:2t+2+4:21iL
Assume that the distance between the centmids of the tension and
sion force is less, say 0.5 in at the top (comprcssion force in the slab) and
at the bottom (centroid of double angles to be uBed as bottom chod). Thus
 d = 27- 0.5 l:25.5 n
Th€rcquircdforce?", equivalentto ?.sand ?_ in Eqs.(3.17)and (3.18),is

-? = 49qq: 1e5.2kips
" 25.5
The requiredarea,using0 : 0.9,is

A : =!52-:
-? 4.84i,"
0.9x 50

T\y 2L 3), . 312 3 ''4"= 4.97inr.yD - 1.01iD.y, - 0.355in. and r-

0.687in).Checkslendemesa " requjrements
as.umingmaximumpanellengins
will be about 40 in long:

| - 9- -se - zqo u.K.

r, u,t)6/

Check actual tension forcesi

?s = 4.97 x 50 :24a.5 kips (yield)
?" = 0.85x 4.9?x 65 = 274.6kips (ftacture)
Therelore.yield gorernsand T_ 248.5kips.
3. Chechultimate strezgtl. Find eovening effectivewidth:

6, : joist Bpacing: 10ft

Therefo{e,b. : 9 {t = 108 in.
Calculate depth of the compressiveblock;

248.5 : 0.68in
0.85x4r108

d : joist depth + slab thickness - r,

f

:21+ 6
ry,0.355
= 26.31in
 M.:4 M,:0.9 x 248.5x 26.31: 5880in-kips O.K.

4. Dnien top cha.d. This wiu be basedon {he conslnrctjon loads,with

Lhicknessof lhe top chord /,. eoverned by the requilemenr that it be
than the stud diameter divided by 2.5. Using %-in-diameter studs, the mi
mum thickness

',h - Ql.l:oqo;-
2.5

Under the construction loads the joist will act as a steel truss alone,with
decking acting as out-of-plane lateral bracing. Thus it shoutd be designed as
beam-column and checked according to Chap. H of the LRFD-AISC sp

1.2 x 362: 194.4

M: ft"kips : 2333in-kips

Assume that the distance between the centroid of the toD and bottom anEle i

d"" = joist depth y,, y..

:21 - 1.01- 1(a$umed)

: 18.99 in

-u" -: 2333,.,
= 122.9kips
ffi6
and the rcquircd $ross arca of the top chord is

122.9 : r 72 ,^2
-a: c _ - ---
0_9^50

llf,' 2L 3 x 3 x % (Ae:4.22 :[jl2,rb.: 0.888in, and f. : 0.58?in). In

this selection the desicner should bear in mind that the section will
moments and will have to be checkeal as a beam-column. so it is not
to select a section that just meets the axial requirements. To check thi6
tion as a beam-columnan analysis must be run, using the top ard
chord as continuous membere and the web membeN as pinned-end
Assuming the end panels to be 36 in long and the rcmaining nine panels to
40 in long, the analysis indicates an a-rial load o1121 kips and a moment
15 kip-in
The bending resistanceofthis member, by Chap. H,Dr1is

6M":6M!:0.9 S,F! = 0.9x 1.67x 50 - 75.2kip-in

 CompositeBeams

The &xial resistance interpolating flom the tables in the manual is

4P, = 163 kips

From Eq. H1-1A:D'gr

- - 0.74 0.I8- n.e2- r.0o oK

idi ;*1
Check for fillers:

L= 49_=a3a
r, 0.922
l: =0.587
4:: es.r
r"

Use 1 filler between panel points to force buckling about the x axis to govem.
5. Design a tlpical ueb nember. The frnal composite joist configumtion is
shown in Fig. 3.33. From the shuctural analysis described above, the axial
load in member W3, the critical comprcssionload was 46.7 kips. The tables in
the AISC LRFD manual are based on O = 0.85. Thus the force for these mem,
bers should be modified:

^ 46.7- 0.85 --^,.

0.?5

For the length Al : 22.8 in ofmember 3, try 2L2 x 2 x %l

OP^ = 71 kips
$P," : 63 kips with two connectors

z],r 2-3 --+-- 24

:?- 3,33 Composite joist desien dample,

3.64 Chapter
Three

6. Dryign shectr conrcctors. In order to ensure the ductility of the system,

i.e., that substantial yielding takes place before the shear connection fails, aa
ove$trcngth factor of 1.3 is recommended. In addition, since single studs will
be placed in each flute, an additional realuction of 0.?5 must be made (Q, :
0.75 x 21.9 = 16.4 kips). Thus:

'" t . 3 ( 4 . 9 7. 5 0 )
^ , -taa ,^.

Use one %-in stud per flute except in the last two {lut€s, where double studs
should be placed.

3.8.8 Floorlruss design

Design tj?ical S8-ft-span(12-m) compositefloor truss. tuss spacing is 15 ft
(4.5? m) on center. Refer to Fig. 2.9 for the general anangement of floor
trusses. No shoring. Us€ 1-h fire separation between floors. AISC LRFD
desigr.

Malerials

Il'uss chord members:A572 erade 50 (345 MPa yield)

I\-uss web members: 436 (248 MPa yi€ld)
Metal deck 3-in (?6-mm) trapezoidal composite metal deck
Concreteslab: 2l in (64 mm) over top of steel deck; f;: 4 ksi (28 MPa)
lightweight concrete; concrete density = 110 1b/ft3 (17.3
kN/m3)

Loads
I}uss weight 4
Deck + slab
Conoete fil] alowance 5
Total dead load 50lb/{t,
SDspended ceiling, electdcal, mechmical plumbing I
Partition allowance 20
Total superimposed, 2Arh/fL,
Office live load 50 lb/ft,
20 th/ft,

Trussarrangement.Out-to,outdepth of WTGtruss chordsis 31 in (0.79mL

Double-angleweb members.Vierendeel opening at midspan to accommodate
primary air-distribution loop.
 II
3,65

Designapproach. Employ hand calculationsto determine preliminary sizesof

chord members, web members, and shear studs based on shength considera-
tions or y. Fully (100 percent) composite design. Verify member sizes, floor
deflections, ca]nbels, and vibration charactedstics utilizing computer analy-
sis model.
1. Size botton cAord. Bottom chord size is normally controlled by full
desiEnload.

zr, : uniform lactored designload

: (1.2, + 1.6tr)x tributary width

: 11.2150
+ 28) + 1.6(50t^ -1!-
lOU{J

: 2.60kips/ft

=vll
8
:2.60
?
: 470 ft-kips

d* : distance betweenWT6 chod cenhoids

= 31 (2 x 1.30)

- 28.4 in

7, = a-..ial tension in chord

:M"

470x 72
2a.4
= 199kips

Ar" : rcqutuedbottom chord arca

199
0.90x 50
= 4.42 ir12
 areaA : 4.40in'.
UseWI6 x 15 \dth cross-sectional
2. Size top chord. Top chord size is normally conholled by strcngth at the
Viercndeel panel dudng construction as a noncompositemember in combined
axial compressionplus bending.It is assumedthat the metal deckrngpro-
vides adequatelateral reshaint per?endicularto the truss plane.TWocon-
struction load casesshouldbe conBidered due to the presenceof the center
panel: full load on the entirc span and construction live load oII only ha]f of
the span.For the caseof full load on the entire span:

2,,: i1.2(50) x 15
+ 1.6(20)l
1000
- 1.38kipsft

i, 1.38 . 38'

= 249 ft_kips

P, = aiial compressionin chord

249 x 72
28.4
: 105kips

M,- : bendingmomentat midspanof\tercndeel panelchord

1.38.5'.,.
%"
= 17.3in-kips (stemin tension)

M* = bendinCmoment ai end ofviercndeel panel chord

1 . 3 8^ 5 , . . .-^-
12
= 34.5in-kipB (stemin compression)

1\y WTGx 17.5.

Calculate compressionstr€ngth about x-r axis (continuously bmced about
y-J axis).
('heck ofstemin compression.
"lenderness
d/l = width/thickness mtio
= 6.25l0.300
= 20.8
 127
I
\6,
127

: 18.0< 20.8 stemis slender

Calculate reduction coefiicient Q" &om Eq. (4-85-9) in Ref. D91:

Q, = 1.908- 0.00?15(d/rl\6
= 1.908- 0.00?15
x t(zo.s),, fsol
: 0.856

Calculat€\ with K: 1.0,1: 60 in, r = r, : 1.?6in.

tr" = column slendernessparameter

: Kr(4/E,f5

1.0x60x(50/29,000)05

: 0 . 4 5 1< 1 . 5

Calculate designcompressionshength.

l"\Q: o.nsr
,, \6:se (a: e")
= 0 . 4 1 7< L . 5

DesignatingA : tr",,

F_ : critical column strcss

: q(0.65844)
4
= 0.856 x (0.6580.356:0.451x0.!51)
x 50

= 39.8ksi
= 6"4"4.
: 0.85X 5.17x 39.8
: 175kipE (778kN) > 105kips O.K.
3,68

Calculat€flexuml strcngth dbM :

O, = rcsistancefactor for flexure ( : 0.90)

M , , < 1 . OM !
where Mr : moment at fiIst yield

b"M^: d'M,
=s,a,4s"
: 0.9 x 0.856X 50 x 3.23
: 124in-kipg

Check combinedaxial compressionand flexure with Eq. (H1-1a)iD

Ref D91:

P !A. +M
_, < I n-
6.P" 96p1"-

"n - .
iii ;1;-- o.eol 0.247 o.a47 1.o o.K

UseWT6 x 17.5.
3. Size web members. Design first tension diagonal member at support.

I : diagonal length
: (28.4'+ 36.0)05
= 45.9in
y, : shear at support under fuIl load on entire span

2.61x 38
2
: 49.6kips

?, = tension in diagonal

:49.6xffi
- 80.2kips
 composite
Beams

4 : rcquired area oftension diagonal

:t_
hF"
80.2
0.90x 36
: 2.4arnz

Us€2L 3 x 3 x %$tit})A:2.AalJr2.
Design first compressiondiagonal at suppod.
I = (28 4' + 3r.52)0.6
= 42.4)n

P q,t.e
' " " ^ !3 , o'45
2a.4 075
- 83.9kips

UseAISC LRFD manual column capacity tables for double angles.De5

C P" : 90 kips > 83.9 kips O.K.

Use2LBx2x%.
The design of the remainder of the web members follows in a similar rnan-
ner based on the shear force present at the location under consideration.
4. Calculate number of shear studs required for fuU cornpositeaction. T}'e
horizontal shear force between the point o{ maximum moment and the sup-
port is the le$er of the follo$ing:
lJ = horizontal shear force
, : 0.85414."
: effectiveconcretearca
4
-; 1 2 2 . 5 2 8 5i n

11= 0.85x 4.0 x 285 - 969kips

2. E = A"F,

4 = arca of bottom chord = 4.40 in'

}1: 4.40x 50 : 220kips govems
3.70 ChapterThrse

TABIE3,5 FloorJoisrD€fl€ctlons

0.23 5.8 2000

0.63 16 720
Superimloseil dead load 0,12 3.1 3800
0.23 5.8 2000
0.98 25 465
xm: I = spd length 38 &(U.58 n)

Q, : strength ofa single shear connector: 21.9 kips

0.75 : reduction factor for one stud per rib
N : requireil number of shear studs : 4
q"
= Z x 2 2 O. : 2 6 . a
21.9t O.1b

Use 27 stud shear connectors.

5. Computzranalrsis and.dEsignDefification. Comput€r analysis was per-
fonned to vedly the member sizes detemined aboveand ovemll deformatiol
chamcteriBticsof the floor huss system. The analysis v/as pedorrnedlon tso
separatemoalelsrepresenting construction (steel truss alralmetal deck or y-
no slab) and final (composite)conditions. The resulting deflections are list€d
in Table3.5.

3.9 Stub GirderSystems

The stub girder systemwas developedin responseto a need for new and inno-
vative constr-uction techniques that could be applied to ce*ain partB of
multistory steel-framed buildings. Originated by Colaco in the ear
1970s,D23D32 the desiga concept aimed at improving construction economt
through the int€gration of the electrical and mechanical sewice ductB into the
paft of the building volume that is occupied by the floor framing system of
building (Fig- 3-34).The stub gider systemmates extensiveuse of rclati
Bimple shop fabrication techniques, basic elements with limited fabricati
needs, simple connections between the main floor system elements and
stl-tlctural colunlns, and comDosite action between the concrete floor slab
the steel load-carryingmembers.The result is a floor systemwith
shength, stiffness, and ductility characteristics.This systemleads to a
tion in the amount of structural steel that traalitionallv had been needed
the floor framing. When coupledwith the use of continuous, usually
ite transverse floor beams and the shorter election time that was needed
the stub girder system, attractive constmction cost savings result. Since i
 HV A Cd ! c t i n !
Spoce pipes
{orsprlnller Gerber

Spondrel
Stub
Stub- Sirder
weDop€nmg
. a!re3,34 Sfubgifden.Dl"iCdndtLnn
Instihneol SteelCansttuction.l

developmentand introduction, the stub girder fioor system has been used fbr
a vadety of steel-fiamed buildings in the United States, Canada, and Mexico,
mnging in height from 2 to 72 storles.

: 1,1 Descriptionol the floor system

The main element of the stub girder system is a special girder'. fab cated
from standard hot-ro]]ed wide-flange shapes, that serves as thc primary
fi'aming element. Hot-r'olled wide-flange shapes are also used as transvene
floor beams, running in a direction perpendicular to the main girders. The
girder must be and the floor beams usually are designedfor compositeaction;
the latter are normally analvzed as continuous beams.
Figure 3.35 shows the elevation of a typical stub girder. The girder shown
mskes use of four stubs, oriented symmetrically \'!ith respect to the midspan

Stiflener

:. :3 3s Elevaiion of a siub gid€r

3.72 ChapterThree

of the member The locations ol the transverse floor beams are assumed to be
the quarter points ofthe span, and the supports arc simple. In practice many
variations of this layout may be found, to the er,tent that the girders utilize
arly number of stubs, although three to five seems to be the most common.
The locations of the stubs may difer significantly ftom the symmetrical case,
and the exterior (or end) stubs may be placed at the ve4' ends of the bottom
chord. However, this is not dif6cult to ad&ess in the modeling of the girder,
and the essential requirements are that the forces that develoD as a rcsult of
rhe choiceof girder geomern be accounledfor in I he deSjgnof ihe girder com-
poDents and the adjacent structurc. These forces arc used in the desisn ofthe
various clpmenrb.as disr'rnguishpd lron the idealizedcodecrireriaihar are
cunently used for many structural eomponents.
All of the above choices are made by the design team, and depend on the
ser-vicerequirements of the building as s€en from the architectuml, str.uetur-
al, mechanical, and electrical viewpoints.
Figurc 3.35 illushates the main structuml components of the stub girder,
as follows:

1. Bottom chord
2. E),terior and interior stubs
3- Tlansverce floor beams
4. Fumed steel deck
5. Concrete slab with longitudinal and hansverse reinforcement
6. Stud shear connectors
7. Stub stiffenen
8. Beam-to-columnconnection

The bottom chord should prcferably be a hot-rolled wiate-flange shape of col-

umn-type proportions, often in the W12 to W14 series of wide-flange shaper
Other chord cross sections,including tees and tubes, have been considered.@
Tee shapes and rectangular tubes have ce?tain advantases as far as welded
arrachmenlsand frrc prolecrionare concempd.respectiiel).However,these
other shapes also have sigaficant &awbacks. The rolled tube, for examplg
cannot accommodatethe shear stressesthat developin certain regions ofthe
bottom chord. Rather than using a tee or a tube, th€refore, a smaller W shaDe
in |lle Wl0 se'ies.lor example'is mosr likell fie berrerchoiceunder these
conditions.
The steel grade lor the bottom chod, in particular, is impodant, since sey-
eral of the goveming regions of the girder are located v/ithin this membe!
and tension is the prima4' stress resultant. It is therefore oossible to tale
ddvanrageofhigher-stj"pn$hsrecls.and 50 k.i l.ld srressmiLerial is gener-
ally the choice.
The floor beams and the stubs are mostly ofttre same size W shape and are
normally sele.ledftom Lhe Wl6 and Wl8 seriesof shapes.This is direcilv
 3.73

influenced by the size(s) of the mechanical ducts that are to be used, and
input fiom the mechanical engineer is essential at this stage. Although it is
not strictly necessary that the floor beams and the stubs use identical shapes,
it avoids a numb€r of problems if such a choice is made. At the very least,
these two components ofthe floor system should have the same height.
T'l:!econcrcte slab iB the top chord of the stub gi?der. It is made ftom either
lightweight or normal-weight concrete, although if lightweight is readily
available, even at a modest cost premium, it is prcferred. The rcason is that ii
is an advatrtage to realuce the dead load of the floof eepecially since the
shores that will be used are shongly influenceal by the concrete weight.
Further, the shores must support several storieB before they can b€ removed.
In other words, the stub girders must be designed for shorcd constmction,
since the girder requiles the slab to complete the system. In addition, the
bending figidity of the giraler is substantial, and a major fraction iB con-
tdbuted by the bottom chotl. The reduction in slab BtiitreBs that is prompted
by the lower value of the modulus of elasticity for the lightweight concrcte .E"
is therefore not as impor'tant as it may be for other types of composite bend-
ing members.
The strength of the concrete is usually not less than 3 to 4 kEi (20 to 2?
MPa), although the choice also alepends oIt the limit state of the stud shear
connectoN. No studies have addrcssed whether it is possible to take advan-
tage of the very high shength conoetes that are now used in high-dse and
other foms of construction. However, apad from certain long-span gbderc,
some local regions in the slab, and the desired mode of behavior of the slab-
to-stub connection (which limits the maximum /; value that can be uBed), the
streryth of the stub gider is not contrclled by the concrete. ConBequently,
therc appears to be little that can be gained by using high-strcngth concrete.
The steel deck should be of the high-bond variety, and a number of manu-
facturem produce suitable trues. Nomal deck heights arc 2 and 3 in (51 and
76 mm). The deck ribs arc mn para[el to the longitudinal a-ris of the girder,
since this allows for the preferable folm of deck support on tfie transverse
floor beams. This also increases the top chord area, which lends additional
stilfiress to a member that can span substantial distarues. Finaly, the paml-
lel odentation provides a continuous db trough dilectly above the gbder cen-
terline, improl/ing the composite intemction ofthe slab and the girder. Owing
to fire protection requirements, the thickness of the conffete cover over the
top of the deck dbs is either 4%6 in (106 lnnl) for normal-weight concrete or
374in (83 nln) for lightweight concrete. This eliminates the need for appiying
firc protective material to the underside of the steel deck.
Stud shear connectors are distdbuted uniformly along the length of the
exterior and interiol stubs, as well as on the floor beams. The number of con-
nectors is d€termined on the basis of the computed shear forces that are
developed betw€en the slab and the stubs. This is irl contrast to the cunent
desien practice for simple composite beams, which is based on the smaller of
the ultimate axial load-carrying capacity of the slab and the steel beam.D67,De1
The latter appmach is not applicable to members rrhere the cross section
3.74

varies significantly along the length (nonpdsmatic beams). The computed

shear force design appmach also promotes connector economy,in the sense
that a much smailer number of shear connectors is rcquired in the intel,ior
shear transfer rcgions of the giders? Da1,Dag
The stubs are welded to the top flange of the bottom chord with fillet welds.
In the odginal applications of the system, the d€sign called for all_around
welds;Dr3,D32 subsequent studies demonstmted that the forces that are devel_
oped between the stubs arld the bottom chord are concentrated toward the
end of the stubs.Dn D$ The welds should therefore be located in these ree.ions.
The twe and tocar;ons ofihe slub bliffenersrhat are indiearedtor thJexe.
dor stubs in Fig. 3.35, as well as the lack of stiffeners for the intedor stubs.
repj'espnr one of I he major improvF,nenrs I hat were madero rhe oriernalstub
girdpr de6igns.Basedon extensivere.edrch,Dar.Da- il wab fouDdr}at simole
end-plates[;ffenerb,rerc as emc enr as rhe lradilional Iirred ones.and itr
many cases the stiffenem could be eliminated at no loss in strensth and stiff_
nebslo l,heoveralt girder.
Figure 3.35 shows that a simple shear connection is used to attach the bot-
tom chord of the stub girder to the adjacent shucture. This is the most com-
mon solution, especially when a duct opening needs to be located at the exte_
ior end ofthe g der. Ifthe support is an exte or column, the slab will re6t
on an edge member; if it is an interior column, the slab will be continuous
past the column and into the adjacent baJ..
The stub gider has sometimes been used as part of the load,resisting sys_
tem of steel-framed buildings.c5s,Da Although dris has cerlain disadv;ales
inso{hr as column moments and the concrete slab reinforcement are con_
cemed, the girder does provid€ signiScant latelal stifiiress and ductility for
the frame. As an example. rhp maintenance lacil;r,y for Mexicana Airlines al
the Mexico Ciiy Intemationat Airport, a structure utilizing stub girders ir
this fashion,Daasurvived the 198b Mexico City earthquake with no structural
damase,
Expandingotr the detailsthat are shownin Fig. B.Bb,Fig. g.86illushat€3
two tytr'ical cmsssectionsof stub girders, and Fig. 3.8? showsa coBplet€qirl'
er assemblywith lights, ducts, and suspendedceiling. Of padicular note
the cross-sectional details are the longitudinal reinforcingbars. These
flexwal shength as well as ductility and stiffness to the girder, by
the slab to extend its service ranEe.
It is impodant to observe that the longitudina-l rebars arc commonly p
.
in two layers (Fig. 3.36), with the top one just below the heads of the
shear connectors.Also, the lower longitudinal rebars must be raised
the deck pmper, using cbairs or other means. This assues that the ba?s
adequately confined.
Tn €ddilion. Iransverserebars are importanr for adding shear srrengjb
-
thc slab. and lhe) also help in the shear lransler from rhe conneflorsLot
slab. T'he tmnsverse bars also increase the overal ductility ofthe stub gi
and placing the barc in a heningbone pattern leads to a small improver
in the effective width ofthe slab.
 3,75

Longiludinal
slabreiniorcsmeni

Bottomchord

Transverseslab reinicrcem€nt

Floorb€amto bonomchord
(2 HS bolls)
connection
tuE 3,36 Stub snder ooss setions.

Stub

Lghtfinure

(simple)
Chordto @lumnconnecbon

-@3.37 Siub giriler floor a6semuy,

l-92 Preliminarydesign
Using the ultimate-strength approach for the preliminary desigrr, it is not
necessary to make any assumptions as rcgards the streEs distribution over
the depth of the girder, other than to adherc to the shength model that was
developed rbr normal composite bea]1l6-The stress distdbution will vary any-
way along the span becauseof the openings.
The r timate-strength model of Hansell et al.,D3?D56 which is also the one
3,76 Chaot€rThree

used for the AISC LRFD specification,Der assumes that when the ultimate
moment is rcached, all or a portion ofthe slab is failing in compression, with
a uniformly distributed stress of 0.85 /:. The steel in the cross section is
simrrltaneously plastifred in tension. Eq;iLbdum is therefore maintained,
and the inter:nal stress resultants are easily determined using fust plrcr_
ples. Tests have demonstrated excellent agreement with theoreiical analyses
that utilize this approach.37,D3? D41D4e
The best solution maLes use of an LRFD procedure, where the load and
rcsistance facto$ are chosen in accordance with the current LRFD specifica-
tion.DerWith the appropriate values, it is also directly applicable in other
specification jurisdictions. In this case, thereforc, the applicable g factor rs
given by the AISC LRFD specification, for the case of qross cross_secuon
yielding. This is because the preliminary design mostly is needed to find the
bottom chord size, and this component is primarily loaded in telEion.s?,D!1Da
The load factors ol the LRFD specfication are those of the ASCE load stan_
dard,63 for the combination of dead ptus live load.Dsl
Reduced live loads should be used wherever possible. This is especially
advantageous for stub gider floor systems, since the spans, anil ther;ore the
tributar.l' areas, tend to be large. The ASCE load stendardcss makes use ot a
live-loaal rcduction factor that is significsntly simpler to use ancl also less con-
servative than that of earlier codes. A word of caution is in order: Since it is
difficult to rctlofit the girder, it is advisable to provide some reserve strength
at ultimate in the concrcte slab.

3.9.3 Choiceof componentsizes

Some examples have been given in the preceding sections for the cboicesof
chord and {loor beam qizes.deck heighr,and slab confisurar,on.Thesewere
made primarily on the basis of acceprablFgeomerries. deck size. and fire pro_
tection rcqui?ements, to mention some examples, However, constr.uction econ-
omy is critical, and the fotlowing guidelines will assist the potential use
1. Economicalspan leneths for the stub girder rang€ftom B0 to SOft (9 to
15rn), althouChthe prcferabte spansarc BSto 45 {t (10 to 14 m). Although bG
ff r15 mrgirders are erec{able.they approachthe limit wherethe deai load
becomes excessive.
whichhas Lheeffecrofmaking the slabgo\em lhe desjgL
2. Dependingon the rJ.peand configura{ionofsreet rlick rhat has bl
belecled. lhe floor bean spacing should generall5 be maintained berween
and 12 ft (2.4 and 3.6 m), although larger values have beenu6eal.Ttre alecisi
fa(or is rhe abiUty of Lhedeck LospaD the di.{ance berweenthe lloor bearns.

ponentsu p ro 5 ft ft.5 m I long are knowrl ro hare beenused.

 3.77

4. When the stub lengtls are chosen,it is necessaryto bear in mind the
actualpurposeof the stubsandhowtheycarryihe loadsonthe siubgirder,
That is, the stubs are loaded p marily in shear, which is why the interior
stubs carrbe so much shorter than the erterior ones.
5. The shear connectorsthat are welded to the top flange of the stub, the
stub web stiffene$, and the welds between the bottom flanse of the stub
and the rop flangeofihe botromchordare cj-uciatLorhe funcr;n ofthe slub
gtuder system. For example, the first apptication of stub girdem utilized frt-
ted stiffeners at the ends a.nd sometimes at midlensth of all of the stubs.
Subsequetrt researchdemoosrratedthaLrhe midlengG btifferer did not per-
form any useful firnction and tJlat only the exterior stubs neededstiffe;ers
in order.to provide the requisite web stability and shear capacity.D4tD43
RegardlesBof the span of the girder, it was found that the i;terior stubs
could be left unstiffened, even when they were made as short as g ft (0.9
m) 3''37
6. Similar savingswererealizedfor the weldsandthe shearconnectors. In
parbicular,in lieu of all-aroundfillet weldsfor the coruection
betweenthe
stub andthe bottomchord,the studiesshowedthat a significanttysmaier
arnounlofweldingwasneeded. andofun onlyin the vicinilyof r,bestubends.
trowever.apecihcwetddetailsmuslbe hased0n appropdale anajyses of fhp
slub,considering ovenurDirrg rnomenr,weldcapacityal,the tensionendof
tle stub.andadequate abilityto Lransfershear'jlooLI".fut , tt" loiiorn
chord-

is.4 Modering
otstubgifders
The original work of ColacoD2s D2-uijlized a
Vierendeelmodeling schemefor
the stub gi.der to arive at a s
ro"i^rr,i;;i;u;;;ffiil:"i,",["ff
fff.,fr*x#.llJtr ;fl:;I1
jilffi,ftllT:i,lil;lT thar.
had,been
resrea.
noosriy
l' examine
rocar
,;:j,jil1i"i"J.:H
x"T;"*tr,;#ti#;$T:f.:[i::p"Tl,fi ji
. Other studieshave exarmrel^tl: j]se suchas nonprisma.rc
"fln'rrn
:f _alpr_oaches
ite-eremeot
iimffi il ;i,;ilXl;:,: merboi ;;ii. i,r,*
tioD is retarivety T}e nonprisrnatic
;i;r]"';;';;5y:liJ":age beai solu-
'il:i:i:"i""#;
"";#::'":*::*;'Jn1#iitt#;::l'#'::1ff
thalcaD
,#ff;n::*]S:f-#:11"1:,""11*;s beused
io
lbrcesin viereDdeet nDd rbe

jtr##+;;"f i'
iIr,j nary
the pre_l r- ii si'a"'"l b"*

fr1fr
:f#h?ft
";, "'i.ll""T3

lff*ffi
tiitffi
 3,77

4. When the stub lengths are chosen, it is necessary to bear in milld the
actual purpose of the stubs ard how they carry the loads on tfie stub girder.
That is, the stubs are loaded pdmadly in shear, which is why the interior
stubB can be so much shorter thar the exterior ones.
5. The shear connectorsthat arc welded to the top flange ofthe stub, the
stub web stiffene$, and the welds between the bottom flange of the stub
and the top flange ofthe bottom chord arc crucial to the function of the stub
girder system. For example, the fiIst application of stub gidem utilized frt-
ted stiffeners at tbe enals and sometimes at n1idleneth ol alt of the stubs.
Subsequent research demonshated that the midlength stifener did not per-
form any useful function and that only the exterior stubs needed stiffeners
in order to prcvide the requisite web stability and shear capacity.Dal,Da3
Regardless of the span of the girder, it was found that the interior stubs
could be left unstiffened, even when they were maale as short as 3 ft (0.9
m).32.s?
6- Similar savings were realized for the welds and the shear connectors. In
padicular, in lieu of all-around fillet welds for the comection between the
stub and the bottom chord, the studies showed that a significantly smaller
amomt of welding was needed, and often only in the vicinity of the stub ends.
However, specific weld details must be based on apprcpliate analyses of the
stub, considedng overturafng moment, weld capaciw at the tension end of
the stub, and adequate ability to hansfer shear from the slab to the bottom
chord.

3.9.4 Modelingol slub girders

The original work of ColacoD'3.D3'utilized a Vierendeel modeling scheme for
t}Ie stub gider to arive at a set of stress resultants, which ill turn were used
to size the vadous components. Elastic finite-element analyses were per-
formed for some of the girde$ that had been tested, mostly to examin€ local
stress distributions ard the corelation between test and theory. However, it
was rccogrrized early that the finite-element Bolution would not be a pmctical
design tool.
Other studies have examined the use of approaches such as ionprismatic
beam analysisDa3 and variations of the finite-element method.32 The latter
have continued to pmve impractical for usage. The nonprismatic beaD solu-
tion is relatively simple to apply, although it is not as accurate as the
Vierendeel approach. It tends to overlook some important local effects and
ove$tates sewice load deflections.D41,D43
There are no "simple" methods of analysis that can be used to find the
bending moments, shear forces, and a-rial forces in \terendeel girders. Once
the preliminary sizing has been accornplished, a computer solution is
requled for th€ gtuder. In general, aI that is required for the \4erendeel eval-
uation is a two-dim€nsional plane fta]Ile progral1r for elastic structuml analy-
sis. This glves moments, shears, a]ld axial forces, as well as deflections, joint
rotations. and other alisDlacement characteristics. T'he stress resultants are
3.78 ChaprerThree

G)
t.-o--*

L,.,lo ,, ,L 25., g5, ,g_.. .l.-..,_-o

lI
I

L,,.*]*,,._L".1*, u,-L_.s,+<Le.
Fisure 3.33 \4erendeel hodel for a stub girder
." 'l

used to size the girder and its elements and connections;the displacements
reflcclthe sprvrceabiliDof the slub girder
Once the stress resultants are known, the detailed desigl ofthe stub girder
can proceed. A final nn-through of the girder model should then be done
using the components that were chosen, to ascertain that the pedormance
and shength arc sufficient in all respects.
As an illushation of the Viercndeel modeling of a stub girder, the girder
itsef b shown in Fig. 3.38 together wiUr the \nelendeel model. The girder ;s
the sa]ne as the one that will be used for the desig! example in Sec. 3.9.8.
The example utilizes a girder with four stubs that is symmetdc about
midspan; therefore, only one half is illustrated.
The bottomchordofthe modelis assigneda momentof inertia equalto tb€
majoraxis l valu€1. for the wide-flange shapethat was chosenin the prelimi
nary desigr. The bending stiffness ol the top chord equals that of the effec-
tive-width podion of the slab. This should include the contdbutions ol
steel deck as well as the rcinforcing steel bars that are located within thi
width. In parlicular, the influence of the deck is important.
The eflectivewidth ofthF conc.er"slab js deremined on rhe basisof
crireriain theAISC LRFD specifi.arion. h is noredthar rhese$erF
on the basis of anaiyses and tests of prismatic composite beams.
approach has been found to give conservative results.D41,D'13
In the computations for the slab, the cross section is convenienUy subdi
ed into simple geomehical shapes.The individual areas and moments of
tia are determired on the basis ol the usual hansforanation from concrete
slecl.using IhF mndulari"ario, - q E . whereE is rhe modulusof
of the steel arrd E. is that of concrete. T'he latter must reflect the density
 Eeams
Composite 3,79

the concrete ihat is used, and can be computed ftom Eq. (3.2a). The shear
connectorsthat atlach the slab to the top flange of the stub effectively are
required to develop 100 percent interaction, since the design is based on the
computed shear forcesrather than the axial capacity ofthe steel beam oI the
concreteslab, as is used for pdsmatic beams in the AJSC specifrcations.roir'g'
However, it is neither common nor proper to add the moment of inertia con-
tribution of the top flange of the stub to that of the slab, contrary to $'hat is
done for the bottom chord- The reason for this h that dissimilar mate als are
joined, and somelocal concretecracking, compaction,and eventually crushing
can b€ expectedto tako place aronnd the shear connectom.
The discretization ofthe stubs into vertical Vierendeel girder componentsis
relatively straightforward. Considering the web ofthe stub and any stifieners
(Fig. 3.39), lf applicable,the moment of ineftia about an axis that is perpen-
dicular to the plane ofthe web is calculated. Detail calculatlons arc illustrat-
ed in the design erample in Sec.3.9.8.
Several studies have aimed at finding the optlmum number of vedica]
members to use for each stub. Generally, however,the strcngth and stiffness
of the stub girder are onll' irsigrifrcantly affccted by this choice,and a num
ber between 3 and ? is u6ua11ychosen.As a rule of thumb, one vertical per
foot (30 cm) length ofstub is suitable.
In thc model. the verticals are placed at uniform intervals along the length
of the stub, usually \'!,ith the outside mcmbers close to the stub ends. Figure
3.38 illustrates the approach. The overall solution for the stub girder is not
sensitive to the placement ofthe verticals. As for end conditions, these verti-
cal meDbers are assumed to be dgidly connected to the top and bottom
chords ofthe Vierendeelgirder'.
One vertical member is placed at each of the locations of the floor beams.
This member is assumedto be pinned to the top and bottom chords, as shown
in Fig. 3.38, and its stifness is consewatively set equal to the moment ofiner-
tia of a plate $ith a thickness equal to that of the *'eb of the floor beam, and a
length apprcximatel)' the same as the beam depth. SeeSec.3.9.81ordetaiis.

-'l F,"
T
ls'1/2'
I

: : i: Stul and stiff.ncr dctails.

 The Vierendeel model shown in Fig. 3.38 indicates that the portion of the
slab that spans acmss the opening between the extedor end of the exterior
stub and the support for the slab has beer neglected. This is realistic, consid-
edng the rclatively low rigidity of th€ slab in negative bending.
Figure 3.38 also shows the supporl conditions that are used as input data
for the computer aralysis. In the example, the slrmetrical layout ofthe gird-
er and its loads lllake it necessary only to analyze one half ofthe span. For
the girder that is shown, it is known that only vertical displacements ca]l
take place at midspan; horizontal displacements and end rotations are pre
vented at this location. At the far ends of the bottom chord onty horizontal
displacements are permitted, and end rctations are free to occur. It is noted
that the rcactions that are found are used to size the support elements. Thi-s
includes the bottom chord connections anal the column.
The rcsults of the structual analysis of the stub girder of Fig. 3.38 are
shown in Fig. 3.40 in terms of the overall bending moment, shear force, alld
a-tial force distributions based on the Vierendeel model given in Fig. 3.38.
Figure 3.38 prcvides the layout details ofthe stub gtuder that help to identify
the locatiom of the key stless resultant magrritudes vrith the cor:responding
regions ofihe gider The forces are the same as those in the design example
in Sec.3.9.8.
Given these distributions, the design ofthe stub girder and its various com-
ponents can now be done. This must also include deflection checks, even
though research has demonstrated that the overall design will never be goy-

rd rds

(d)

Flglre 3.40 Resdt ofvierendeel analysis-

 3.at

errred by deflection criteria.s' 37However since the girder has to be built in

the shorcd condition, the girder is often fabricated with a camberr approxi-
mately equal to the dead-load deflection.37,D17 In other casesthe camber is
introduced in the field du?ing the imtallation of the shores.

3.9.5 Finaldeslgn
In geneml, the design ofthe stub gfuder and its many components must consial-
er overall member strength criteria as well as local checks. For most of these,
the AISC specificationsDdxDelgive detailed rcqutements that suffrce to addresB
the needs. Fudhe?, although LRFD and ASD are equally applicable in the
design ofthe girder, LRI'D is recommended as the morc apprcpdate method.
In several important areas there are tro standardized rules that can be
used in the design of the stub girder, and the designer must rely on mtional
engineering judgment to arrive at satisfactory solutions. This applies to the
pafis ol the girder that have to be designed on the basis of computed forces,
such as the shear connectom, the stifr€ners, the stub-to-chord welds, and the
slab rcinforcement. The moileling and evaluation of the capacity of the cen-
tral portion of tlle conoete slab are also subject to interpretation. However,
the desig! rccommenalations that are given in the following paragraphs are
based on a wide variety ofpractical anal successfi applications.
Figurcs 3.38 aral 3.40a show cedain circled numbers at various locatiotrs
throughout the span of the stub girder These rcflect the sections of the g der
that are the most important, for one reason or anothe! and are th€ ones that
must be examined to determine the required member size, etc. These arc the
governing sections of the stub gider, and are itemized as follows:

1. Points 1, 2, and 3 indicate the critical sections"ior the bottom chord.

2. Points 4, 5, and 6 indicate the critical sections for the top chord, i.e., the
concrete slab.
3. Point ?, which is a rcgion rather than a specified point, indicates the criti-
cal shear transfer reeion between the slab and the exterior stub-

Bottom chord. The size of the bottom chord is almost always govemed by the
shess resultants at midspan, or point 3 in Figs. 3.38 and 3.40. This is why
the preliminary design proeedure is focused almost entirely on detemining
the requircd chord cross section at thiB section.
As the shess-resultant distributions in Fig. 3.40 show, the bottom chord is
subjected to combined positive bending moment and tensile force at point 3,
ard the design check must consider the beam tension member behavior in this
area. The desig:nrpqdremenl-sare given in the AISC LRFD specification.Del
The combined effect ofbending a]Id tension must also be evaluated at point
2, the extedor siale of the inteior stub. The local bending moment in the
choral is generally larger here than at midspan, but the axial lorce is smaller.
Only a computation can conlirm whether point 2 will goverrr in lieu of point 3.
3.42

Further although the location at the interior side ofthe exterior stub (point
2a) is rarely a sitical one, the combination of negative moment and tensile
{brce should be evaluated.
At point 1 ol the bottom chord, the extedor end of the extedor stub, the
axial force is equal to zero. Here the bottom chord must be checked for pUIe
bending, as well as shear The shear force evaluation is actually quite impor-
tant at this point, since this is where it rcaches the maximum value.
The preceding applies only to a gider that uses simple end supports. When
it is part of the tateral load-rcsisting system, axial folces .$.ill exist in atl parts
of the chord. TlEse must be rcsisted by the adjacent structural members.

Concrele slab. The top chord cardes varying amounts of bending moment
anal axial force, as illushated in Fig. 3.40, but the most important areas ere
indicated as points 4 to 6. The axial forces are compressive in the conffet€
Blab: the bending moments are positive at points 5 and 6 but negative at
point 4. As a result, this location is normally the one that governs the perfor-
manc€ of the slab, not the least becausethe reinforcement in the positive-
moment region includes the substantial cmss-€ectionai area of the steel deck.
The full effective width of the slab must be anatyzed for combined bending
and axiai force at all of the points 4 tbaough 6. Either the composite beam-
column cdteria of the AISC LRFD specificationDel or the crite a of the reiE,
forced concreteshuchtres codeofACIDsomay be used for this purpose.

Sheartransferregions. R€gion 7 is the shear trunsfer rcgion between the con-

crcte slab and the exterior stub, and the combined shear and longitudinal
compressive capacity of the slab in this area must be deteEnined. A similar
shear transfer region is found between the slab and the inte?ior stub. but the
shear force is always smaller here.
Several studies have shown that the slab in region ? will fail in a combina-
tion of concrete crushing and shear.37,D41,D43 The shear failwe zone usually
e\rends from cornerro cornerofthe deck,o\er rhe too ol the ohearcon.
"reel
\ectors. This also emphasizeswhy rhe placemenLof the loEgitudinalrein-
forcirg steel bars in the centml flute of the steel deck is imDor.tant. as well
as rhe location of ihe transverse bars: Bo(h gr-oupbshoulJ b" placedjust
below the level ofthe top ofthe shear connectors(seeFig. 3.36). T.hewelded
wite mesh rcinforcement that is used, mostly to contlol shdnkage cracking
in th€ slab, also assists in improving the shength ald ductility ofthe slab in
ims regron,

Designot slubs lor shear and axiat toad. The shear and axial force distribu-
tions indicate the goveming stress resultants for the stub members. It is
important to note that since th€ Vierendeel members are idealized lrom the
real (i.e., continuous) stubs, bending is not a governing condition. Given the
sizes and locations of the individual vertical members that make up the
stubs, the design checks arc easily made for aiial load ajld shear.
The areas and moments olinedia ofth€ verticals are known from the mod-
eling of the stub girder. Figrre 3.40 also shows the shear and axial forces in
 3.83

the bottom and top chords, but the design for these elements has been
addressed elsewhere in this chapter and in Chap. 4.
The design checks that are made for the stub verticals will also indicate
whether there is a need for stiffeners for the sfubs, since th€ evaluations for
a..ial-load capacity should first be made on the assumption that no stiffenerB
are used. Howevet expedence has shovrn that th€ exterior stubs always must
be stiffened; the intedo" stubs, on the other hand, are usually saiisfactory
without stiffeners, although exceptions can occur.
If stiffel1els are rcquired, it is important to remember that the pur?ose of
such elements is to add to the area and moment of inertia of the web, to resist
the a.\ial load that is applied. There is no need to use bearing Btifieners, since
the load is not hansmitted in this fashion. The most econornical solution is to
make use of end-plate stiffeners of the kind that is shown in Fig. 3.36.
Extensive resealch evaluations showeal that this was the most efficient anal
economical choice.37,D4r,D43
The vertical stub members are alesigned aB compression members, using
the column design criteda of the AISC specifrcation.Del For a conservative
solution, an elfective length factor of 1.0 may be used. However, it is morc
realistic to utilize a L value of 0.8 for the verticals of the stubs, recognizing
the end restmrnt that is provided by the connections betsreen the chords and
the stubs. The K factor for the floor bea]I verticals must be 1.0, ovring to the
pinned ends that are assu]:nedin th€ modeling ofthese component8.

stud shear connectors, The sheal folces that muBt be transferaeal between
the slab and the stubs are given by the Vierendeel girder shear-fo?ce dia-
gran. ltrese are the factored shear-force values which are to be resisted by
the connecto$. ?he example shown in Fig. 3.40 indicates the individual shear
folces for the stub verticals. However, in the design of the overall shear con-
nection, the total shear force that is to be hansmitted to the stub is used, and
the stud connectors are then distributed unifonnly along the stub. The design
strength of each connector is aletermined in accordatrce with the LRFD speci-
fication,Del including any deck-profrle reduction factor

Floor-beamconnectlonsto slab and bottomchord. The floor beam is represent-

ed in the Vierendeel model as a pinned-end compression member. It is
designed using a tr factor of 1.0, and the floor-bea]I web by itBef fu almost
always sufficient to take the axial load. However, the floor beam must be
checked for web crippling and web buckling uder shoring conditions.
No shear forces are tlansfelTeal from the beam to the Blab or the bottom
chord. At Ieast in theory, thercfore, a]ly attachment device between the floor
beam and the othe? components should not be needed. However, owing to the
requiements for constmction stability, as well as the fact that the floor beam
usually is designed lor composite action normal to the grrder, fasteners are
needed. In practice, these are not actually designed; rather, one or two stud
shear connectors are placed on the top flarge of the beam, and two high-
strength bolts are used to attach the lower flange to the bottom chord. This
system has proveal to be satisfactory in all circumstances.
3,44

Conneclion of bottom chord to supports. In the haditional use of stub girders,

the girder is supported as a simple beam, alld the bottom chord end connec-
tions need to be able to hansfer vertical leactions to the suDDorts. The latter
structural elemenrcmay be columns.ot"the girder P1ay;[ on corbelsor
other t)?es of supports that are part of the concrete corc of the buildinq.
Any onp of rhe simple ,.hear-rl,perbeam connectionsmay be used ro con-
nect the bottom chord to a colultrn or coxbel or similar bm€ket. It is impor-tant
i,o ascenainlhat the chord web shear capacity;s sDJficjenr. includjngblock

Ihe slab may be suppofi€d on an edge beam or similar element at the exte-
rior side of the floor syst€m. In the intelior of the buitdins the slab will be
conlinuouslycasr acrossother girdersand around columns;thls will almosr
always lead to 6ome cracking, both in the vicinity ot the colunns as well as
along beams and girderc. With suitable placement of floor slab joints, this can
be minimized, and appropdate transverse reinforcement for the slab will
rcduce if not eliminate the longitudinal cracks.

Deflections. The seruice-load deflections of the stub g der are needed for
several purposes.Fi$t, the ovemll dead-loaddefl€ction is used to assessanv
camber reqdrements. Because of lhe long spans of typical sLub girders, as
well as the fle).ibility of the ftaming members and the connections durins
cons[rucr]on.it is impoflanl Lo end up vrirh a I]oor syste.n thar js as level as
possible by the time the structue is rcady to be occupied.
Seconal,it is essential to bear in mind that each cirder will be shored
against s similar member al the level below rhe current conslructionlloor.
This member, in tum, is similarly shored, alb€it against a girder {,hose stif-
neBs is greater, owing to the additional time of curinE of the concrete slab.
This has a cumularive elTecrfor rhe strucrure as a wh;le, and the deadtoad
deflection computations must tahe this rcsponBe into account.
In other words, the Bupport for the shores is a fler.ible one, and d€fl€ctions
therefore will occur in the girder as a result offloor system movements ofthe
structure at levels other than the one under consideration. Although this is
nol unique {o rhe slub girder sysrem. Lhe span len$hs a]Id rhe inreraction
with tlle frame accentuate the influence on the gider design.
The welding of the stubs to the top flange of the bottom chord caus€s bend-
ing of the bottom chord during fabrication. This effect shoutd be considercd i!
the design ofthe girder.
Depending on the shuctural system, it is also tikely that the flexibility of
the columns a]Id the connections will add to the vertical disDlacements of the
stub girders. The deflectioncalcLlarionsshould jncorporarethese effects.
determining displacementsas the) occur in rhe frame. Thus the curing
process for the concrete night be considered, since the strcngth development
as a function of time is dircctly r€lated to th€ value oft".
Live-load deflections must be determined to assess Uie serviceabilitv of the
floor slstem under normal opcraLingconditionb.Howerer, severalirudies
have demonstrated ihat such displacements will be significandy smaller than
 the l/360 requi?ement that is normally associatealwith live-load deflec-
tions.32,3ZrN3,D47

3.9.5 Stub girclerslor lateralload systems

The stub girder was origlnally conceived only to serve as part of ihe vertical
load-carrying syst€m of str-uctural frames, and the use of simple connections
came from this development. However, recogniziag that a deep, long-span
nember can be very effective as a part of the lateral load-rcsisting system for
a structure, several applications have been made to incoryorate the stub gid-
er into moment frames and similar systems. The projects of Colaco in
Houstoncs3 and Martinez-RomeroD!! in Mexico City were successftll for a
number ofreasons, although the designers noted that the cost premium could
b€ substantial.
Itr the case of the Colaco structure, his applications reduced drift substan-
tially, as expected, but made for a much incrcased compledty olthe beam-to-
column connections and the reinforcement needs of the slab around the
columns. Thus the exterior stubs were moved to the far ends of the giderc,
and moment connections were designed for the full depth. For the Mexico
City building, the added ductility was a plime factor in the surwival of the
structwe duing the 1985 ear-thquake.
It must also be recogrized that the lack of room for perimeter mechanical
ducts may also be undesirable. This can only be addressed by the mecharical
engineering consultant. As a general rule, a designer who wishes to use stub
girders as part of the lateral loaal-rcsisting system should exanline all stluc-
tural effects but also incorporate nonstructural considerations such as are
prompted by ductwork and electronic commurrication needs.

49,7 lnfluence ol method of conslirction

A number of construction-related considerations have already been addressed.
The most importart ones rclate to the fact that tfie stub girders must be built
in the shored conahtion. The placement and removal ofthe shores may have a
sigrificant impact on the pedormance of the member and the stmcture as a
whole- In particular, too early shore rcmoval may lead to excessive deflections
in the girders at levels above ihe one where the shores were located. This is a
direct result of the low strffness of "geen" concrete. It can also lead to "pond-
ing" of the concrete slab, producing larger dead loads than accounted for in the
original design. Finally, larger gifder deflections car be transiated into an
tnwad-puline" effect on the columns of the frame. This is knowl to have
happened in at least two construction pmjects, where it led to pmblems for the
ercction of the str'ucture. However, this phenomenon is clearly a function of

On t}Ie other hand, the use of high-early-strength cement and similar prod-
ucts can reduce this effect significantly Furthet since the conc?ete usually is
able to rcach about ?5 percent of the 28"day strength aftff 7 to 10 days, the
In any case, it is impor-
problem is less severc than originally thought.sxDal,Da?
 tant for the structuml engineer to interact with the general contractor, in
older tbat the influence ofthe method of construction on the girde$ as well as
the frame can be quantified, however eimplistic t}Ie analyBis prccealule may be.
Owing to the larger loads that can be expected for the shorcs, either the
latter must be designed aB structural members or the design must at least be
evaluated by the stmctural engineer. The size ofthe shores is also influenced
by the number offloors that are to have these supports left in place.
As a eeneral rul€, when stub girders are uFed for multistory frames, the
shores shoutd be 1e11in place for at least three floor levels. Some designers
prefer a larger number; however, any choices of this kind should be based on
computations for sizes and effects. Obviously, the more floom that are speci-
fied, the larger the shores \i/i]l have to be. There is also a possibility that the
lowest girder that is used for support will be overloaded.

3.9.8 Stubgirderdesign
Figurc 3.41 showsthe layout of a stub girder for which the prcliminary sizes
are needed.Oth€r computationshave already given the sizes of the floor
beam,the slab,and the steeldeck.The sparrol the studeris 40 ft (12.2m), the
distancebetweenadjac€ntgirders is 30 ft (9.1 m), and the floor beamsare
locatedat the quarterpoints.Th€steelgraderemainsto be chosen(36 or 50
ksi yield shess steel; 248 or 345 MPa); ihe concrcteis lightweight, with z, =
1201b413 (1.92t/m3)and a compressive shengthof/" = 4 ksi (27.6MPa).The
estimated dead load is 74 lbfit (3.6 kN/m,), while the nominal live load is 50
lb/ft'z(2.4 kN/m'). The reducedlive load is 30 lb/ft, (1.5 kN/ml.

x 26 siub

f- ro'__+l<-_ 10___,.F_ __.-F_

10, __*l
10,

_F_--.,___*J_
(Dimension
iorlribularyarca)
FisuE 3.41 Stub girder design ex@ple.
 composire
Beams 3.87

1. Factored,distributed,toads Gor 1.2D + 1.6-Lcombination)

Deadload, = 74 x 1.2 : 88.8Ib/ft'z

Live loadZ - 30 x 1.6 : 48.0lb/ft'
Total : 136.8lb/ft'
2. Concentrated,load,at eachfloor becLm
location
P : 136.8x 30 x 10 = 41.0kips
3. Ma.rimum factored tuid.spclnmoment
M-*: (r.s xP x 20) - (P x 10): 820kip-ft
1. Estinated interiar noment arm. T}re moment arm for the full stub
gider at centerline can be estimated as

d : depthofbottomchord(assume'/rW14)
: 7.0in
: depthofflool beam(assu]neW16) = 16.0in
: deck height (assumed) - 3.0 irl

= distance to concrcte cenhoid (assu]ned) : 1.5 in

Total = 27.5 in

In geneml for the stub girder syst€m, the interior moment arm typically
vades between 25 and 30 in (64 and 76 cm), depending on the heights ofthe
bottom chord, floor beams and stubs, steel deck, and concreteslab.
5. Slab and. bottom chord. aeicLl forces I These are the compressive and
tensile stress resultantsl

'o = M=* : ezg:x=rz

: 35?.e
kips
d 27.5

6. Requircd, cross-sectional area of bottom chord A"

M^I
dd{ 3
where 4, = 0.9 and the (4/3) give an arbihary increase in area to account for
the fact that the final Vierendeel analysis yields higher forces than this sim-
plified approach.sxDaT

820x12x4
27.5x0.9x4x3
For4:36k8i

/' = 14 73 in'z
For i' = 50 ksi

A" : 10.60inz
If 36-ksi steel is cbosenfor the bottom chord ol the stub girder, wide-flange
shap€sW12x50 and W14x53 are suitable.Il50-ksi steelis the choice,the
sectionsmay be W12x40 or W14x38. Obviouslythe final decisionmust be
made by ihe structual engineer However, since the W12-seriesshapessave
appmximately 2 in in floor-syst€mheight per story ofthe building, this coutd
mate for significant savingsifthe structurc is 10 to 15 stodes tall or taller
Therefore,try W12x40 using4572steel.
7. Stub selection. Figure 3.39 shows the stub and stiffener configumtion
for a tlTical case.The stub is a s-ft-long W16x26 $rilt]I.5% x %-in end-plat€
stiffeners. This selection is arbitmry It is based on the considemtions dis-
cussedin the previous text.
8. Mod,elinBof the stu6. The moment of inertia about the z-z aj.is is given
by

/' 1-2 025-_-q01 2 . 5.5 . 0.b . Joz- 9450in,

Depending on the number of vertical Vierendeel tr.uss members that witl

rcpresent the stub in the model, the bending stifi'ness of each is taken as a
d ect fraction of the value of7 . For the girder shorenin Fig. 3.38, where tbe
stub is modeled as three ve*ical membe$, the magniiude of/" is found
9450/3 = 3150 ina.
The cross-sec'tional area of tLe stub, including the stiffeners, is simil
divided between the verticals. The total area is 20.25 ir, so that each
has an area of6.75 in,.
For the framingbeams,,, = 0.25in; the beamdepthis 15.69in. This gi
a nloment ofinertia of(15.69 X 0.253y121: 0.02 ina. The closs-sectioral
tu (15.69 x 0.25) : 3.92 in .
Carrying out the analyEis (Fig. 3.40), the following results are obtained:

Extedor stub verticals:

Shear forces, kips 103 63 99
Axial forces, kips 18 0.4 3
Interior stub vedicals:
Shear fo?ces,kips 38 19 20
A.xial forces, kips 50.84
Floorbeamverticals:
Exte or .d\ial force = -39 kips
Intedor: Axial force: 12kips
Shear forcesarc zeroin these memberc.Th€totals are:
Extedor 6tub:

Totalshearforce= y"" - 103+ 63 + 99 : 265kips

Intedor stub:
Total shear force : {" = 38 + 19 + 20 : 77 kips
9. Design of shear connecfors. The nominal sirength Q" ofthe stud shear
connecton is given by Eq. (3.2).For stub giderc % in is curently the largest
stud diameter that can be used.D6xDer For concretewith u : 120 1b/it3and f :
4 ksi,-& = 2630 ksi. Witb %-in-diameter studs, the nominal shear capacity is
Q,,= 22.7 ktps. The required number of shear connectorscan now be found,
using the total stub shearlorcesV""and V*
Exterior stub:

v
(/"

Use twelve %-in-diameter stud shear connectoE, placed in pairs aad distdb-
uted uniformly aloDg the length of the top flange of each of the exterior stubs.
Interior stub:

rv=$: a.+
Because of the small number, there \irill be only one stud connector in any one
rib. Thus the strength of the connectors must be reduced by 25 percent ard
the rcquircd number of connectors increased to 3.410.75 = 4-5-
Use five %-in-diameter stud shear conn€ctors, placed singly and distributed
uniformly along the length of the top flange of each of the interior stubs.
10. Design of ueld.s between stub and. bottom chord.. The welds that are
needed to fasten the stubs to the top flange ofthe bottom chord are primarily
goveraredby the shear fo?ces that are hansferaed between these components
of the stub gtuder. The shear-force distribution gives these stress resultants.
Thus the factored folces %, and y" are used to size the welds.
In addition to the shear forces, a'.ial loads also act between the stubs and
the chord; these may b€ compressive or t€nsile. Referring to the example of
Fig. 3.40, it is seen that the only axial lorce ofnote occurs in the exterior ver-
tical of the extedor stub; the other loads are very small compressive or tensile
forces. Ur ess a significant tensile force iB fou[d in the analysis, it will be a
safe simplification to ignore the axial forces insofar as the weld design is con-
cerned.
The primary slear forces that have to be taken by the welds are developed
in the outer regions of the stubs, although it is noted that in the case of Fig.
3.38, the cenhal verlical elements in both stubs carry forces of some magni-
tude (63 and 19 kips, respectively). However, this distribution is a result of
the modeling of the stubs; analyses of gird€rs wherc many morc verticals
were usedD43D47 have confrmed that the major part ol the shear is trans-
fened at the €nds. The reason is that the stub is a firll shear parel, where the
intexnal moment is developed through shess rcsultalts that act at points
toward the ends, in a lorm of bending action. Tests have also ve?iIied this
chamcte stic of the girder behavior.Da3 Finally, concentrating the welds at
the stub ends wili have signficant economic impact.37,D41 D43
In view of these obseruations, the most effective placement of the welils
between the stubs and the bottom chord iB to concentrate them a$oss the
ends of the stubs and along a shod distarce ofboth sides of the stub flanges-
For ease of labrication and structual symmetry, the same amourt of welding
should be placed at both ends, although the forces are always smaller at the
intedor ends of the stubs. Such U-shaped welds were used {or a number of
the full-size girders that were tested, with very limited localized yielding in
the welds.
Prior to the researchthat led to the change ol the weldedjoint desigr,Dalp€
the stubs used all-aror-urd fillet welds for the exterior as well as the interior
elemente. The improved, U-shaped detail provides for weld-metal savings of
apprcximately 75 penent for int€rior stubs and around 50 per€ent for ext€ri-
or stubs,
For the sample stub girder, W16x26 shapes are used lor the stubs. The
total forces to be taken by the welds are:

Extedor stub: v,, = 265kips

Interior stub: Yj- - 77 kips

The fillet $reld size must be smaller than the thickness of the stub flange,
which is 0.345 in. Selecting E70XX electrcdes and %6-ia fillet welds, the total
wcld lenglh for edch siub 1" equals Lworimes {b, 21."ince U-haped wekls
o f l e n g t h a 6 l - 2 / ' a r e p l a c e da r e a c h s t u b e n d . T h e { o l s l u e l d l e n g r b s
required for the stub gtuder in question are determined as follows.

Efierior stub: t.:

v"" = 38.1in
o.7o7
a,6.F-

vr,
Interior stub: l.:
o.707
a.6.F.
wherc the frllet weld sizea. - 5{6in, the resistancefactor O, : 0.2b,and the
strength of the weld -{. = 0.6F41 = 0.6(,70)= 42 ksi lor E?o)Q{etectrodes
(AISCLRFD specification,Dsl TableJ2.5).
The total requiredU-weldlengthsat eachstub end are 19.1in for the exte-
rior stub and 5.6 in for the interior stub.The flangewidth ol the W16x26 is
5.50in. Thus the followingweld lengthsare chosen:
1,,=5.50+ 2 x 7.0:19.5 in > 19.1in O.K.
for the exte or stub and
l":5.50 + 2 x 2.0= 9.5in > 5,6in O.K.
lbr the interior stub.
The length of the returns is a matter of judgment. The intedor stub
requires almostno weld other than thc one acrossthe flange.Howevef at
leasta minimum weld retrun of %in shouldbe used.
 Chapier

4
CompositeColumns

a1 Basic Concepts
The basic function of columrrs is the delivery of vertical forces to the base of
the stluctural frame. lYaditionally, the column cross section has been chosen
by using the most economical arrangement of materials to resist only
required axial loads. But colunlns can be more than compression members.
Columns that are connected to beams with moment-resistine conneorons
which help rcshain deflections offloor members as well as lateial drifi ofthe
overall structure must be designed as beam columns. Their ctoss section
must be chosetr for both axial and flexural demalrds.
Concrete is a maleial with reliable comprcssive stlength and low cost per
square inch of the crcss section. However, aD aiialy loaded structural mem-
ber without lateral restnint requircs not only shength but also flexuml stiff-
ness rvhen axial forces must be delivered over sisnificant distances. The sta-
bility of slender columns is a measure of material stifftress rather than
material strength. Ste?1,which has 5 to 8 times the stiffness and strength of
concrete, is the more efficient shuctural matedal for slender columns. In
many modem building applications, structural columns are neither slender
nor stocky. Instead, most required column proportions are intelmediate
between these two exhrcmes. Very large cornpression members in high-rise
buildings are often built as elevator shafts, fireproof stair.wells, or even
extremely large concrcte-frlled steet tubes. These large columns are charac-
terized by stoclq/ segments between aaljacent floors. Sluch supercolumns, lat-
erally braced by the floors, can be used efficiently at higher average selvice
Ioad levels than those acceptable in smaller, more sletrder columns.
TWo basic tmes of composite columns are used in buildinEs: those with tle
steel section encased in concrete aDd those with ihe steet ;ction filled with
concrete,
Encased,conposite cohrmlrs consist of shuctuml shapes sunounaled by con-
crete. The conuete rcquires vertical and horizontst bar reinforcement to sus-
 tain the encasement ofthe steel core. Shear connecto$ may be needed as w€ll
to ensure interaction and force tmnsfer between the steel shape ard the coD-
crete encasement. Stud shear connectors transfer forces between the steel
and concrete through attachment by welds to the steel shape anal by bearing
against the sunounding concrete.
Filled cornposite columrs may be the most eflicient application of materials
for column ffoss sectious. Their steel shell can be a pipe or tubing or a hollow
section fabricated liom plates. It provides forms for the inexpensive conffete
core and incrcases the strength and stiffness of the column. In addition-
because of its relatively high stiftuess a]Id tensile resistance, the steel shell
provides t?ansverce confinemeni to the contained concrete, making the filled
composite column very ductile with remarkable toughress to survive local
ovedoads. Since the concrcte core is contained and corfined by the steel shelt
interaction betw€en the steel and conc?ete is assured. However, it may be
desirable in sorne cases to pmvide additional bearing surfaces for shear tratre-
fer such as studs or ba?s welded inside the shell near the connections of the
columns to the floor beams.

4.2 Typesof ComposileCompressionMembers

Four t)?es of comprcssion members are encountercd in composite construa-
tion: encasealcomposite columns, frlled composite columns, composite
crete walls, and plated composite walls. TlIe design of composite colulnns i
covered in the AISC-LRFD specificationDsl and in the ACI building code,
arral seismic design of composite shear walls is addressed in the re
tions developed by the Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC).De6
A composite column is defined in the AISC-LRFD specificationDel as "a
colurm fabricated frorn rolled or built-up steel shapes and encased in
tual concrcte or fabdcated from steel pipe or tubing and filled with
al conoete"; a]}d in the ACI building codeDi0oas a concrete compression
ber "reinforced longitudinally with structulal shapes,pipe or tubing with
ritboul loDgiludinalbarq. The AISC specificationis mor-ere$rjcri!e
th€ ACI code in that it limits its rules to columrls in which the cross-secti
area of the shspe, pipe, or tubing is at least 4 percent of the column groBs
tion. Columns with small€r percentagesof structural shapesa?echar
tic of rcinforced concrcte and thus should be designed according to ACI rules-
Composite walls arc rcinforceal concrcte walls with additional steel
or platFs. Walls with additional shapes.relerred ro in lhis book as
concrete walk, contain one or more encased steel shapes, usually located
the ends of the wall. Wa1ls with steel plat€s, rcferred to as plated
ualls, are defined in the BSSC recommendationsDeg as "consisting of
plates with concrete encasement on one or both sides that provides ou
plane sliffcning l,oprcveni buckling oflhe sreel panel. The desien of
ite walls as an element of lateral r€sistance is Eesented in Sec. 5.5.
Wall Design.Aiorher t]?e ol plaLedcompositewall is of sandwich
tion consisting oftwo e).terior steel plates and a concrcte corc. Applications
 plated composite walls include structurcs built as protection against blast
loadings.ra
The encasement of structural steel sections vrith concrcte began very early
with concrete used to protect the section againBt fire and to increase the load-
'carrying capacity. In cunent prsctice, lightweight, spray-o.r fire pmtection is
used in lieu of concrcte. Nevedheless, concrete continues to be applied as
encasemert around steel sections, p madly for the following pur?oses:
r Flexural stiffening and strengthening of compresBion elements in the
perimet€r oftube-type high-ise buildings and in portal frames
r Expo8ed concrete finish required by architects for aesthetic rcasons
I Protection ol columns from tlaffic impact, as in truck loading arcas or in
buildings where fork lifts and other mobile machinery arc used
. Inoeasingcapacityof axially loadedcolumn
r F e prctection

When concrete is used as encasement for applications in which axial loads or

required mom€nts are relatively light, the concrete usually is not utitized
structumlly. Justirying the cost of fabricating both a steel shape and a tied
reinforcement as component parts of the same compression member requires
special serviced€mands.
The following tJ?es and applications of composite compression members
are used in practice:
1. Encased composite columns suppolting gravity loads in multistory
buildings, pr:imarily as axially loaded members as shown in Fig. 4.1. The
steel section is designed to carry the construction weight of the steel frame
erected several levels ahead of the concrete work plus the weight of conoete
floo?s cast before the cotrcrete encasement proyides additional fle),:ulal stiff-
ness to the steel shape, llansverse ties in the concrete ot studE ensure shear
hansfer and interaction between the shape and the concrete encasement.
Concrete helps to support all loads applied thereafter
2. Encased composite columns as parts of lateral force resisting ligid
frames as indicated in Fig. 4.2. Simila? to the guvity load composite cohmns,
relatively small wide-flange steel sections are included in a large reinforced-
concrete section for use in exterior frames of tall buildinEs. The steel section
of lhe column perdl,s slandard shear and momenr connecLionmechanisms
between the column core and the steel of composite floor besms. Most com-
monly used are closely spaced colurnns and rclatively deep spandrel beams
that comprise a flexl]Ially stiff and efficient lateral fiaming system for contml
of drift in ta buildings. Known as partial tube stmctures, these frames have
proved to be economical and have proyided flexrual and axial stiffness ade-
quate to control lateral drifi in ta[ buildings.
3. Composite tmnsition columns to transfer a,rial load 6.om steel columns of
upper l€vels of steel fiaming to reinforc€d concrcte columns below as suggested
 j

Figureal Encasedcohposit€colm.

in Fig. 4.3. This twe has beenusedin buildings that have a

fiame for the lower flools and steel frames above. as miqht ocfl]l for steel
buildings over a concrcte parking garage. The dompoBitecolumn is usealfor
hansition in order to avoid a large-sized base plate for the steel colurnns
the concrctestructurc. The structurul steel sectionin the composit€column
the sa]ne as the steel colu]nn at the lowest level oftbe steel ftame. The
conqete section dimensionB prefembly should be the same as the
concrete colurnn dimensions below t}le comDosite column. The comDosite
urnn may be extended one or more floors, depending upon the magnitude of
axial load. At the bas€ of the steel section. a minimal-sized base Dlate. w
may be an inch wider and deeper than the st€el section, is utilized to
the construction loads prior to casting and hardening of the concrete of
composite cohrrm. l}ansition colurnns can be useal alBo for the hansition
a steel {lame beneath to a concrete frame above.
4. Filled compositecolumns as illushated in Fig. 4.4. The concretein
core of the steel pipe column prcvides additional strength, tougbness,
=€uE 4,2 Encaseil comrosite coluhn in rigid

stiffness to the steel column. T'his tj,?e of composite column generally is used
rrhetr the structuml steel elements are exposedlfor architectwal rcasons, and
some economy is rcalized as eoncrete formwork is eliminated. For multistorv
buildingq in which the depl column needs!o bc Ereproofed.srrunural engi'-
ne€rs may design a bar-rcinforced concrete core to support the firl1 requircd
axial load without help ilom the steel shell duling a major frle. The total
composite section, including the steel shell, can be utilized with its additional
stiffness to control lateml ddft of the overall shucture. Filled comoosite
-supercolumns
have been used in h;gh-rise buitdings,srzedg"n"ruity fot
their stifrness when steel shels are filled with high-shength condete (l; > 8
ksi). Filled compos;tecolumnspro\rde dairping in rhe order of I.S to iper-
cent in responBeto djma]nic loads.
5. Composite con$ete watls indicated by the plan view in Fig. 4.S are used
as shear walls in steel buitdings to prcvide lateral Btiffness as well as vertical
support for the steel floor framing. More tha]l one steel section in the wall
4,6

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ll
- '+-1f--

FiquB 4,3 llsition colum.

may be provided, depending upon the floor framing. Common locations

compositewalls incluale elevaior shafts and stairways in multistory bu
ings, although compositeshear walls can be placedbetweenany columnsi
structure. As in encased composite colulnns, the steel Bection in the coml
wall construction can be designed to provide a means of support for the
tion of Beveral floorc ahead of the forming a]rd casting required for the
plete composite conGete wall. The procedurc expealites constructio[
utes and thus has the potential for reducing overall construction cost
 4.7

tl

lt

tl
lttl
tl

as44 Filed comlo6jte olum.

6. Plated composite walls combine steel plates with concrete that either
encas$ the steel plate or prcvides a core for two sudace plates (Fig. 4.6). The
plates must be bonded to the conoete with positive ancholage devices such as
Btuds, channels, or angles. The conffete core stabilizes the Bteel plates against
local buckling, and the steel plates provide stiftiess and strength for the com-
posite sandwich. Plate-reinforced composite walls a?e ductile and prcvide high
rcsistance to in-plane compressive and shear forces. Those with outside plates
po8sess a high resistance to penetmtion by high-velocity small missiles anal
have been useal lbr protection against blast forces. l.hose with encased plates
have been applied in structures located in areas ofhigh seismicitjr

{3 Behavior of Composite Columns

|l,1 Resoonseto load
Composite columns respond to load as a combination ofthe reBponse of plain
con$€te a]Id the rcsponse of bare steel. Gererally, composite intemction is
synergistic; i.e., it enlarrces the performance ofthe whole to Bomething sup€-
rior to the sum of the comDonent Darts.
 I
f
I

Flgure4.5 Comlosite @noet€ walls.

Plain concrete in standail contrcl cylinde$ or cubes subjected to

strains rcsists compressionload as an elastic solid until its matrix of
anal coarseaggregatefractures. As an elastic solid, concrete
Poisson ratio one-third to one-half as high as that of steel, and it
Young'B modulus that is a function of the den€ity and compressive
the cotrcrete. The LRFD ManualDe5 gives the following empirical
for Young's moduluB of concrete -a..'

E,- w1.5!f,
where ro : density of concrete, lb/ft3
f; : comprcssive stlength of concrete, ksi
 ConcreleStilfening
on One
or BolhSidesoi Plale

Weldedor Bolted

Siudsor Welded-Steel
Ls

=r84.6 Plated comp.site walls.D,6

The matdx of mortar and coarse aggregate fractures initially at points of

maximum tensiie stless.cla As the load is incrcased beyond initial fracture of
the heterogeneous material, cracking progress€s along ragged lines of tensile
{iacture. Aiter intemal cracking at strcsses in the order of 0.5/; the effective
sdmness.6 begins l.o decreaseand l,he apparent Poissoo ratio for conffere is
gleater than 0.5, as intemally fractured concrete occupies more volume tha]l
the original uncracked concrete.
Under sustaineil compression, intemal macroscopic fracturing ofplain con-
clete will continue slowly to extend. Compressive deformations incrcase with-
out conesponding increases in the compression stress as concrete appea$ to
flow, or "creep," flom beneath compressive loads. Ttre rate of creep increases
with the stress level but decreases with time. After sustained loaals are
removed, there is an immediate elastic recovery, but the rccovely of creep
4.10 ChaplerFour

deformations occurs very slowly and is never complete. Plain conoete shrinks
with drying and expands with moistule. lts volume can vary with changes in
atmospheric moisture. A detaited aliscussion of volume changes due to creep
and shdnkage is prcsented in Sec.4.5.2.
Bare structural st€el can fail in comprcssion owing to instability or to com-
pression stresses reaching the steel yield stress 4,. Instability may cause
either overaU or local elastic buckling, i.e., buckliny'aL nomiral sr"ressesless
than the yield stress 4. InBtability also may result in hansverse defomations
causing local fiber shesses to rcach the material yield limit F"; inetastic buck-
ling may follow. The You]lg's modulus of steel is vidually constant at 29,0m
ksi (200,000 MPa) for all cornpressive stresses less than the leld strcss 4.
The stiflness of an uncmcked composite section is the sum of the stiffnesses
ofeach component part, both for axial force and for flexure. For axial force,

EA: E"A" + E"A" (4.ztJl

and for flexuml force,

EI: E"I"+ E"I" (4.21,1

Shearbond betweenconcr€teand steel. the surface of rolled steel shapesanil

tubes is smooth. In composite steel and concete elements, ary adhesion
bond between smooth faces of steel and conffete is easily broken.s0 Howeveq,
the coefrcient of sliding friction between smooth faces ol steel and conoete
be taken in the order of 0.5. Thus, in the presence of pressure normal to
smooth interface between steel anal concxete. a Bhear streBs at least aBhigh
one-half the normal stress can be tErsferred between the steel and
Pressurenormal to the smoothinterface exists alwavs in concrete-filled
deformed by bending. In contraBt, even in regions of flexural eurvature,
cotrcTeteencssement of structuial shapes oeates pressure against the
shape only if the concrcte is conlined laterally to bear agahst the steel
Although concrete located inside the flarges of wide-flange shapes is efecti
coNtlained so that shear is tla]lsfelaed along the inside surfaces of the
shape,e lateml confinement by ties is required for all condete-encased
shapes designed in accodance with AISC-LRFD and ACI-318 regdations.
Locally, in regions near connectionsto floor beams or bracing member€,
may be necessar) Lo supplement steel.concrerebond wirh shear studs or
welded to the structural shape.The transfer of shear iato concreteat
tions to floor beamsis discussedin subseouentsectionsof thiB chaDter.

4.3.2 Encasedcomoositecolumns
The flexural stifhess of sfucrural shapes encased in concrete ib govemed
ly by the concrete encasement. Prior to flexual cracking, the flexuml
-E1of encased composite columns can be estimated as the p?oduct of the
nodulus E" tEq. (4.1)l a]1dthe momentofinertia Is for the grcssconercte
of the sedion. Steel reinforcement and struduril shapes inside the
 4.11

gmss section increaBe t]rc stiffness ofthe cmss section, but frequently the extm
stifiness ftom steel is less than the aleviatron of the actual E" fiom that comput-
ed from Eq. (4.1). Under sustained loailing, the creep of concrete in effect
rcduc€s E", and any llexural tension cmckii1g rcduces the effective amount of
conoete in a section. If the {langes ofa large steel shape are encasedin relative-
ly thin concrete cover of 3 in (?6 m[r) or less, the fle'xu.ral stifttess -8,I" of the
steel sbape about its own major axis should be added to t,}Ie flexuEl stiftiess of
the conoete s€ction. Even in cases for which the flanges ofa laxge steel shape
are encasedin a relativeb thin con$ete cover of 3 jn or less, the elastic stifrless
ofthe composite member prior t initial flexural cracking car be taken as 2"1".
Measueil flexural stiffness for benchng about the major axis of a W8x40
steel shape encased in a 16 x 16-in (41 x 41-cm) conoete section without axial
load is illustrated in Fig. 4.7.u Also shown are Btiltress values computed as
EJn; o.5E"1n;AClEq.10-14;mo ACI Eq. 10-11;Dtr-E-, from LRFD Eq. 12-2De1
used in place oft" timeB the momeDt of inertia computed ftom the steel arcaA
times the LRf'D-modifieal radiuB of glratron r:; and 4 times the moment of
inertia ofthe transformed composite cracked section. In ACI Eqs. 10-11 and 10-
14. the coefficient for the effect of meeD was taken as zem. Flexural stiffness

.q
I
hitialyi€lding
oi
longitudinal
reinicrcemont

'6

ut/
tft 1
2
L,"n'.,0",,,., 3
A C IE q . 1 0 - 1 4
5 ACIEq.10-11
6
7

LateraldisplaeementA (inches)
FisuE4.7 Flmsl stiffiBss of eacasedcohpdite lean-ta
4,12 ChapterFour

based on 0.58"1, has an average value of 0.92 times the experimental secant
stif&Ess conesponding to initial yielding. Statistical analysis of the lateml
load-alisplacementresponse of adalitional composite column test specm€ns
indicated that an efrective flexural stifftress of 0.58"{ provided a ressonable
estimate of the secant stiff[ess corresponding to the ob'servedinitial yielding of
the longitudinal rcinforcement. Thus the secant stiftuess of 0.5-E'I" can be used
as an apFoximate lower-bound estimate of the elastic htelstory ilrilt assoeiaL
ed with no yielding of steel in encasealcomposite columns.
Shear transfer takes place though bond between the steel shape and the
concrete encasement as long as the encasement is rctained around the steel
shape. The errcasement can be maintained with a grid of reinforcing bars in
the concrcte surrounfing the steel shape. For nonseismic applications, the
size and spacing of steel reinforcement in the sulaounding grid conespond to
minimum reinforcement in tiedl rehforceil-concrete columns. Near the beam-
to-colunn joints for earthquale-resistant columnB, the spacing between bars
in the g:rid should not €xceed 4 in (100 mm). tansverse ties in the grid can be
considered as a contdbuting factor to the transverse shear shength of a corD-
posite column with an encased shape. Additional shear transfer can be
achieved $/ith headed studs, channels, or angles welded to the steel shape.

4.3.3 Filledcomposilecolumns
Steei pipes and tubes filled $rith concrcte possess a flexural stifliress goy-
erned largely by the st€el shell. Comprcssion strength of the coh]]nn is at
least as great as the sum of the shength of the bare shell and the sh€ngth of
the unconfined conffete. When a concentric load is applied so that both the
concrete and the steel are strained uniformly, the Poisson Iatio of the sted
causes the shell to expand laterally somewhat more than the codcrete fill
until the applied compression force creates condet€ shesses large enough to
cause intemal miffoclacking anil an expanding vilume of concrete. Internal
micmcracking associated with an expanding concrete volume initiates at
strcsses higher than 0.5f1 After internal cracking begins, subsequent loads
cause lateral expansion of concrete that is restrained by the steel shell.
Eventually, the steel shell reaches its yield stress frorn longitudinal compres-
sion combined with hansve{se tension. Inelastic outward buckling of the
shell wall tal<es place, a]ld concrete, no lo[ger contained by th€ shell, cnrshes
locally as the colulnn fails.
I!ia...ial confinement from the steel shell can inclease the effective strenettr
of concrple.Theoretically. lriaxial conhnemenr should increase lhe srengtb
eaough to tdple the nominal concertdc capacity of concrete inside the cfucu-
lar steel shell. However, the longitu&nal stiffness E" of contained, miGo-
cracked concrete reiluces dramatically. If the colum length werc morc than
thrce times its diameter, the longitudinal stiffness ofthe shel would be inad-
equate to resist inelastic buckling at eompression loads that exceed the
ity determined v/ithout any in&ease in f; ftom lateral confinement. In more
slender columns, the legions of increased concret€ shength due to confiae-
 Composlte
Columns 4.13

ment would be so so{t that longitudinal stifftress could not prevent inelastic
buckling. Some design codes permit stocky column comprcssion shength esti-
mates that recogrize values ofl; effectively higher than the specified cylinder
strength.cToAWhen the height-to-thickness ratio exceeds2, the safe llmit
shength under concentric longitudinal loading is equal to the 6um of matedal
capacities as long as the concrete-frlled shell does not fail from elastic or
inelastic buckling beforc the material shength limit is rcached.
Tluly concentric loadB are rare. Some eccentricity of longitudinal force is
probably present in practicalb all colunns at all times Eccentric comprcs-
sion involves flexurc in addition to axial folce. In the prcsence of curvatures
caused by bending, the steel walls of filled shells press against the contained
core of concrete, ensuring some shear transfer along the contact sur"faces.An
unbrcken bond between the steel tube and the contained conclete would sat-
isfu the usual boundary condition that there is one shain profile in the col-
umn as flexu?al cuvature develops. However, test rcsults liom concrcte-filled
tube specimens v'rth a lubricated inside surface werc compared with results
from specinens v/ithout the lubrication, and no differences in the behavior
were found. Condete showeal no discemible adhesion to steel.s0 Filled com-
posite columns behaved as if slip could take place along the contact surface
whether or not the swface had been lubricated befote the concrete was cast.
Some absence ofshear tmnsfer at the intedace has a positive effect on col-
umn perforrnance. Complete aalhesion of steel to concrete is a €otrstraint
which may rcsult in less resistance to force than that which can be developed
if some slippage takes place. Both matedals must assume the same curva-
tue, but thetu neuhal axes need not coincide. Slippage between the con$ete
core afld the steel shell wall perrnits the neutra] axis of concrete to migrate
toward the tension face, while lateral confinement from the shell wall helps
compression face concrei€ to rcsist longitudinal stress at shains higher than
the limit strains expected without such confmement. The migaation of the
neutual axis for concrete towad the tension face alelays tension cracking and
permits more compression force to be rcsisted by concrete. Some flexural
rcsistance i6 lost while ar.ial resistance increases and there is only a marginal
inffease in limit streneth of the composite colunu. However, column ductility
is irnproved significartly.
Tests of the shear shength of concrete-fllled sh€lls indicate that intentional
slippage, causeal by a lubricant between concrete and the shell wall, allows
more shear to be resisted and larger shear deformations to alevelopthan
those observed flom specimens with slippage ptevented.n0 With some slip-
page, ijhe conoete adjusts effectively to act as a series of comprcssion stnrts
with shell walls responding as tension ties that resist shear forces.

connectlonsto tilled comoositecolumns. lYansfer of forces at connectionsof

floor members to the steel shell can be accomplished with gusset plates fol
shear attachment to floor members or with a steel beadng plate at the top of
a filled composite column. Such a cap plate must contain a hole through
which concrete can be placeil. Floor beams can penebate completely tbrough
4.14 Chaprer
Four

large shells filled with concrcte. Vertical shear forces are hansfened thmush
direcrbearingofrhe noor beam |angeq againslrhe shell and asainsl the c;-
crete. Flex'ural lorces wilh associaredcurva{ure of thF composile cotumn will
force shell walls to bear agaiNt the concrete core with enough pressure to
hansfer effectively shear between the wall and the core. If local trarsverse
pressure is considered inadequate for the tmnsfer of sheals at the floor beam
connection, or if the Bhell wall is relatively flexible, studs can be welded
inside the shell to stiffen and stabilize the thin shell wall and also to transfer
vertical shear dircctly into conclete.
Shea! plates welded to the exterior surface of sbells tramfer vertical shear
effectively into the shell wall. Locally, there may be enough curvature at the
connection to develop effective shear hansfer of vertical forces into the con_
crete core, as is indicated in Fig. 4.8c. Ifthe shell wall is too thin to develoD
an enlire verriral bhear and bending reaclion. a shea_rptare may be e{endJ
through the column, as indicated itr Fig. 4.86, or external horizontal stiffene.
plates can be used to shengthen the wall, as shown in Fig. 4.8c. The holes in
the shear plate ofFig. 4.86 create concrete dowels that ar; helDfirt in develoD_
ing bearing and shear rransfer to thc concre[ecore. The of the
sh€ar plate tlTough the tube as shown in Fig. 4.86 provides "xlension
bearing surfaces
between steel and concrete both at the bottom edge of the plate and at the
bearing edges of the holes in the steel plate. The limit sbength of concrete iL
bearing against steel should be talien no gleater tharr f; with a rcsistance fac_
tor d 0.65. fMomentconneciion6 of rhe twe showni; Fig. 4.8c are s
ed. The top ring plate is recommended for continuity in lieu of single
plates welded to the wall of the shetl ifthe tube is too fleible to transfer
nifrcant flange forces aeoss the column between beam flanges.

Shear strength. The shear strength ofa lilled composite column can be
as th€ sum of limit shear capacities of concrete and of the shell w
Confined by the shell, concrctehelps to rcsist the shear force by acting as
seriesof compressionstr.utspushing against the compressionand tensir
surfaces of the sh€Il while sidewalls of the shell serve as tension str-uts.
ACI building codeDl0oeffectively limits the shear strenEth of stir
rehforced to five multiple. ofthe nominal .hear capacitl of1
-concrere
concrete. If this limit is exceeded, concret€ cr-ushes in diasonal comDressi
However, the walls of the Bteel shell can rcsist shear without help fiom
crete. Tahing one-half the total steel area aB the effective shear area of r
or square tubing, i.e., the area of steel oriented in the plane of bending,
shear strcngth of steel alore y. can be estimated as

v. : 0.3.{-F',: 0.3p"1g4
where A = area ofsteel shell
.F', : yield strcngth of steel

Ar: gross area ofconcrete-filled shell

 ComposlteColumns 4.15

Figure 4.3 Steel beam to filled

conposite colun! joinr. (z)
Bendine deates forces betveen
iube and core. (b) Shear llate
through tube. {c) Horizontal

The wall of the steel shell rcinforces the concrete fill in a manner simila? to
the tension tie stirrupB reinforcing the web of a concrete beam. As a tension
tie, the sh€lI wall can resist shear at tull yield strcngth 4, whereas the limit
shear stress in the shell walls, without any help fiom concrcte, muBt not
exceed the 6hear strcngth of steel, usually taken as 0 64 T'1retotal shear
capacity can be taken as the steel "stinup" strength requireal with concrete
plus the steel shear shength which is available after the "stinup' area has
been deducted from total shear area of tube wa]}s. The total nominal shdll
strcngth 14,for squarc or round tubes fr1led with concrete can be estimated as
4.16

\: 5u"A."+ 10.6(r/,A"F,so"A"")l
: 2u".4",+ 0.JA"4
When the area .4t, is assumed to be one-half of the actual area of the encased
condete and the shear strcngth of cotrcrcte ," is talrcn as 2V0.d6[,

v": tp"4+ 0.2111 p.)\f;10.3as 14.4')

wherc the units ol y are kips, ofF ar]d are kips per square inch, anal ofthe
I
gross column a-reaA€are square iiches. ihe efeclive shear area of.enangu_
lar tubes is the ar€a of ste€l in the tube walls pamllel to the ptane of the
shear

Fire resistance: Laboratory tests of the frre-resisting behavior of filled com-

posite colu]Irns indicate that concrcte acts as a heat sinL. The dissipatiotr of
heat from steel into concrete delays the late of temperatue increase in the
steel tubing. Procedures have been developed for a hnite_difference method
of estimating the tempemture at points on and within concrete_filled com_
posite columns in an environment of incrcasing temperature.ca2 Strcss-
shain characteristics for steel and concrete at each temperature state can be
used to determine force,moment-curvature response anal the resulting
Btrength to support required loading as tempemturc increases. Comput€r
programs have been developed for such thermal analyses in response to
standardized temperature-time curves acceptable to U.S. and Canadian
buildi4g codes.
Fire endurance is more rctiable if longitudinal bar rcjnforcement is used
inside the fitled tubes as the bars help the conuete core sustain stiffness
after the steel shelt soflens in intense heat. When the lonqitudinal reinfolc€_
ment is at least 1 percent but less than 3 percent of the concrete area. the fire
resfutanceofthe column may be estimatealas s function ofthe shape aral out_
side dimension of the column cross section, the effective column ingth, and
the magnitude of the 6er]/ice load.Mrl

4.4 Design Rules

4,4.1 Background
Design rules for composite columns are inctuded in the AlSC_LRFD
speciicationDst and in the ACI building code.Dr0oBoth proviale methoils fo.
evaluatingihe strcDglhof Lhecrosssectionand of Lheeffectsof slendemess.
Both apply to encased structwal shapes anal to concrcte-fillecl stluctural DiDe
and lubing as weU as fabricard shel]<.The LRFD rules are based on proc+
dures analogous to steel design. Applied to encased or filled round or rectaa_
gular_ composite column shapes, analgic expressions for strength, stiffness,
and slendemess effects lead directly to values of axial"load capaitv as well as
beam-column capaciry.The ACI rules lor compositecolumns follow rhe same
 Composite
Columns 4.17

procedures as for bar reinforced-conuete colu]nns. The ACI code requrres a

stmin compatibility analysis at the limit state of loading, and it does not per'
mit colulnrr design without at least a minimum eccenhici8 of the requircd
axial loads. Consequently, general formulations of column capacity cannot be
developed to satisfy the ACI building code so that the use of design aids
becomes necessary.
Procedurcs of the AISC-LRFD specfication are recommended for desien of
composite columns ol regular cross section. The AISC-LRFD rules may be
used for axially loaded colunns as well as for eccentrically loaded colunrrs.
Expressed in the form of shength equations, these rules are applied more
easily tha! the rules of the ACI building code. AISC-LRFD rules specifically
rcqutue that at least 4 percent of the composite section be comprised of struc-
tural steel shape, tube, pipe, or Bhell. Composite sections with less stmctural
steel arc considered to perform as if they were bar-reinforced colunm, ard
the ACI building code is recommended for design of such sections. The ACI
building code is recommendealas well for sections of such irreglrtar shape
that AISC-LRFD formulations would not apply-
Eurocode 4, a comprehensiveEuropear model code for the design of com,
posite members and Bystems,De{contains criteria for composite columns. It is
similar in scope to the American specifications. However, the European rules
prescribe detail information and pmc€dures that are considercd in the United
States to be the premgative of the design engineer

!.4.2 Axialcompression
It is a common practice to connect steel beams to steel colulnns with simple
shear cotrnections that permit the beam ends to mtate without significant
resistance. Wlile simple shear co.nections pmvide some rctational rcshaint,
euch rcshaint can be neglected, as it is insigrifrcant with respect to the flex"
.ural stiflness of the beam itself. Accordingly, simple shear connections are
prcpodioned only for the beam-end rcaction or shear. The concrete in an
e[cased composite column offers some additional bending restmint that may
be neglected when columlls are designed to support oDIy vertical load reac-
tions flom beams. Columns can be designed as loaded only in a-rial compres-
sion if they support only vertical or gravity loading.
Design for axial compression requfues consideration of cmss-section capaci,
ty as well aB slendemess effects. Slenderness can result in buckling of a col-
umrr under concentric axial force. Buckling of very sleniler columrs is a phe-
nomenon based on the elaEtic flexural stifd1ess of the colu]ar. Buckling ofless
slender columns involves combined elastic and postelastic flexuml defo?ma-
tioft.
Under uniaxial compressive stress, concrete spalls and lails when longitu-
dinal shain reaches about 0.18 to 0.20 pelcent. Cross-sectionshength P^ is
the sula of a-'.ial-load capacities of the matetials that make up the cmss sec-
tion. Thus, for steel that yields at shains no gTeat€r than 0.2 percent,
4.18 ChapterFour

Po: A"F,+ A.FJ,+ O.85A"t (4.5)

shere Po - cross-beflioncapaciry rn uniaxial compression
= arca of str.uctuml shape in ctoss section
4
= area of longitudinal reinfolcement in cmss section
4
: area of concretein crosssection
4
F'" = yield shength ofshuctural shape steel
F; : yield strength oflongitudinal reinforcem€nt
/: = strength ofconcrcte from standard cylinder tests

Slender columns fail under loads less than Pn because of buckling. Elastic
(Euler) buckling strcngth P, ofvery slender columns can be expressed as

nzEI (4.6)
6IY
wherc I(l = effective colunln leneth
t1= effectiveflexual stif&1essofcolum]l cmss section

Effective flexuml stiffness of a composite c?osssection may be estimated on

the basis of the transformed area of an uncmcked section. Section tlansfor-
mation involves adiustnent of the actual width of one materiat into a trans-
formed effective width perpendicular to the plane ofbending. Th€ adjustmeDt
is in pmpodion to the modular ratio n :2"/1" of steel and conclete. Thus for
a seflion transformedinto equivalentsreel,lhp width ofall concleremusr be
divided by n, and the product 41,. represents the flexwal stiffness of the
composite section. For a section transformed into equivalent conuete, the
width of a[ steel must be multiplied by z in oder fo? the prcduct E"1h to reF
resent the flexural stiffness ofthe composite section.
Short or stochy composite columns fail when the limit strenAth olsteel
roncreteib reached.as expresscdby 8q.r4.5,.For lonCercolumn6,if
stress exceeds 0.5/: to 0.6/j, buckling failure is inelastic, and the columns
considered to be of intemediate length. Very slender colu]nns fail in el
buckling. Elastic buckling occurs only for columns which arc so slende?
the average concrete strcss at failure remains elastic. This is the case for
clete shessesless than 0.5f:No0.6f:.
The design strength of two conce;tdcally loaded composite columns,
mined according to the LRFD specification, is shoren in Fig. 4.9 as a fu
of slender]:}ess. Details lor obtaining each curve are given in App. B. One
the columnsis a W8x40 steel shap€encasedin 16 x 16-in (0.41 x 0.41
conoeteand the other a 10 X 10-in (0.25x 0.25,m)concrete-filled tube.
Id : 0, the design strength is €qual to OP.. For stocky and intermediate
demess.rhp desigrstrenglhdencase.ar a ratp thar increases as lhe
tive length 1ll increases. For slender columns the strcnqth decreasesat
decreasing rate. The thrce chamctefistic segments ol a typical shength-
demess curve have the followins limits:
 ComposlteColumns 4.19

a 600

_
400

Srocky Inlermedlate

300
bngrhkL (inches)
Unsupponed
:@E a.9 A:ial strength and columnlcneth.

1. Stocky columns: 0P, > 0.9P0

2. Intermediate columns: 0.9P0> OP,,> 0.6P0
3. Long columns: OP" < 0.6P0

Shanleycl0 demonshated that a lower bound of the strength-slenderness fi]nc-

tion for columns of a homogeneous material is defined if the slope of the stress-
shain curve for the material -Erwere substituted for ,E in Eq. (4.6). It all compo-
nents of a steel column had a trlly elastic rather then plastic response to load,
the strength-slendemess function would rcmain at a constant strcss limit equal
to 4 until the slendemess is so large that P, from Eq. (4.6) equak P0from Eq.
(4.5). Equation (4.6) would apply to all colu]nrls with slenderness exceeding this
value. A1l structural-steel shapes contain rcsidual intelnal shesses that result
from nonraiform cooling afler rolling, fabrication, ercction, and other causes.
As the residual strcsses are the result of rnany unpredictable factors, their
maerritude and distribution for any specific piec€ of steel is unknown- Steel
shapes with the thickest flanges tend to have the highest levels of residual
strcsses. As a consequenceof the residual stresses, no stmctur€ exhibits tr'uly
elastoplastic behavior, and strength-slenderness curves si]nilar to those in Fig.
4.9 assume low€r positions as the residual stresses increase. R€commendations
ofEurocode 3w contain tbree primary and two secondary streng:th-slenderaress
curves assienFdlo different cat"goriesajld us.s ofsFel shapes.
The specilic shape ol colunn cur-ves that most accurately refiect the rc14-
tionship between tbrust capacity and column sl€nderness for vadous tlTes of
compositecloss sectionshas been studied.r3lHowever, lor compoBitecolumns
4,2O Chapter
Four

the vadability of the concrete stifflress obscurcs vadations that the steel
forms and shapes might pmduce among shength-slenalemessfunctions. In
recognition of the extreme scatter in the available test data ard lalse uncer,
Lajnr\ concerningthc ma$irude and distribLtjonof residualstressisin any
completed structure, only one conservative cu1-veis included in the LRFD
specifications.DslThe LRFD column curve is discussed in Sec.4.4.5. and
apptcation details are contained in App. B.
Design for concentric axial force genemlly begins with an estimate of the
rclative slenderness ol the composit€ member. On the basis of the eBtimated
slendern€ss, some reduction of the value Po can be used with Eq. (4.b) to
deterrnine the n€cessary trial areas of steel, bar rcinforcement. and concrete
in the composite column.

4.4.3 Bendlng and axial lo€d

Bemoulli's h)?othesis that straids vary linearly with the distance from the
neutral axis about which bending occurs can be applied in the analysis of
bending for composite sections. Stuess is proportional to stmin until load cI€-
ates stresses above the proportional limit of the material. Incleasing loail
causes strains to increase more rapidly than the coresponding stresses for
both steel and conffete, and a plastic distribution of strcsses is appmacheil
The limir strehglhof mostconcrere-encased composirecolumnsis airainedat
crrrshing and spalling of the encasement. Befoie concrcte spalls, the encase.
ment rcstrains postyield compression buckling oflongitudinal bars ae well as
olthe compressedpafts ofencased shapes
Loss of encasement is accompanied by buckling of longitudinal bars, ftac-
ture oftmnsverse bam, local postyield buckling of the steel shape, anal ovemll
failure ol the section. Thus failure of composite closs sections occurs when
conc?ete crushes. The ACI code specifies the maximi]]n usable strain of con-
crcte in comprcssion as 0.3 percent. With a lidit strain of 0.3 percent on the
exheme fibers plus the location of the neuhal axis, a failure stlain Drofile can
be de.cribpdfor an] padicular sccl:on.Strebsesconsisl,ent wilh e;ch strair
can be computed, and axial and flexural forces that rcsult from the shess€s
can be integrated to determine the value of the nominal axial load P and the
moment Mr associated s/ith the failue strain plofile. The locus of suah points
{ and M, lor various positions of ihe neutral axis defines a capacity thrust
moment function known as the interaction diaEram for the section. The
stressesin steel shapesand the reinforcing bars are taken as the prcduct
strain c and rodulu. ofelasriciLy ofsreet E unlil €"E exceedsF; for all
slrains grFalerlhan F ,f". sreelsrressequaJsF,.
An) siress-strainfricrlon re."mbling rneasrlredbehaviorcan be uced
concrcte, but a rectangular shess block is a comnlon and simple
tion ol the distdbution of the prcsswe on concrete at faiture. As a rcsult
recent research on high-strength concrete,Gsoa shess block with the
equal to o,/j and the depth of the block equal to Bi times the distl
beLwFpnrhe maximum compressedconcretefiber and the neurral a-ris
been recommended. For /j expressed in ksi units, th€ coefficients 01 and l3r

- jb (4.7a)
",:1.01
Rr:0.91 (4.7b)
d
with the maximum ajld mirlimunl values ofboth coeflicients equal to 0 85 and
0.?, respectively. It is assumed that connete resists no tension. Analytical
evaluation of cross-sectionshength by the procealurethus defined can be
applied to any composite cross section, but the procedure is tedious.
Computer codes for accomplishing the shength analysis are needed for pmc-
tical design applications.
An approximate evaluation olthe limit shength ofa composite section with
norrnal-strength concrcte, i.e., /; = 10 ksi (69 MPa), can be accomplishedby
hand,c?o and the results are adequate for most applications. The procedure,
based on plastic stress distribution, is illusfuated in App. B for two cross sec-
tions refened to in the subsequent text as the demonshation sections:

1. A W8x40 rolled shape ofA36 steel encasedin a 16'in-squarc (0.4-m) con-

crcte section off"- = 3 5 ksi (24 MPa)
2. A 10 x 10 x y4.in (254 x 254 x 6-mm) tube, of4 : 46 ksi (3u MPa) A500
steel, fiUed with /; - 5 ksi (34 MPa) conuete

The prccedure requircs calculation of four sets of coordinates on the P"

M" diagram as follows:
1. ComputeP"nfrom Eq. (4.5).
2. Assume a plastic distdbution of stless I 'ith shength of concrct€ equal to
zerc in tension and 0.75f; in compression. Then locate a neutral axis for zero
axial force by equating the tension yield force in steel about middepth to the
force in the compressed concrcte. In App. B, the distance from middepth to
the plastic neuhal axis is called z when 4 : 0. Compute compression forces
on steel above z and tension forces on steel below z, Ttrese forces are equal to
and opposite one another.
3. Compute the value of M" about middepth as the suln ofmoments on the
closs section when the neutral axis is distance z above middepth.
4. Compute the total force P,, arld total moment M", about middepth l'hen
the plastic neuhal axh is at middepth.
5. Compute the total force P"r and total moment M,l about middepth when
the plastic n€uhal axis is at distance z below miildepth.
6. Connect the coordinates to complete the strcngth interaction diagram
for the crosssection.
The thrust-moment interaction diagram computed by the plastic analysis
procedure detailed in App. B is plotteC in Fig. 4.10 (heaw line). All combina-
 & 4.12b

FiquB4.l0 Thrust-moDent irteractiotr diagrans

{-r

tions of thrust P and moment M inside the interaction diae.ram reDresent

forcFvaluesfor $hirh the slrenglh ofthe secrionis adequa(e.

Biaxialbending
An analysis ofthe capacity ofa cross section based on the premise that a fail-
ure occurs when a concrete frber reaches a certain limitine strain catr be
applipdwith the npurrala.\isorienred al variousanglesrhat neednolbe par-
allel to any principal axis. A-n a-rial force and moment capacity interaction
su ace Bimilar to that shown in Fig. 4.11 can be generated. If inetastic
response of concrete is represented with an accurate stress-stmin functio!_
that procedure produces the most accurate analysis of section shength under
biaxial loading. However, the proc€dure is laborious even when used for only
one interaction curve, and alefrning an interaction surface reqlrires s€veral
interaction curves.c3t The procedue is too tedious for practical applicatio[s
without the aid ofa computer program.
For a specifred axial force, the strength of a section in biaxial bending cajr
be approximated by obseffing that the sum of the ratios of the rcquired
momert to the nominal uniaxial moment capacity about the two p ncipal
axes must be equal to unity:c,tA

(?-)",(hl=' (4.8)

where ,41^ : required moment capaci8 for bending component in the plane d
the r axis
=guE 4.11 Strength intemction suface for biai

M,, : required mornent capacity for bending component in the plane of

lne y aios
M,. = nominal bending stlength with bending onlv in the plane of the
r axis
M,, : nominal bending Btrencth with bending only in the plane of the
y axls
o : a number between 1 and 2 defidnq the shape ofthe biaxial
moment contoul

The AISC-LRFD specficationml in effect uses Eq. (4.8) v/ith the exponent c|
equal to 1.0. Ratios between the rcquired ard actual bending shength conBid-
ered individually for bendirg about each principal axis arc added to produce
the interaction contour that is a shaight line. The LRFD pmcedurc is safe, as it
undercstimates actual capacity to rcsist biaxially eccentric compression load.
Test results for reinforced-concrete columns under biaxiallv eccentdc
loadingc32 indicate that strength prcdictiors v/ith Eq. (4.8) and o = 2 are as
accurate as the shength predictions for urdaxial bending based on the rcctan-
gular stress block for concrete. Ttre same reliability should apply for encased
composite columns, although sufficient test data are not available.

t!5 a|SC-LRFDspeclfication
The AISC specificationDlT has included provisions for the desigxr of composite
beams with shear connectors since 1961- Desig! requircments lor composite
columns were inhoduced in 1986 with the first edition of the AISC-LRFD
specification.D56 The method adopted for composite columrs was developed
under the auspices ol a]l ACI-AISC-AISI liaison committeeDa0in the form of
an allowable shess deBign pmcedwe. The intent ofthe liaison committee was
to develop methods that would give similar estimates o{ shength with the
ACI building code and with the AISC specfication.
The concept of applying AISC column design methodology to composite
columns by the use of modified properties was first presented by FurlongDss
ir 1976.Modified yield slress F; , modified modulus ofelaEticiryE-, and
modified radius of gyrarion r- wire tncorporaredinro an allowableitress
desigr procedure that was published by Task Group 20 of the Structursl
Stability Research CouncilDaoin 1979. An extensive statistical studvDasof the
available {esr dara on composilecolumns fol owed under rhe leadershioof
Galambosat Washingon Univcrsityin Sr. Louis,Ivlo.,snd rhe modifiedpiop-
erties sr'preadopred inLoan LRFD procedurewhich becamea paj1 ofrhe fg8e
AISC-LRFD specification.Ds6
Since it is common pmctice for steel and composite beams to be attached to
composite columns with shear plates that transmit virtually no moment. the
LRFD speciflcalion for composite columns recognizesand lermits desigr of
axially loaded columns without bending. The LRFD r.utes include also orovi-
sions for slender columns and beam colurrn6 and for consideration ol Fame
stability.

Axialstrength. The compressionshength ofcomposite column cross sections

can be estimated accurately as the sum ofthe compressivecapacities ofeach
component part, the structural shape or tube, the longitudinal reinforce-
ment, and the conclete. Superposition of component capacities is a ?eliable
procedure if each ofthe componentsmaintains stiffness to rcsist increasitre
stra;ns unljl the nominal capacir) ofall conlponenrsis reached.In sucb
case, the nominal shength ol the cross sectiol p. is equal to ,Pogiven by
Eq (4.5).
Design strength of composite columns is detemined from the same equa-
tjons as l,hoseapplirable to barc €reel columns e.(ceptlhal lhe lormulas are
entercd with modfied prop€rties 4], E_, and r_. The axiat design strength is
compulect as

d"P": 0.854"4. G.9'

wherc 4 is the area of the structural steel shape,pipe, or tube and F_-is the
criricalslrpssof I hecolumn gj\ en by Eq..r4 l0):

4. : (0.6584)r'-r forA < 2.25 (4.10a1

and

for A > 2.25 (4.robl

 whercA: x2 = (KI/rr -)z(Fq/E^)
= modfiedvield stress
a 'i,i:rnr",-../ry4
(4.10c)
K : effective lensth factor
I : laterally u]lbraced length ofthe column
r- = modifled radius of gyration about the a*is of buckling
.a. = modified modulu ofelasticity

The modfied pmperties,F;", .a ., and r- account lor the effects ofconoete and
Iongitudiml reinforcing bars. The modfieal radius of glaation .- is the larger
of (1) the radius of g]'ration of the steel section / and (2) 30 percent of the
thickn€ss ofthe gross compositesection in the plane ofbending. The modified
values 4" and -a- arc given by the following equations:

t,F,,A, c.t'iA.
(4.11a)
A. 4
and
c,E.A,
(4.116)

where - )'reld streneth ofstructunl steel < 60 ksi (414 MPa)

4
F". - yield strength oflongitudinal reinforcing bars < 60 kBi (414 MPa)
A. : totat area of longitudinal reinforcing bars
A" : area of structural steel shape, pipe, or tube
A" : area ofcon$ete
/; = desig! Btrength ofconcret€
t" = modulus of elasticity of steel
E- : modulus of elasticity of corcrete
c| c2,ca : numerical coefficientslisted in Table 4.1

Divifing both sides of Eq. (4.5) by the ffea of structural st€el A" transforms
the equation into an effective composite strcss 4,. Coefrcients c1,c2, and ca are
higher for filled composite colunms than for encased compoBite columns. With
the steel encasement always available to provide lateral confinement to con-
clete in filled composite coh]mns, there is no uncedaiEty tfiat the contained
conoete will reach at least as much strcngth as that reached by confiete in

_r3rE4,1 Num€rlcalCoefficients
tor Designof Compo6lleColumns
Nuherical @efficienis
- :sposite @lum t!?e
1.0 0.85 0..1
I Gt€-encased shapes 0.1 0_6 0.2
 unconfined standard concrete cylinderc used to deteranine f-. In conhast. there
is less certainty that an unconfined concrete encasement can attain shess as
high^as 0.85/j lf the unconfned conoete fails to reach 0.8b/; the longitudinal
?einforcement it stabilizes may not rcach its yield stress F",;ither. Th; vatues
oi" and., for pncabed composjtccolunnsarc ?Opercenlof ihe l alueslor fi lled
composite columns, refl€cting the higher degree of uncertainbr.

Slendernesseffects. Slendemess ca]l be e4ressed analytically for columns as

a measure ofthe member flexural stiffiiess -8111.Tlle shaightforwad applica-
tion of a modulus of elasticity, a closs-section moment of inertia. and atr ;ffec,
ti\e lcngih. cLStomaJ-J lor rhe designof bare strucltllal-sreelcojumns.cannot
be used for composite and reidforced-concrete members. The relative contri,
bution of each component does not remain constant throughout loading.
Concretecracks in flexural tension, it is less homogeneousthan steel, a:rd its
stifliress decays at shain tess than the yield stnin of steel. The de8ee of
.r iffnesbavailabJe frorn bendingofconcrereconrsineowithin a oioe or iube is
higher rhan rhal shich can be anr;.ipaled flom unconfined.oncr"re. The
overall stability offilled composite columns is affected much more bv the steel
shell than by the concrete core. Conve$ely, the overall stabilitv of an encaseal
composite column is influenced more significantly by concrete than by ste€!.
To account for the uncertainty regading the contdbution of concr;te to the
buckling strength of a compositecolumn, Eq. (4.116) includes the numerical
coefficient ca equal to 0.4 for f l€d composite columns and 0.2 for encaseil
composite columns. These coeffrcients are consistent with values recommend_
ed in the ACI building codeD100 for flexuml stiffness El in estimates ofinelas_
tic buckiing loads. TheACI cod€expressions irclude a paramet€r fo? the sofi_
ening influence of creep of concrcte that is subjected to sustained compressive
loading. The influence of creep may be neglected in the presence of large
areas of steel, which does not creep. Every composite cotumn designed ilr
accordance with LRfDDel must have a shuctural-steel area at least equal to
4 percenlof rhe grosscolurnD cross.ecr,on.The in'tuenceof c,eepas well as
I be injl uenceof concreiecrackinghavc beenaccommodarFd adequaleljby the
values ofc. given in Table 4-1.
The application of Eqs. (4.9), (4.10), and (4.11) for the determination of
axial colunn capariryis but asa pan ofarl ire"arjveDrocess
o f s e l e c r i n ga n d . h e c k i "traightlorward,
n s r r . a l s e c r i o n si.l i s v e i 5 t e d i o u s T
. he re;deris
refened to the AISC Manual of Steet Construction for LRFDD\. ttlat i]rlctud(5'
e)'tensive tables for both encased and f led composite columns loaded axially,
and to Steel Design cuide Series 6,Dtawhich contains comDr€hemive tabl€s
fordesignorencasedcompos,te col lns cubjpctedto arial loadand bendir+
The coDvenlional definitionof a radius of gt.rarroncannol be app)iedrigor-
ously to compositecross sections.However, an index ofcross,sectionwidth to
resist flexure is neededas a measurc of slendemess.The radius ofs!.r.ation of
a solid recrangleis abo I 30 perceniof itc depth,and r he radjusof lj.rarronof
a box or wide-flange shape can apploach 50 percent of the depth of the set-
tion. The steel shape and the cotrcrctepo*ion ofcomposite cross sectionscoD-
tribute to resistarce against flexuml displacement.Ifthe steel prcdominates,
the mdius of gylation ofthe steel is apprcpdate for the whole section. Ifflex-
ural deformation is rcsisted primarily by concrete, the radius of glration for
condete is app?opriate for slendemess calclrlatiors. In either case an effec-
tive radius of gl'r'ation for the composite section will be Eomewhat gyeat€r
than the laryer ofthe values for each material taken sepa?ately. Until a morc
gorcus definition is found, it is rccommended that the larger ofth€ radius of
gyration values lor steel or concrcte be used in calculatins the slenderness
index /r fo? values \ in Eq. (4.10c).

Llmitations. Condete loses stiffness at strains near 0.2 Dercentand mav not
be fuUyeffectjvefor srabrlizingsrcelar strains higherthan 0.2 perren{,;hich
hanslates into steel-stress values of about 60 kBi (414 MPa). The yield shess
4 of structural steel and 4. of reinforcing bars used in calculating the
shengtb of composite columns should not exceed 60 ksi. It is fu{her rccom-
m€nded that the conclete streneth f: be limited to 10 ksi (69 Mpa) and small,
et since t€sts are available for only very few composite columns with f; in
excebsof l0 ksi.D3\D"'? A lower limir of / 2.5 L"i'1? l\4Palis recommended
in order to encourage a degree of quality control commensurate with this
readily available and familiar grade of structulal concrete.

Momentcapacilywithout axial toact. The nominal flexuml strength M" of a col-

umn closs section may be deter:nined from the plastic state of stress as Dre-
senredin App. B or from an analysisof flexuralslrengtha{ the u]rtmar. siate
of stmin. For simplicity, the LRFD commentaryDs6offers an apprcximate
equation for moment capacity of doubiy sj.mmetric sections. The su]n of flex-
ulal capacities for component parts includes the plastic moment capacity of
the st€el shape, the yield moment of reinlorcement assuminE that thrce of
ejghr bars are on opposirelacesofthe.ec{ion, and a mome;r.aDacirv for
ohich compression concrcre;s considcredreinlorcedal middFplhby rongliu.
dinal baIS and the web of the steel shape:

/h" A ' F!
M": ZF, + %(.h, 2c,)A,F. + I , : - AF (4.12)
\2 r.7f;h1
whe?e ,42 - web atea ol steel shape plus any longitudinal bals at center of
secuon
Z = plastic sectionmodulus of steel 6hape
/r1 = concrcte width perpendicular to the plane of bending
i, = concrctethickness in the plane ofbending
c, = thickness olconcrete cov€r from ce[ter ofbar to the edge ofsec-
tion in the plane of bending

Axial load and bending. For compositecolumns slrmetrical about the plane
of bending, the interaction of compression and flexurc should be limited by
the following bilinear relationship:
 PAM '. <1n
" + fot P,>- 0.26.P" (4.13a)
't?, s+brr,

P M
P"< o.2<b"P,
to]. (4.13b)
ffi* r6=t.o
where P,, = factored axial force
M, = factored moment increased for slenderness €ffects
P, = nominal thrust capacity including slender.ness effects
Mn : ulr;mate moment capacity without axial force
<l', : resistance factor for bending : 0.85
O : resistancefactor for comprcssion= 0.85

For columns of zero slendernese,Eqs. (4.13r') and (4.136)reprcsent the same

true ofinteraction limit as that obtained from the plastic analysis ofthe cross

The strength of the two demonshation sections of App. B was computed

ftom Eqs. (4.13@)and (4.13b) for the full range of combinations of thust p
and moment -41.The resulting intemction curve is plotted in Fiq. 4.10 as a
line of int'prmcdiate
thickness.For Ihru$ wirhour,bendine.LRFd reduce"to
lhe same pqualionas {har for Ihe ptastc andlysisso rhal rhe hea,vyand the
intermediate lines start fi.om the same points on the vertical a_..is.For a]l
other combinations of thrust and moment the two methods differ LRFD va!
ues arc coneistently conservative except for the case oltubular cmss sectioDs
subjected predominantly to bending. The conservative natru€ of the LRFI)
equations is the result ofa delibemte choice for simplicity. Details for appli
tion of the LRFD procedue are given in App. B.

Axial lorce and biaxial bending, For symmetrical members, th€

specificationDel permits computing th€ flexural shength mtio M"/6M" sel
rately about each ofthe two major axes, and adding these two coiponlnLs
the axial-force component. Such linear supe?position of flexural
ratios has the effect of pmducing the same resuits for biaxiallv loaded
as that obtained ftom Eq. (4.8) with the exponentc : 1. The LR.FDproced
therefore underestimatesthe capacity to resist biaxiallv €ccentrictosds. Si
the capacity of biaxially loaded filled steet tube columns aleDends
nantly or the capacity of the steel tube, the use of the LRFD interacti
equation is recommended for such columns.

Bar reinforcementfor encas€dcomposiiecolumns. Concrcte encasementof

steel shape in a composite column should be reinforced $.ith both loneitudi
and transverse bars spaced not more than two-thirds of the width of
shorter colunrn side. The bals should have an area not less than 0.00?
(0.2 mm'/mm) ofbar spacing. Clear edge cover over bals must be at least
in (38 mm).
1 . 4 . 6 A C l b u i l d i n gc o d e
Rules ofACI 318-95D100 require all columns to be designedas bealn columns,
since tloor-to-colu]nn coDn€ctions in concrete arc considercd to be monolithic
and continuous, hansferring both shear and moment at joints. A moment-
magrification prccedurc is used to account for the effects of column slender-
ness. The moment magnifier 6 is expressed as

0.6 0.4M /M
(4.14)
1.0 - P"/4,P"

with M,, = the smaller requircd moment applied at one end ofthe column
M,, : the laryer required moment applied at the opposite end of the col-
]jd]]'ui L}]e raLro M"r/M"2is positive if both moments compress the
same tace
: required factored axial load on the column
{
P" = elastic Euler buckling index for the coluIlr' = #EI/'J<1)2
O = capacity-rcductionfactor taken as 0.7 for encasedshapesand as
0.75 for concrete-frlledtubes
IC : effective length olcolumn

Stiffness tl for the Euler buckling index is determined as

o.40E.I
-
\4.15a)
1+n.

O . 2 E I+ E I
(4.156)
1+n,
where Bd : ratio of the requircd permanent a...ial load to the required total
a.ial load, usually taken as \.4PD/P'
Equation (4.156) $.ill produce -01values higher than thos€ lrom Eq. (4.15o)
for concret€-fill€d tubes, and the reverse is true generally for encased light
snapes.
The ACI building codeDroorequires that all columns be designed lor at l€ast
a minimum eccentdcity of axial force express€d in inches as

e-":0.6+0.03i

where t is the overal depth of the column in inches.

A capacity-reduction factor d, - 0.70 is given for concrete-encasedshapes
and O : 0.?5 for concrete-filled steel tubes a.rd pipes. In addition, the axial
resistance is limited to 80 percent of the theoretical squash load P0 for
encaeedshapesand 85 percent ofP0 for concrete-filledsteel tubes and pipes.
The super?osition of component capacities gives the value of P" in the form
oIEq. ,4.5,.Thus. for concrere-enca.edsteelshapes.
 P,<0.8OPo:0.56P0 (4.16)
and for concrete-frledsteeltubesand pipes
P,=0.85+Po:0.72P0 14.17)
Biaxiallyeccentricloacling. The responseto loaalingof a composite cross sec-
tion, for any orientation of the neuhal axis, can be obtained assuming the
same strain compatibility and rectangdar conoete stress block as those for
unia.{ial bending. As this procedure is t€&ous, the Commentary to ACI 318-
95D100 suggests as adequate a bia-xial-strcneth analysis that satisfres an inter-
action sur-face similar to the upper parl of Fig. 4.11. The analysis is based on
the following relationship:Gl,

1111

v/ith Pr : capacity for biaxially eccentric axial force

P = axial force capacity for eccentriciw e, in the plane ofthe r a_ais
= a-rial force capacity for eccenhicity e.,in the plane of the } aLis
{
P; : axial force capacity for concentric loid (the squash load)

Bar reintorcementfor encasedcomposilecolumns. ACI codeD100 permits place

ment of any steel shape inside a section that is rcinforceal with bars satisfying
requircments for tied columns. The vield stress in calculations ofthe encaEed
shape shorid not be taken greater than 60 ksi (414 MPa). Tied columns must
contain longitudinal bars with an area at least 1 percent and not more than 8
percent of the $oss area of the section.
The lateml spacing of longitudinal bars should not exceed % the length of
the shorter side ofthe section. Laterat ties should extend completely arounil
the structual-steel core and should have a diameter at least 2 percent of the
length of the longer side of the section but need have a diametff no larger
than % in (16 mm). The ver.ticalspaciag oflateral ties cannot €xceedone-half
the length of the shodest side of the section, 16 diameters of lonqitudinal
barsor 48 dianetersoflateral ries.

4.5 SpecialConsiderations
4.5.1 Differentialaxialshortenino
Buildings with vertical members of different matedals and stresses. some
composite and others of rcinforc€d concrete or str-uctuml steel, undergo difer-
ential axial shortening. For buildings exceeding about 20 stories in heighl
predicting the axial shortening is necessary to ensurc level floors and to pre
vert damage to nonstructural elements. Axial shortening of columns and
walls can be analyzed in three categod€s including elastic change due to
loads, chang€ caused by sMntage, and change from creep. The €lastic short-
 ening due to conshuction loads also needsto be computedfor compositemem-
bers involving steel erection columns encasedin concrcte at a later stage of
construction.ACI Committee 209 reportc6sand a report by Fintel, Ghosh, and
Iyengarc50 are the sources of information for the following discussion.
Charactedstic properties of constituent materials must be established
before differcntial shodening can be determined. Average values for concrcte
are giv€n in Sec.4.5.2. If specificlocal test data are available, they should be
used instead of the average values. Since differential shodening includes
rcsponse tu speciflrcloading, the constr-uction sequence for each memb€r must
be known or assumed. In the case involving steel erection colunns which are
later encasedin concrete,the steel lfame generally is €rected 8 to 16 flools
ahead of the concrete encasement. In the case of a core shear wall system
with composite extedor columns, the concrete core $ra11is generally con,
structed ahead ofthe exterior columns.
Shortening of steel columns is computed as L.= PIIAE- Several compute?
programs are in existencefor the procedure presinted by Fintel, Ghosh, and
Iyengarcso A sample of computed movem€nts for an interior steel column in
an S0-storybuilding is shown in Fig. 4.12a and for an ext€rior compositecol-
u]nn in Fig. 4.12b. The frnal cuves for both the erterior composite column
and an interior steel column are shown in Fie. 4.12c.
Length of fabricated componentscafl be modifred as a means of compensa-
tion for differential axial shortening. Analysis is generally made on a 1o-floor
basis; i.e., the steel columns are adjusted every 10 floors to compensatefor
the differential movement. A table of the adjusted steel column lengths is
developedand provided to the contnctor. An exampte for the ?5-story Texas
Commerce Plaza in Houston is shown in Table 2.3. It should be noted that
foundation movements were included in the calculations in order to obtain
proper column adiustments.
In caseswhere the composite column or wall is connectedto an adjacent
vedical member by dgid connections to deep floor beams or trusses, the
analysis must include the indeterminate flexulal restraint to vertical move-
ment. In the case of story-high outrigger truss or wall, secondaryshesses in
the out?igger element can be minimized if most of the a-..iat shortening ofthe
composite vertical member is allowed to tahe Dlace before its connection to
tl_eourrrggertruss or wdtl . complFted.

--:l propertiesof concrete

Time-dependent
Concrcte is a matedal that undergoes both ireversible and reversible changes
with time. Irreversible gains in strcngth and stiffness occur with time, and
reversible volume changes due to shrinlage and to fluctuations of tempera-
turc vary with time. Volume changes due to creep are partially reversible.

Slrengthand stiftness. Con€retegains shength and stiffness with age after it

is cast and cued. The rate of gain decreases with time such that it is quite
low within 1 month after casting. However, it is not uncommon to observe in
4.32

80

t)
60
6
-i oo
2a

0
o 2 4 6tn0 2 4rA 2 8in
U p l o s a bn s r a l a r i o ns u s e q u e n r r o
slabinstalarion
VenicaL displacemenl ol slabsupport
(a)

o= o= 6d=
o;o o;@ l3) + lel @ . o
di ?e/ i j,e

a+i^47
20
=o'@.@ ao=o.@
o 2 4 6in o 2 4in 1 0i n

Verticaldisplacement
oi slabslppon

60

3
2A

0 2 4 6 8 10in A 2 4in
Ditfefenlia shodeningbetween
eneror and inlerlorcolumfs
(c)
Fisure 4,12 Column lensth chanses in d 8o-story building.csD (@l Ilteior 6t.c1 col-
unn. (6) Exierior conlosiie column. (c) DilIercntial shortenins.
 a few yea$that the strength is 20 to 40 percent greater than the required 2g_
da) slrcnglh Tl ise.senrial rhat consideration be given lo actual value.ol/
at earl) agps i{ estimarebare needcdof column during con,truc_
tion. ACI Committee 209c3,developedthe following "honening
retationships lor the rate
of strength gain for concrete made with tJ?e I ceme;t:

(4.18)

where fi = ca6p."""i"e shength of conoete at time r,

-
f...s corrpressive<trength ofconcrere at 28 darls
tr = time in days after casting

For concrete made with t)?e III cement, the coefiicients 4 and 0.8S are
teplaced with 2.3 and 0.92, respectively. The Committee 209 repoftc3ewas
issued before research data becameavailable on high-shength con;rete. Thus
Eq. (4.18)may not be valid for concretewith f; greater dranlO *i (eOUla).
The time dependence ofYoung,s modulus is given by substituting the actual
cylinder strength at time ofloadingfi into Eq. (4.1):

E.,: *"\/f; (4.19)

where & is the unit weight of concrcte given in lb/ft3 aid
1j, is concrete com_
pressive shength at the time of loading computed from Eql (4.18). Modulus
-Ea and shength /; are taken in ksi.

Shrinkage. ConcretevoluIle fluctuates with changesin moistwe and humid_

ity, increasing as moisture increases and decreasing as moisture alecreases.
Volume changes with moisture are recoverable ss each moisture state is
restored. The thinne? a concretecomponentis, the more its ambient moisture
cdn change.A sizeefIFcLfaclor ff. . for shrin}age is .xpres."d ;n lerm. of ihe
volume to suface arca ratio y/Sl

K
-1" 0.037(v/s)
+ 0.944 (4.20a)
0.1,77(.v/S)
+ 0.784
Arelative humidity influence factor Kr for shrinkage can be taken for 40 =

Kt, = r.40 0.10H. 14.20b)

and for S0 = }1 < 100 as

Kr:3.00-0.03fi. (.4.20c)
where IJ, is the annual average ambient rctative humidity giv€n in perc€nt.
Time dependpnrshrinkageCaclorK ir rerm. ofconcreteage in days after
casDngcan be estrmated as
 K: (4.20d)
td+ 26elo36vts)

The ovemll limit or long-time shrinkage strain of concrete can be taken as

0.0008 for purposes of providing allowances for volume change in stmctuml
concrete to minimize harmful effects on the adjacent architectural compo-
nents or attachments. Thu6 the estimated linear shortening strain €" due to
shrinkageof a composirp columncan be esrimdledas

€": 0.0008r""r,,K, (4.21)

Creep. lYhen subjected to sustained compression, concrete crceps; i.e., its

density is incrcasing as its volume is betng reduced. Creep strain is linearly
related to elastic stmin for stressesless than 0.5/; For higher stresses,creep
is nonlinea! increasing rapidly for strcsses above 0 75f. The commentary to
ACI 318-95Drr'0indicates that in estimating flexuml deflections it is appropri-
ate to take twice the initial shain as the limiting creep stxain on plain con,
ffete. In oder to design clearance allo$/ances for creep deflections under sus-
tained load, ACI Committee 209G3ssuggests that an acceptable value for
long time sustained load creep is 2.35 times the initial elastic shain-
More specific estimates of creep displacements can be made i{ data are
available regarding the age t, at time of loading, the dumtion rd of load in
days, the member volume-to-surface area ratio V/S, and the relative humidity
11,. The effectE olthese four variables are obtained $.ith the help ofthe follo\F-
ing lbur coefficients:
1. Cr.for the age ofconcrete I

cr :2.3(.t)o,6 (4.22',
2. C,"for membersizeor shape

^' " - O.O44

tV/Sr 0.934
o . r o r y s ro . 8 s - @.22n1

3. C, for relative humidit5r

c,.=1.40-0.0111 (4.2%'
4- C/ for time under sustainedload

a: d
"/ 10 + ,96

Estimat€d Ehortening shain € including ffe€p under sustained load after

initial elastic strain e becomes
 ComposlteColumns 4.35

e : e,C,,C,"CoC, 14.23)

Application. A computational procedurc, based on Eqs. (4.19), (4.21), and

(4.23) and outtined by Fintel, Ghosh, and lyengatcso can be used to deter-
mine column shortening duing constr.uction of tall buildings.

4.5.3 Seismicresistance
If buildings are to survive a major €adhquake with iateral forces large
enough to cause inelastic structural response of framing members, the mem-
bers must possess sufficient ductility and toughness to absorb the imparted
eneryy by undergoing several cycles of large deformations without loss of
strength. Seismic design of structural membe$ should ensure rctention of
strcngth through several revenals of displacements 4 to 6 times larger than
the dhplacement at initial yieldins of the shuctual component. A steel tube
or pipe provides filled composite columns with an eflective containment for
concrete fill resulting in a ductile structural response to large flexuml defor-
mations. Similar containment can be prcvided for concrete encasement of
structural shapes by closely spaced ties. Consequently, specifrc seismic desigr
requircments fbcus on details of construction and assembly in addition to the
clearly necessary pmvisions of rcquired strength.
Until 1994 no authodtative guidance was available in the United States
regarding the seismic desigr of composite members and str-uc.tures.The 1994
edition of the BSSC,A,IEHRP Recommend€d ProvisionsD,6 presented the fust
step toward satisrying the need for guidance. It includes a new Chap. 7 entiiled
Composite St€el and Conclete Stnrctue Design Requirements. Aticles 7.5.3
and 7.5.4 deal $.ith encased and filled composite colunrns, and Art. ?.4.? deals
with composite Bhear walls. A list of rcferences is included in the document.

Strengthconsiderations. Analyses of the shength of composite columns in

accordancewith AISC-LRFD and ACI 318 pmvisions, and a plastic analysis
of a composite column cross section have been described in Sec. 4.4. Another
analysis of strength under eccentdc loading applicable to EJmmettc cross
sections has been shownuo to proaluce capacity prcdictions that are in agree-
ment with experimental results. The method is based on the superposition of
th€ individual nominal strengths of the separate steel and reinforc€d concrcte
sections, leading to a moment axial load interaction sudace for the composite
cross section. The procedure,called the superposealshength method,Dsais a
limit-stlensth analysis similar to the allowable-stress method included in the
Japanese standard for composite colunrn design.DsT
The superposed Etrength is obtained ftom the following equations:
ForP,,<P<P"oorM>M"0,

14.24a)
M<M"+M"a (4.24b)
4.36

Fot P > P," ot M < M"a,

P-P^ P, @.25a)
M=M"o
For P .< Pe ot M < M"a, with iensile a-iial force,
(4.25b) lf
lfr
IN
P -P, P". (4.26a)
ru
M: M"" @.26b)
where P = compressive force
P," : limit compressive strength of rcinforced concrete poltion
Pd : limit tensile strength of reinlorced concrete portion subjected to
tension alone, taken negative
P"o = limit comprcssive strcngth of reinforced concrete portion subjected
to compressionalone
P,/ : limit compressiveshength ofsteel portion
M : bending-moment resistance
M" : limit flexural shength ofreinforced con$ete portion
M,o : limit flexurai strength of Steel portion subjected to bending alone
M* = limit fler:ural strength of steel portion

A thrust-moment interaction curve based on the superposed-strength

method (SSM) is shown in Fig- 4. 10 as a light line for the 10 \ 10 x ya-rrJQSa
x 254 x 6-mm) filled tube. The calculation procedure is describedir App. B.
The SSM curve shown in Fig. 4.10 rcflects ACI values of strength; i.e-, all
strcngth factors d were tahen in calculations equal to 0.85. The comparisoB
shows that the superyosed-strength method gives results vely close to those
obtained ftom the plastic analysis (heaw line). It was pointed out in Sec-
4.4.5 that LRFD gives conservative results for combined thrust and bending-
As this conservatism for the inter:rn€diate cases of combined loading is at
times excessive,the use ofthe superposed-shengthmethod is prefemble. Tbe
superTosed-shength method is padicularly convenient when design tables (E
charts are available for both structural steei shapes and rcinforced concrete.

Beintorcingdelails. Concrete encasementof Bteel shapes must be rcinfon€d

with longitudinal and transverse reinforcing bals. The size anal location
bars for nonseismic applications serves pdmarily to maintain the concrete
encasement arcund the steel shape until failure stmin ol about 0.3 percent i
reached under monotonically increasing load. Most shuctural steel
and reinforcing bars yield at stmins less than 0.3 percent.
Seismic applications require significantly more reinforcement of the
crete encasement than that requir€d for nonseismic applications. U
cyclic late?al loading composite column ductility is higbly alepend€nt on
confinernent of the concrete core surrounding the encased steel s€ction.
confinement in ercased composite columns is pmvided by closely spaced
-!rea.13 Eflective conn@d core.ra

rups. Other factoff influencing conlinement include the size and dist bution
oflongitudinal rcinforcement, the presenceolinternediate cmss ties, and the
yield stress of the transverse reinforcement. Fizure 4.13 shows as a c?oss-
hatchcdarea the pffcctiverone ot conlnemenrfor rhe inner coreof concrere.
The outer cover ol concrete may spall off near critical sections during najor
earthquakes, exposing the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement.
Spalling usua\ occurs at th€ base of a ground,floor column where a plastic
flexulal hinee has formed. Tlansveme ties, if aliowed to bulge outward, per-
mit the inner core ofconcrcte to deteriorate under cyclic toading. Buckling of
ihe longitudinal reinforcing bals mav lead to similar deterioration. The result
ofa loss o{ the inner core is a degndation in column capacity and ductility.
To proyide adequate coninement to the concrcte, the followinE criteria for
rhe amounr ol r"a'rs!er.e re nforccnenr have been round satisficro"v Ther
are basedon New Zpalandprovisionsfor reinfor.edconcrpte:cr^

l!, > O.S",ir"

+f -1X0.5"1%#?J (4.27a)
.
!/. \ 1
A"h> o.r2s,h,
+ (0.E+ 1.28
#f."A
)
&.27b)

where : cross-sectionalarea oftransverce reiDforcement(including cross

i
ties) within Bpacing s/ and perpendicular to dimension lr"
sr = spacing of hansve$e reinforcement measurcd along ihe longitu,
dinal axis ofthe structural member
l" : cmss-sectionaldimension of column corc measued center-to-
center of confrning reinforcem€nt
:
f.- specified compressive strength of concrete
.F',r = slecified yield strength of tmnsve$e reinlorcement
A" = gross area ofsection
A., : cross-sectionalarea ofreinforcealcore ofa sectionmeasurcil out-
to-out of hansverce reinforcement
 P, : applied axial load
4 = resistaacefactoreqtal to 0.70
The influence of axial force rcflected by the bracketed tern in Eqs. (4.27) is
omitted from seismic requirements ofACI 318-95,Dr00which requires the fol-
lowing lorer limit i:Ntead:

^ _ 0.09s,n"f
^"^=--T (4.28'

In addition, to inlibit longitudinal bar buc}ling, the maximum tie spacidg

s* shodd salisfot he followinscondirion:

s*=0.25,1"<4in (4.291
ACI provisions for reinforcement detailing related to bar benditrg, tail
lengths, and development length arc suitable fol composite columns.
The hysterctic response of two encased composite column specimens, speci.
men 1 not satislying Eq. (4.28) and specimen 3 in compliance with Eq. (4.28I
is shown in Fig. 4.14.140 The supedor responseof sp€cimen 3 is cl€arly evi-
dent. lts stable hysteretic loops are in marked contrast to the mpidly degra&
ing loops ol specimen1.

Bond interaction between concrete and steel. Curvature along the length of
enca"ed shape is lhe 6ame aq that of Lheencasingconcreteif curva
"reel
compatibility er<ists along the column. A lack of bond between the interface
tle sreel shape and the buraounding concrele resultc in a mrgraiioE of
concrete neuhal axis toward the tension face. The length along which sigrd
canr inela"tic rcsponseoccurs under severecyclic loading is Iimiled to
danrtr ^fr}la ca.finh
At the base of the column the steel shape ard the longitudinal
ment must be well anchorcd in order to allow the development of inel
culvature at the compositecolumn base.A detail that piaces the steel
base plate below the sudace ofthe fooiing is given in Fig. 4.15. It is
plate \Meldsare subjectedto less deformation
becausecolumn-to-base
those on a surface base plate of Fig. 4.16 wherc the base plate is located
the top ofthe footing.
E:perimenrsr'0in\olving cyclic loading have sho$.nlhar
"pecimpns
enhancedbond, through the use of shear studs on the outside surface of
flanges, do not perform sigdficantly better than specimens without
bond enhancement. The cyclic stiffiress and strcngth ol a specimen w:th
studs are shown in Fig. 4.17 to be essentially the same as those of a s
without shear studs.

Transverse-shear behavior Special altenlion mu.t be grven ro provide

cient tlansverse relnforcement within the plastic hinge rcgion at t}le joitrts
 4.39

Driflralio^/L (%)

FtrN

D spacenrent
^ (lnches)

Drinrario&L (%)

F _ _trv

Disptacemenl
^ (inches)
are4.l4 Lateralload-displ@mentrcsponse.t4o

columns to conflne the concrete core, tansverse-shear reinforcement also

enhances bond between the st€el section anal the concrete encasement bv Dro-
uiding ronfining pressure uhile mainl,aining Lhe conci:e{erore. et*roujt rtre
encased steel shape alone has a rclatively large shear capacity, the reinforced
conoete encas€ment can help rcsist some of the total applied shear.
 F

Fisure4,ls Comooqrp rolum wiib base p-al" sLb-

Upliflplate
Figure4.16 Compositecolum witb bse plate at

ACI 318-95D100 recommendationsprovide an estimate for the shear

tance caDacitv of coDcrete columns unaler axial load as

y : 2 1]1 + +Pi,b d v o . o o r f

where V" : nominal shear resistance, kips

= applied axial load, kips
{
/f,: gross arca ofsection, in,
f - concrerecompressjves(rcng1h.ksi
 Hu=88.2kips

60

s-.# sp€.imen 3,

e-F-D sp4imens,
shearsluds
124
-6 -3
Latealdisplacement(inches)
:!G4.17 Envelopeof laisalload-displacementEsponse.ll0

6 = cross-section width, in
d - depth of tensile reinforcement rcIatrve to exbeme concrete com-
pressive fiber, in
For encaseclcomposite columns the width 6 used in Eq. (4.30) should be
rcplaced with an effective vridth b, of concrete that is restdct€d to concret€un]n-
t€rupted by the steel shape and that is measured perpendicular to the plarte in
which shear js resisted, as is indicat€d by the shaded areas shoier in Fig. 4.18.
Cyclic load reversal testsLlo have shown that the shear shength of compos-
ite columns with steel shapes encased in concrete is not always the sum of
Bhear capacity lor component palts. Total shear /{ applied to a composite co1-
umn can be assigned to steel shape V., to concrete 4, and to ties y.. Under
service loading, in which the displacement ductility p is less tha]t 0.7, the rel"
atively high shear stiffness of concrete retains most of the applied sewice
load shear, v/ith a small contdbution coming from the encased shape anil no
appreciable contribution from the hansverse ties. The curves in Fig. 4.19
illushate that after concrete 6acks in shear at 25.8 kips (115 kN) a softening
occum in the shear stifftress of the conoete, causing a ledistribution Aiiel
shear cracking, the encased steel shape resists most of the applied shear.
Under cyclic loading, the ultimate shear capacity 4 of the composite column
should be taken as equal to % ofthe ste€l section alone.

l-6 Design Examples

4-6,1 Encasedcolumnstrength
A concrete Bection 20 x 20 in (0.5 x 0.5 m) is to support a factoreal axial force
P, : 2350 kips (10.5 MN) through a clear height /C : 14 fi (4.3 m). With f" =
5 ksi (34 MPa) and grade 60 (414 MPa) reinforcement equal to 8 percent of
4,42

n n n
0.5bE 0.5bE o.5bE 0.5bE

F--l
tl
tl

-a

Flguie4,13 Shear in encasedcohposfte coirlfus.lo

the gyoss area As, the largest d{ that the reinforced concrete section can
carry is computedfrom Eq. (4.12a)using po from Eq. (4.5):

6P" : 0.56(A"F!A"F4+ 0.85f;A")

: 0.5610+ (0.08 x 400 x 60) + (0.85 x b x 0.92 x 400)l

: 1951 kips

Since 1951 kips is not adequate, select an A5?2 grade g0 W shape for th€
compositecolumn.
AISC LRFD ManualDsscontains tables listing the strcngth of composite
columns (pp. 5-73 to 5-143). The tables are used below for rapid selection of
th€ composite section. Enter ManualDe5p. b-98 with Af :14 ft to select a
W12x120 shape in the 20 X 20-in concrete section \rith 4#9 longitudinal bals
to supporl the load 012350krps.

4.6,2 Encasedcolumndesign
Selecta W10A572grade50 (345MPa) shapeto supporta bracedlrame coD-
shuction load P, = 375 kips (1.67MN) for an unbracedlength of _&Z:16 fr
(4.9m). Subsequently,an 18 x 18-in(0.46x 0.46-m)squarecompositesectioNr
must supportan axial forcePr : 1340kips (5.96MN) and a moment,ll4 =
205{t-kips(278kN-m) when1C : 14 ft (4.s m) andf-: s ksi (ss Mpa).
 ducility pA
Dlsplacement
io{E 4.19 Shed behsvior of an encasedcodpositecoiumn.ra

Use ManualDs5p. 3-27 to select a W10x49 for the construction column load
of 3?5 kips for Ir7 : 16 ft. Checkthe core size in the 18 x 18-in compositecol-
umn by usingManual p. 5-108.
For the W10x49, OM. : 379 ft-kips and with Kl = 14 ft,, 6P" = 7720kipg.
:
P ^ 0.78> o.2;thetefore,Eq. (4.13o)applies:
"lgP
P,, a. Y- =E!9*92os . t z a- . t
dP" 9 fhM, t720 I379

The sectionis not aalequate.

Tly a W10x60 steel shapeembeddeal in 18 x 18-in concretes€ctionrein-
forcedwith 8#10longitudinal grade 60 bars instead of4#8 (Fig. 4.20):
A" : 1?.6in' -4n: 8(1.27): 10.16in'

4' 18(18) 1?.6 10.16= 296in'z

Eq.14.11a):
F.. - 50 | 0.7,55r - 0.6'8,-i;; r53ksi
i;';
 Fl9!6 420 Chss section
for exsmptein Sec.4.6.2.
8#10Gfade60 Bals

Eq.(4.1):

''" : ras1s1.,,fy
= 4946L"i
Eq.(4.116):
- '0.2i4940 - 4s.600
E = 29.000 ksi
ffi
Compute{ from Eq. (4.9).UsinCEq. (4.10a),where

r_ : 0.3 x t8 : 5.4in > 4.39in

A-l'!):'|
b.4n.
L |
111=oezs
45.600
Thercfore,I" < 1.5and

F"" : (0 658o3's)153
: 133ksi

d{ : 0.85(17.6)133
: 1990kips
ComputeM, from Eq. (4.12).The steelstrengthat middepthofthe composite
sectionincludesthe areaof the w€band 2#10ba$:

A.\:0.420110.22 - 2(0.680)150
+ 2(1.22)b5= 826kips
ZF!: 74.6(50): 3780in-kips : 911ft-kips

%(.h, 2c,)F!,A": %118- 2(2.5)155(10.16)

: 2421in,kips : 202{r-kips
"25
I AF \ 20
- -2500
lo.sn, ,^rfi,)e,r - In r r|?um]r* - 208
in-kips ft.kips 15
l0
4M"- 0.85(311+ 202 + 208): 613ft-kipE 5
 P, M"-- tl+o -820s
,a . o o ? r' r l
6P^ I 6M^ 1990 9 613 ""

W10x60 with 8*10 bars is satisfactorv.

for an encasedcolumn
4.5.3 P/Dtdlagram
The composite column shown in Fig. 4.21 must support several differcnt load
combinationB ofP, and M-. LRFD prccedures cannot be useal, as the W14x61
(34 cm x 28 kg) has an area less than 4 percent ofthe gross area ofthe com-
posite section. Limit-strength intemction graphs are neealed.
Design aids arc readily available for rcinforceal concrete columtrs (ACI
handbook,cs CRSI handbook,@ and computer soltware). Coordinates of an
interaction curve for shength of the rcinforced concrete alone can be taken
from such sources, while the thrust'moment capacity of steel shapes is readi-
ly determined ftom plastic analysis. The two graphs can be added graphically
to produce a graph for the composite section.
Coordinates for interaction curwes generated by computer60A are listed in
Table 4.2. The lines in Fig. 4.22 marked "rcinfo?ceal concrete alone" were con-

1 4 # 1 1G r . 6 0B a t s
256'lyp

--€ure
4.21 CrosB section for etuple in Sec, 4.6.3 .

_ BLE4.2 Coordinalesfor IntertcllonCurves

CM,.,&-hps SM.,.Ii-kils
2750 ?55 509
2500 975 660
2000 1316 898
r500 \526 7052
1000 1600 110?
500 1474 985
 (kips)

3000

100 200 lM.

(n_kips)
Flgur. 4.22 Inrera,,ioh diae.dm" by suberpospd

structed from the tabulated coordinates. The lines for .steel alone" Eive
plaotic momenr capacity mu-tripliedb) resictance lactor 6 _ 0.g5. Ray'sa
the lines ofcoordinat€s can be added. In this case rays 6om the origin to t
'W14X61
alone" were added to the ,,leinforced concrete alone', cooriinates
pmduce the interaction curves for the composite section labeled SSM
superposed-shength method.Ds4

4.6.4 Filledplpecolumndesign
Design a concrcte-frlledround pipe colunn witI E : Ab ksi (240 Mpa) and
: 5 ksi (34 MPa) to support a rcquired axial load p, : 186 kips (827
kN) ar
zero moment fbr an unsuppoded effective length 1fl:14 ft (4.9 m).
design is completed easily with the LRFD ManualDss load tables for cor
ite columns,pp. 5-111to 5-114.The table on p. b-114tor /" : b ksi showsr
=
-190kips for a 6-in standard pipe with a watl thicknes; of 0.280 in, for
effective length of 14 ft.
4.6.5 Filledpipe columndesignwithoul tables
Rewolk desig:n example from Sec. 4.6.4 without the use of design tables steel
pipe shapes generally comprise at least 15 percent of a composite section, and
since steel yield shength is (35/5) = 7 times as gleat as concrete strength'
estimate that the pipe will reBist about 80 percent of t,h€ total requtued P,,
alld suess that the modest 186-kip load for a 14-{t lensth wil result in a Blen-
demess ratio such that 04" wil] be near 0.54
Then 0.544 = 0 SP" o'r,4. - 0.8(186)/(05 x 35): 8 50 in'z For round
columns, 4 - rd, : 8.5 irP ard d't - 2.7 in'. The following combinations
result in dt: 2.7 in':
t : y4i\ anal d=10.8in
t=%i^ anal d = 7.2ir'l
t:%il and d: 5.4in

From among the available pipe sizes, try 6-in standard pipe for which d :
6.625in,, : 0.280in, -A"= 5.58in'z,and r : 2 25 in.
Checkthe selectionu€ingEqs.(4.9)and (4.10):
A" = (6.625 2 x 0.2s,, i't'
T:28.9
Eq.(4.11@):
A rco
4, - 4 0.85f - 35 - 0.85'5.0)53:?E;
57 ksi
A:
Eq. (4.1):
E" = ;alb\,| : Ga5..L5\6 : se00 ksi

Eq.(4.116):
O.4DA
E =E+ .a

- f o.4 reoo' +: ) 37.oso

2s,ooo ksi
\ o.od/
t;
Kl l' ^v latlzt 1 570
\, ;;V4 izi" /rz.oaooe32
A=13:0.932':0.86e
For \ less than 1.5, Eq. (4.10(,) applies. The design shength is obtained
from Eq. (4.9) as

oP,: 0.85A"4: 0.854(0.658,{)4,

= 188 kips
: 0.85(5.58X0.6580r6'g)5?.0
 which is gr€ater than the required 186 klps. Standard 6-in pipe wiih wall
thickness of 0.28 in is satisfactory

4.6.6 Filled-tubebeam-cotumndestgn
Design a square, concrete-filledsteel tube column to support the loails tabu_
lated below. 1lfs column is a part of a braced t"-e, j"a tle load caseJbr
ma)omum moment bends the column into revelse curvature. The unbraced
lengthKl = 16 {t 8 in (5.08m),/-= 5 ksi (34 Mpa), and4, = 46 ksi (31?Mpa).
There is no moment magnfication.

Inad kip6 tkN) ft-kips (kN n)

Dead 170 (756) L4 (19)
2A /J25) 0 (0)
Live 86 (38a) (45)

RequiredP,:1.2, + 1.6L + O.SL.

= 1.2(170)+ 1.6(86)+ 0.b(28)= Bs6 kips

Required M = 1.2(14)+ 1.6(8A)+ O.b(O): ?0ft-kips

The tables in the LRFD MarualDe5 are used for rapial selection of a trial
cross section. For lhe required axial load ajone, a I ?_ft colurnn wilh 8 . 8 ,
';lube rMaDUal
p 5-t23,can resist356 kips. However,rhar crocssectionha_6
a design moment ol only ?5.6 ft-kips. Since the column is near its limit capac_
rty boLh,foraxial lorce and for momeni. a targer qerrron is r"quired ro saiis&
-tjqs. I4.l3l lor combined axial load and bendiDg. Ilt ro find a section witl
axial and flexural capacitiesabout twice the rcquiredvalues. For a 10 X10 x
%6 tube_1? ft long, list€d on p. 5-129, the axial design strength is given as 629
kip-sand the fiexural de6ignstreDg1has dMn - t4tft-kips.
Check{he adequacyof lhi6 secrionusingtq. ,4.I3o r.

-\ - 9 4 - - a s o- - s z n 1,0
tp. s 6M"- 629 9;;-0.e86

For Ifl - I6 ft 8 in, an inLerpolation on p. 512j ofthe AISC ManualDrsletds

an a),ial design streDgrh dp, - 6J3 kips. The flexural desisn strencth
-
r e m a i n sa t o M , - 1 4 8 n - k i p s . T h u s t h e l 0, t O , \ 1 6 ( u b e i s a c " " p t r t t . .
An alternate approach is contained in the ACI 318-95 building code.Dlo
Refening to Fig. 4.23, ir which the neuhal ar.is is shown at the fstarce of
8.78 in belowlbe msideedgeof the rop walJofthe tube r9.09;n belowthe top
sudaceofLhe ruber,the loadsrequiredby ACI are
 ComposilsColumns 4,49

Secton Skains Steelstress

.=rs!€4,23 ACI methodfo! s4tion sirenCth,

P,= 1.4D+ 1.7L= 7.4x.170+ L.7(28+ 86): 432kips

M,,= 1.4 x 14 + 1.7 x 33 : 76 ft-kips
Details of strain compatibility analysis with a neutral axis located 9.09 in
from the compressionedge of the cross section are shown in Fig. 4.23.
Conqete strength is representedwith a rectargdar stress block for which a,
: 0.85and/;: 5 ksi.

= 46(10XX' 143.8 4,81 691

= 46(Xt)2G.14) 119,0 2.62 3t2
= (ku6(112(4.64) 66.7 1.00 67
= l(-5.9X/$)2(0.60) 1.1 4.49 5
= ( 7.5xrt10 23.4 -4,81 712
= 0.85(5)9.88(7.02) 279.9 1.18 330

T'he sum of axial forcesequals 585 kips and momentsabout the centroid
equal 1383 in-kips. The ACI 0 factor for condete-filled tube columns is 0.?5.
Thus the valuesdP" = 0.75(585)= 439 kips and {I4" : 0.?5(1383/12) = 86 fi-
kips are fourd to be greater than the rcqutuedP" 432 kips and 14 : 76 ft-
:
kips. The sectionft showIl to be acceptable.

{.6.7 Filled-pipe
columnstrength
Determine the axial loaalcapacity of a concrete-filled steel pipe with 4 : 60
kEi (414 MPa), /; : 8 ksi (55 MPa), out"sidediameter : 8 in (20 cm), and pipe
wall thickness = 0.25 in (6.4 rm). The unsupported length Kl = 16 ft (4.9 m).
 This e.rample is srmilarro Lheexamplern Sec.4.6.4. except{haLno colurnn-
load table is available. Not€ that therc is an uppel limit of 60 ksi (414 Mpa)
for _(,.
Detemine geometdcand material properties using LRJ'D rules.

A" = (82 7.5,)t - 6.osn,

A":7.s2;:44.2nP

I"=(84 7.51)&: 45.7iIIl

,^
t^: r": \/r"tA,:
,lu*-:r3nr"

{,, : 6o + o + !.95i!!)442 = 109.4ksi

+ (0.4)r45,r(Vt# = a0,s00
E^= 2s,o0o ksi

UseEqs.(4.9)and (4.10)to detemine +P,:

1 6 \ 1 2 l-gL=, ,o,
2.74r v 40.300
- -"-

r: : 1.162'_ 1.350:1 < 2.25

4': (oess"'olton
' u"o"'
The axial load capacity of this concrcte-filledsteel pipe is

oP" : 0.85(62.2)6.09
= 322kips

4.6.8 Filled-tube
beam-cotumnstrength
Ifa requtuedaxial load{:112 kips (498kN) is acting on an 8 x 8 x r/{ia
(2OO 200 6.4-mmltube columnfi1ledwith 5-ksi (S4_Mpa)concrete,wbat
magnitude of moment M, cal be sustained?Assumean unbracedlength of 16
lt 8 in (5.08m) and a yield stress4:46 ksi (81? Mpa) for the tube. Use
beam-colunrn interactiorEqs.(4.13).
From AISC ManualDetthe plastic section modulus of the tube is Z = 219
in3.Use sidewallsas the web areaof the compositesection:

A. = 2 x 7.5 x 0.25: 3.78i\2

For the [ominal momentM- use the plastic moment capacity of the composite

, AFT
Me=z4+ A,F,losh LWL)

. 2r.s, 4t;- J.1b . a1;r (on .' "8 3.75/-40-\

\"" 1 . 2. s , 8 /
: 1260in-kips

From AISC ManualDes p. 5-123,the axial d€signstlength of the concrete-

filled tube is obtained by int€rpolation as 6P" = 361 kips. Since
112 > 0.26P, - 0.2 (361) : '.t2.2kips
Eq. (4.13r')applies. Solvefor the magnitude of moment M, that this beam col-
umn can sustain in addition to the axial load P,j

/ 11o\ (
M, 0.85 1260. (r - 't - *t in-ups 6e.3ft-kips
#)
 Chapter

5
Lateral
Resisting
Systems

Functionof B.acing
Bracing of a building, simply stated, prcvides strcngth anat stifTness to resist
forces in the horizontal direction such as wind and seismic loads.
Furthermore, it pr.ovides out-of-plane stability to the columrls and walls which
supoor.tihe buiiding,s sravirl loads.
Buildings are always ilesigned for gavity loads with a floor system strolu
enough to carry the design loads to the columns or bearins walls and still
enough not to deflect excessivelyor be bouncy ard flexiblet disturb occu-
pants. In other words, the design for gravity loads must satist/ all verticai_
load issues.But design must also consider hodzontal-load issue;. Ftst, therc
arc-the queltlons of stability. The design must provide enough strength anal
stilftIess in the horizontal plane so that the structural floor svstem brlaces all
cohEns and walls to prcvent them from buckling. The bracing system must
be sufficiently strong and stiff so that it supplies stability bmcing for tlle
columas at each floor level. In addition, the floors arrd the roof function as
horizontal diaphragms that interconnect all vertical elements at each fram_
ing level. Second,there are the lateml loads: The bracinE has to be adeouate
to resist wind forcesand seismic movements.The normJprocess in desien of
a building is selecting a system to resist wind and seisrniciorces, designiig rt,
and ensuring that the selected lateml-force-resisting system is aaequate for
stability bracing ofthe building.
When discussing bracing a]ld lateral-forc€ resistance, the phrase "design
for wind and seismic forces' is frequenUy used. To implement a design prop-
erly, it is essential to have a clear understanding ofthis phrase. The design is
5.2

made for the greater of rvind and seismic forces according to the applicable
building code or a site-specific study accepted by the responsible builiing offi_
cial. Wind forces are based on wind exposure. Seismic forces are based oin the
seismicity ofthe region, the mass ofthe building, and the lateral-force_rcsist-
ing system. T'he greater of the two sets of folces is used for the design of the
lateml-force-resisting system. However, builcling codes recogaize thit actual
seismic forces can be signifrcandy ereater than the code_prescribedvalues
Thus seismic desien includes not only strength reqldrcmenis but also mat€ri_
al limitations and special provision for member proportioning and detailing
The pupose ofthese additional proyisions is to assure that the memberc ;
joints have the necessary ductility as well as strength.
Therefore, when
deEigning a building located in a seismic region, even when the winj forces
govern the shength design, the detailing and propodioning rcquirements
for
seismicresistancemust also be satisfied.
The stiffness that the bracing system imparts to a buitding limits the drift
or inteNtory displacementunder wind and seiBmicloading, in addition to its
mle in proyiding building stability. Seismic code provision! have drift limita_
tions for code-specifieds€ismic forces. Generally, the stiffe? a building, the
_parti_
less damage to nonstr-uctural components, such as curtain walls and
tions, in a strong ear.thquale. Ttrere are also limits oI1 drift for wind iorces
which are typically based on experience and engineering judgment rather
than specified in codes. In tall multistort, buildings, practical limits on drift
center around the perception of motion by the occupants. It is discomfortilg
to occupants to be enjoying a nice dinner only to have the water or wine ii
their glass sloshing or to be trying to sleep when the building creaks and
groans as partitions and other nonstr.uctural elements adiust to a d
building shape.For mora infomarion on drifr limitarion; basedon
perception,the reader is referred to Ref D82.

5.2 Types ot Bracing

Bracing systems for a building consist of bracing elements in vertical
horizontal planes-.Vertical bracing is provided bt the primary bracing
ments of the buildjngi moment-resisting frames, diagonally braced fram-es,
structural walls also referred to as shear walts. Horizontal bracing elemei
include floo-rand roof diaphragms o? horizontal diagonal bracing;hat inl
connects columns and walls at each floor level. The horizontal ;d verti
bracing should be prcperly interconnected in order to transfer all la
'orceslrom lheir poinr
oforigil through lhe horizonralbraring to rhe
bracingand iDlo the baseof rhe str-ucrurF. A complpteload path thr
the stlucture interconnecting all elements of the bracing sysiem is an e
tial ingledient of a successfulbracing system.
Composite structures are often conceived to crcate efrci€nt and econo
bracing systems to resist lateral forces. Steet and reiDforced connete l
tural systems have their functional and economic advantases anil alisail
tagFs.Composilesyblcmsolconcrereand stecl caF oficn rhe ad
"ombine
 LateralResbtlngSyslems

tages of the two different systems and crcate a burlaling that is more struc-
turally efficient and less expensive. Bmcing or lateral rcsistance drives the
design of high-rise stmctues, anal composite shuctues are often selected lor
such buildings. Similarly, composite blacing systems are oiten advantageous
for low- and midrise buildings.
The remainder of this chapter proviales information on t]?icai composite
bracing systems, both ve?tical and hodzontal. Other chapters of this book
cover in detail the design of individual elements and joints. The pupose of
this chapter is to highlight the impodance ofbracing systems to t}Ie design ol
composite buildings and to emphasize impodant desigr considerations for
composite bracing systems. In the follor ring sections, emphasis is given to
seismic rcsisting systems since the detailing of those systems is more cdtical
for earthquake resistance. All of the systems mentioned are generally accept-
able for wind resistance.

Moment-Resisting Frames
Moment-resisting iiames have tmditionaly been the most common lateral-
force-resisting system in the areas of high seismicity because of their limited
interfercnce with other builaling systems and their potential for latge ductili-
ty under seismic loading. Past seismic code provisions have distinguished
between "special" and "ordinary" moment frames ofboth steel and reinforced
concrete construction. Special moment frames, which must meet additional
detailing requirements to provide ductile inelastic ?esponse, are designed for
lower force ievels than ordinary moment-rcsisting frames. Recently, a third
class called partially restrained moment-resisting f?ames has been identified
and is being researched for use in seismic design. Ttris system, which relies
on the flexibiliw of the beam-to-column connections for inelastic energy dissi-
pation, has been pmposedin both steel and compositesystems.
Explicit design of composite moment-resiEting 1laInes in seismic areas of
the United States began to develop during the late 1980s. Previous design
procedures t ?ically did not incoryorate composite column elements or con-
sider the composite action of the concrcte slabs with steel beams. About thrg
time, the design profession began to explore possibilities of combiring rein-
forced concrete and st€el in seismic design using methods which take ma-{-
mum advantage of the propedies of both matedals. In many cases, these
early designs focused on combining steel beams with composite steel a]ld con-
cr€te columns, with ihe lateral force design gene?ally being controlled by
wind forces. In some instances, the steel column s€ction was solely used for
erection purposes, with a large concrete section provided for the requircd
stiffness and shength to resist the lateral {orces in tall buildings. A number
of other possible combinations exist for providing moment-rcsisting flames to
resist lateral loads, the use (or lack ofuse) of which has been ddven by eco-
nomic considelations. Few such buildings have been constructed in high seb-
mic r€gions in the United States, although the practice is more popular rn
Japan. The development of these composite systems has generally taken
 place in practice. Recent research in both the United States and Japan indi-
cates that properly detailed elements and connections in composite frames
can provide acceptable perfonnance even under reverse cyclic loading which
could occur under severeseismicexcitation.
Little or no guidance has been provided by existing building codes. No code
provisions were available prior to 1993 regarding the system and detailing
requircments. As a result, the d€signer of composite moment framing systems
has been left to xely on engineering judgment, paying particular atientron tr
configuration and detailing issues. Future codes will undoubtedly develop and
incorponte composite conshuction into the provisions for lateral_force_resrst_
lng sFtems, such as moment-resistitrg frames. The development of such pmvi_
sions,for seismic desien has beeun by the Building Seismic Safety Council
(BSSC). In 1993, BSSC developed rccommendations ior seismic
desijn of com_
posite steel and concrete constmction. They were incorporated int;the
1994
NEHRP Recommended provisions lor Seismic Regulations for New
Buildings.De6 These provisions and the accompanying coirmentary serveal as
the basis for the discussion of the design oflateral_force_resisting systems
which follows. Design for wind or other lateral forces woutd follow siirilu pre
cedures, with the major differences being in the need to provide ductile ele-
ment and connection detailing specifically in areas of hish ;ismicitl.

5.3.1 ldentilicationof momenttrames

Thrce potential classes of composit€ momentresisting framing systems can be
identified: (1) partiaily restrained moment-resisting fram-es, (Z) orainary
moment-resisting fianes, and (A) speciat moment_reEistinq frames. These thr€€
poteDrjal6)srems are parallclto *re pol,entialmomenFra;isring fi"ame
byst€ms
pres€ntly identified for use in steet construction. Each ofthese;vstems
and its
potenlial usp in seisnucdFsignis djsftrssedbriefly in tJrefoltowin! paragraphs-

Parliallyrestraln€dframes. PaniallS restraineo stecl momenl_resjsliDgfram€6

have been uspdbincerhe parlie"t dajs ofsreel consLruction. The elemenlsof
these early lramps were ll?ically connecredwilh top and borrom clip angles
wruch pro\rctea momenl resisLancewell below ihat which $ould be rpquired
to_-developthe full capacity of the beam section which franes into theloiat
Wh,el p_r.:vij:das a comDlercgra\jry-load-rcsisfingslsrem tn con3uncrion
I*rrn rnr||ed tames ol mdsotrryconsirucijon.Lhjs c)slem haq demonslrat€d
good perlomancein a numberofeanhquales.@DurangIhe mid-t900s.
tW!
car practrce tor moment-resibling frame construction changed ro a system il|
which the connections were intended to develop the tul mloment capacity of
the beams. Recent developments in steel research have indicated that accept-
able seisnic performance may be achievable in moment frame systems, whi'ch
are only padially restrained and rely on the abiliq. of the connections the*.
selves to dissipate energy during severe seismic shaking.lis These ilevelop
ments have led to the proposatfor the incorporation of thii systeminto tuture
seismicdesignprovisionsfor steelconshuction.
 LalelalBesistlngSyst€ms 5.5

Padially restrained composite moment frame systems were developedin

parallel \'!.ith steel partially restrained frames. As defined by Zandonini and
Leon,DT? compositepartially rcstrained moment frames consist of structural-
steel columns and compositesteel beams connectedwith semi grd composite
connections.Such connections(Fig. 2.6) consist ofthe standard steel web con-
nection, an attachment ofthe lower beam flange to the colunn, and the rein-
forcement in the floor slab connected to the steel beams with shear connec-
tols. Other composite systems which prcvide partially rcshained systems are
possible but have not been developed to date. An applicstion of composite
girderc with padial reshaint for windload desigr was repoded by Wexler.Ds0
Compositeaction between the steel beam and the floor slab can result in a
favorable distdbution ol strength and stiffness in both negative- and positive
moment beam regions. Such construction can also provide for redistribution
of forces within the beam and frame when inelastic action takes place.
Laboratoq' tests on beam-column subasseBblages indicated that pmperly
detailed, partislly restrained composite connections can undergo large d€for-
mations without ftactudng. In providing a ductile connection with a desien
capacity below that of the members framing into the joint and the panel zone,
such a system should proyide good perlormance under large inelastic defor-
mation cycles. Partially restmined systems also have the potential advantage
of being subjected to lower seismic forces than compamble ful]y reshained
systems owing to t}Ie lengthening of the natuml period of vibration atrd the
energy which is dissipated by the connections,effectively incrcasing the sys-
tem damping ratio. This tlTe of advantage has also been postulated for par-
tially rcstrained steel iiames.r33
Initial developments of the composite partially restrained system were
intended to adabessapplications in regions of low or moderate seismicity.
With sppropriate analysis and detailing, it may also be possible to use this
system in areas ol high seismicity for some applications. Seismic design pm-
visions limit the height for which this system may be used ualess special
analysis procedures are incorporated to justify applications in taller build-
ings. No limit is requircd if this system is used as part ofa dual system with
braced steel or compositeftames.Ds3

Ordinaryframes. Ordinary moment-resisting fram€s in steel or condete con-

struction have been incorporated into seismic design codes for a number of
years. The term "odinary" refers to systems in which the e]€ments arc not
alesigned or detailed to provide the maximum potential ductility during
inelastic cyclic response. In an effo?t to provide acceptabie performance of
these systems,the lateral design forces arc incrcased sienficantly over those
required of "special" moment-resisting frame systems, in order to reduce the
potential ductili8 demand. Because of the limited ductili8 which is available
in oditrary moment'resisting frames, seismic building codeshave restdcted
their use in areas of high seismicity and in tall buildings.GTl Where permitted
in areas of low seismicity, these systems are ofLen economical, since the cost
of pmviding the additional base shear strength can easily be exceededby the
 expefte of providing the ductile elements and connectionsrequiled ofsDecia
momen[-res;s(ing fr.rmes.
A number of possible combioations are available to develoDa comDosite
ordinary momenl-resiblingFrane system.These include steei or composir,e
beams combined with either steel, reinforced concrete, or composite cohmns.
The rnostcommonlyuspd systernro dale has includedsr.el beamsarld com.
posit€ columns. This system may consist of encased or filled comDosit€
columns.In encasedcompos,tecolumns,rhe slructural steplelenenr i; off€n
used primaily for ercction purposes
_A'he connections in composite ordina{y momentrcsisting frames are gener_
ally interrded to develop the lull moment capacity ofthe steel beam members.
Various connection details may be used, such as those shown in Fies. 8.1 and
5.2. A large numbe" of large-ocalelaboralorylests on connectio;sof these
t,?es have been perfonned in the United States116ra5and Japan under both
I
monotonic and cyclic ioading. These tests have demonshated that with DroDer
detailing.such connectionscan provide performancecomparablero thai of
steel or reinforced concrete connections. Filled concrete columns (Fig. 5.8)
have been used less frequently, with fewer tests rcported, although th;force_
tlansfer mechanisms are similar to those ofthe connections shown in Fis. 5.2.
Tb bp consislen{wjrh seismrcdesignprovisionsfor steel or reinforce;con_
crete ordinary moment-resisting frame syst€ms, prcsent design rcqu ements
for composite moment-resisting frame systems linit their use to aieas oflow
seismicity in buildings over certain height limits.DsaWith turther testing,
incorporation into design pmctice and proveB performa]lce in future ear-th_
quakes, some ofthe limitations on the Lrseofthis system may be reduceal.

t
r
I tl
=.=+H======-.--======--.==-=HH-=..
t;l

Reinl.concrete
column
Flgure 5,1 Steel leam to reinforced condete column comectioD.
 LaleEl ReEislingSystems

[: ""2
L\,; . ....1
(t,l]rujoisl)
Encas€dsteelcolumn
Plan section
--.sure
s,2 Steel bean to enca6ed @mpo8iie @lmn conneciioh.

Staelbeam(lhruioinl)

=s!e 5,3 Sieel beah to tilled composite tube comection

Special moment-resisting franes. T'he third twe of moment-resisting liaming

system used to lesist seismic forces is termed Epecial moment-resisting
frame. The te?m "special" rcfers to systems wherc the elemetrts and connec-
tions are designed and detailed to plovide a ma:imum amount of ductility
and toughness, implying excellent energy dissipation and seismic pefor-
mance during severe earl-Irquake shaking. Recogtrizing this ductility, seismic
 codesallow the desigr base shear for special moment-resisting systems to be
less than or equal to that of any other system included in these codes.
Because of thc acknowledged ductility and the limited interference s.ith
architectural and oth€r building requirements, special moment-resisting
frames, especially in steel, have been a commonly useal structural system for
resisting lateral forces. The extensive detailing requirements for rcinforced
concrcte to quaiify as a special moment-resistinq frame have result€d in more
limrrcduse in bJ ld,nedesigr pradicc iE areas;fhish seibm;cit).
Composite special moment-resisting ftaming systems are similar to the cor-
ligurations previously discussed for ordinary moment-resisting frames
Analogous to steel or concrete systems, more str-ingent detailing Fovisions are
reqrired to increase the system ductility and toughness of the composite spe-
ci:l moment-resisting frame, with the commensuate rcduction in desisn later-
al lorccs.The intcnl of su.h p.oyisionsr. ro confne ineta"tichinging to rhe
beams, while the columns and connections remain essentially elastic. Tests ix
Japan have demonstrated that beam-to-columnconnectioni can be detailed
such that little damage to the connection ocnrs adjacent to beams subjected to
large inelastic rotations.rab As a resutt, the design base shear vatue prescribed
for this system is simiiar to special momentrcsisting lrame systems of steel or
reinlbrced concrcte, and no limitations have been placed on their usage.
The Northridge, Calif., earthquake o11994 causedcracks in the welds and
connections of numerous shuctural steel buitdings designed with special
moment-resisting frames. Simitar joint weld failures were observed in the
1995 K."be, Japan, earthquahe. An e>,tensive research Droaram is underivay
L o f L n h e r d e f i n pt h e f a i l u r em c c h a n i b r r sa n d d e v p ' ^ ps u i r a b l es o t u t i o n i .
Compositespecial moment-rcsisting frames are subject io the sarnepotential
failure mechanismsand solutions. For guidance, sce Ref. G91 and sutsequent
work from the same coordinatedresearch proeaam.

5.3.2 Partiallyrestrainedframes
Pmcedures for the design of partially rcstrain€d composit€ moment f.ames ss
defrned in the prcvious section have been developed and Dub1ished.121,12,!.r:r6rE
SiandardiTeog!;delirec ai-pullder devFlopmenlby the ASCE Task Commiir€e
on Design Guide for Composite Semi-Rigid Connections. This section summa-
dzes the published pmcedures.

Analytical considerations. Only a nominal amormt of slab steel at the columns

is needed to transform a simple connection into a rather stiff semirigid joint
The additional required slab reinforcing bars, shear connectors, and seat
angles provide both significant additional strength and stiffness to the fraroe
system. The semidgid behavior of the beam-to-column connections reduces
sigdficantly the lat€ral drift of these frames.
The contribution of the beam-to-column connection flexibility discussed
abovFFust b. incorpo"ar"rtinro rhe laleral forceanalvsisofrhese sr
The simplest method lor incorporating this effect in the lateral frame "tems-
 LateralResistingSyslens

sis is to model connections as linear spdngs with a:r effective stiffness

rcduced from the initial elastic stiffness to account for the inelastic nature of
the connection moment-cur-vaturc lelatio$hip. A simple method for account-
ing for this effect was presented by Bjorhovde Da6Incorporating the effective
connectionsljrfnessinro rhe frame anaty.r. wi obviou;t] affecirhe buitdrng
perioddnd latpral oene.rionsaid. ro a lesse"exrent,rhe djslributionofmcm:
ber forces. Frame stability analyses must also consider the effective stiffness
of connections in determining the rotational restraint at the enals of columns.
Including these elfects with typical effective buckling-length p."""d";;;
should result in satisfactory column design for low_rise construction. F'or
btructu'es ldlle" lhan torr btories.gcomekj. and connecrionnonlincarities
shouldbe includedin thc laretal drrtr and slabiliU analybes.
The moments of ineltia of compositebeams composealof steel wide_flange
rect'onbanda concrplenoor "ldb are.igrificanrly differenrtor negativea;d
posjhvebend.Eg.Undef.y.lic larFral tor.es.such ds rno.e.aused-by
seiqmic
grcund molion. rhe beam bendingmomcnrdiagra and rhe,efore
stiffn.s",
v!'r|icnangc ctunngthe rebponse. The usF of eilher the posiri!e or negarve
compositebeam moment of iner.tia alone will lead to significant errors in
the
calculation of the frame stiffhess.lrrA weighted average of the two values
has
beFndemonstra.led to re.uh in affcptableaccufa.y.This weightedaverageis
basedon the lbllowine eouation Dr

I": 0.6ILe+ 0.411,, (5.1)

where 1" : moment ol inertia of compoBite sectron
- lo$er-boundmomeniuf inenia for positire
L, bFnd,ng
/.. . to$er-boundlfomenl of inedia tol.negari!Fbcnding

The lower-bound values can b€ obtained ftom the AISC LRFD Manual.Drb

Elemenldesign. As noted in the previous section,the effect olthe connectiDn

stiffness must b€ inctuded in the laterat frame analyses .f part;it
restmined compositeframes. The el€ment moment and shear diagrams detei_
mined from these analyses can be used with standard member jesign proce_
dures Compositebeam design can be accomplishedusing the proced-ur;
fre-
sented in Ciap. 3 For low-dse applications, steel columns may be desigred
using "landard AlSc LRFD desjgn equdtion..wirh prope, con"iae.ari&
oi
bencltngmomenicdevplopcdrnroughll^esemirigidconnecrrors. The "oLation_
al conneciionr-esrrainrmucr be propertJconsideredin dcrerminingrne effec_
1r\e,columrlenglhs.For raller buildirgs. analysesuhich considc;geomFLric
nonnnearrr'es shoutdbF ncorporatedin lbe designoffran e colLmnb.

Connectiondesign. The connection detail typically considered for partially

restrained composite moment {iames consists of a bottom seat angle, a double
angl€ or shear tab lor the web, and stud connectors with added slib reinforce_
ment to deliver top flange forces.Section6.5.2 includ€s a completedesoiption
of the design considemtions anat calculations for semirigid c;nposite co;;;_
5.10

tions for gravityload design, and a design example is Fesented in Sec. 6.5.3.
Discussion of semirigid connection design for partially reshained moment-
resisting frames is included ir Sec. 6.5. According to Sec. 6.b.3 it is advisable
to attempt to detail these connections so that the positive- and negative-
Eoment sections have roughly the sane stifftress. This can be accomplished by
providing seat angle and web connections which are on the order ofbo Derced
qnonger than thal rFquiled for negative momenrh.
The joint rotations in connectior design should be limited to approximately
0.02 radian- If the iiame analyses indicate larger lotatiolrs, the connection
plates nust be stiffened by increasing the amount of slab reinforcement aail
providing heavier seat angles and web connections.

5.3.3 Ordinaryframes
The beam and column elements of composite ordinary moment-resrsuog
frames may consist of one of a number of possible combinations of structural
steel, reinforced concrete, ard composite sections. The analysis and design
detailing of the frame membels is quite similar to that reqlrited of steel or
concrete moment-resisting frames. Force transfer between the elements of a
composite frame is somewhat unique and desenes special attention, since i[
general the connections are desiened to be shonger than the weakest elemed
(generally the beams) I|aming into the joint.

Analylicalconslderalions. In general, th€ anall'tical proceduresto be used i

the design of composite ordinary moment-resisting ftames are identical
those emploJed in Lhedesign ofslrurlural 6teel or reinJorcedconcrelp
Elastic properties of compositeelements can be tuansformedinto equi
prcperties of one mat€rial for stif6:Iessanalysesusing standard proce
Since the size of composite columns in certain types of these frames
become quite large for stiffness consideratioN. it mav be more accurate
include a finite rigid joint size into the frame model.Additional acctracv
be obtained by including the shear stiffness of the joints. But, since the
nections are tJ.?ically required to be stmnger tha]l t|e membersframing
the joint, in many cases inclusion of an elastic spring to represent the joi
stilfness will not be necessary to obtain the accumcy rcquted for design,

Elementdesign. As noted above,th€ deBignofelements in composite

moment-resistingframes is not significantly different from the procedures
structural steel and reinforced concrete elements. In fact, the desim
dFrailrngof srrucLural"leel beam" and columnsin rheseorainar'vmon
resisting frames can generally be based on the requirements of one of
commonly used seismic design codes, such as Chap. 2? ofthe Uni
Building Code,c7lthe NEHRP seismic design provisions,Dr6or the AISC
mic design provisions.c?3Compositebeams can be designed according to
procedurespresentedin Chap. 3.
It has been suggesledand implenen[ed into LheCanadiansejsmjc
 LateralResistingSystems 5.11

requircments that reduced capacities should be used for these €hear connec-
tols in composite beams of moment-resisting frames, since thev will be sub-
jected to cyclic forces. This would be more impoftant in special moment-
resisting frames where the expected ductility demand on the el€ments and
connectionsis higher. A rcduction of 10 to 25 percent appears to be reason-
able wherc the studs are expected to be subjected to severc cyclic loading.De6
Such a reduction is recommendedfor all applications of shear connecto?sin
these compositeframes.
The design of cornposite columns can generally foltow the procedures pre-
sented in Chap. 4. Encased compositecolumns should have a minimum ratio
of structural steel to gTosscolumn area of 4 percent, as rcqu ed in the AISC
LRFD pmvisions. The shear strcngth of these columns generally ignorcs the
contdbution ofthe concrcte.D61 Conhibution of the shear shenqth ofthe rein-
forcingries i. baspdon an effecrivFshear widtl- 6 ot the .ecrion. as noredin
Fig. 5.4.DI Fo" filled.ompositecolumnb.it iq con;nari\e lo reglectrhe con
tribution of the concrcte to the shear shength of the colulnn. FoI conditions
where shear shength becomes critical, it may be possibt€ to treat the element
as a rcinforced concrete column with the steel tube considercd as th€ shear
r€inforcement. Transler of forces between the structurai steel and rcinforced
concrete portions of the section shoutd be made through shear connectom,
ienoring the contribution of bond or ftiction, using calculation procedures
such as those presentedin Chap. 6.
The design and detailing of reinforced concrete columns in these frames
should be similar to those of intennediate or special moment frames of rcin-
forced concrete.Conservative detailing practices (i.e., incorpomting the spe-
cial moment frame rcquirements) are recommendedfor these frames in hieh
roncssincetherc is liitle rFscarchln rhe useot inr,ermediate detailine
"F:smic
of concrerccolumn" in rhcsp applicdiion..D'c Tnr.
"ecomm"ndarionmat bi
relaxed in the future ifresearch indicates that the composite beam and beam-
column connection details can be designed to pedorm better and morc reli-
ably than similar elements in rcinforced concrete moment frames.

=+n 5.4 Efective wiilths for encas.d composfte colmns.

5.12 Chapter
Five

Connectiondesign. Section 6.4.1 includes description of the desien considela-

tions and calculations for moment-resisting connections between steel or com-
posite beams and compositeor rcinforced concretecolumns. Section 6.4.7 prc-
s€nts similar information for moment-rcsisting connections between steel or
composite beams and st€el colurns.
In ordinary moment-resisting frames, the tlTi€al procedure is to design the
connections to develop the strength of the connected menbers. In sersmrc
design, it is generally desimble to avoid inelastic action in the flame connec-
tions unless the joints can be detailed with sufiicient ductility. ConsideratioD
ofall contributions to member shength must be included il1 determination of
connection strcngth. Contributions which should be considered include the
shengthening effect of the composite action of a steel beam and concrete slab
in the joitrt regions.
l.Iansfer of loads between structrDal Bteel anal reinforced concrete elements
of a composite moment-resisting frame should be made only thmugh shear:
friction and diect bearing. Relia]}ce on bond a]Id adhesion forces should not be
considered because of the eyclic nature of the lateral loading. In addition.
where shear friction equatioN are used in the calculation of connection trans-
fer forces, it has been recommended that a 25 percent reduction on the t ?ical
shear-ftiction capacities be imposed lor buildings in areas ofhigh seismicity.r
Panel zone shength calculations for composite ftames with fully encas€d
steel columns may bTically be taken as the sum of the steel and reinforced-
concrete capaciti€s. Recommendations lor tuansverse rcinforcement in the
joint region of compeite frames have been presented by Deierlein et a1.116 and
I{anno.]a5 Reidorcing bar development lengths similar to reinforced concrete
mom€nt liame construction should be provided in the detailing of these joinls.

5.3.4 Specialmomentresistinglrames
The design approach for compositespecial momenfrcsisting frames is basf
cally the same as that previously discussedfor compositeordinar] moment-
restuting fraftes. The attempt to provid€the maxirrlum possibleframe ductili-
ty, toughness, and energy-dissipation capacity are the major
between the special and ordinary moment-resistingframe systems.These
ferences result in more stdngent provisions for element and joint detai
Generally these frames are designed to limit inelastic action to the be
with the intent of preventing or at least severcly rcstricting any p
yielding in columns and comections.

AnalyticaI considerations.
T}|e di.c.rssionolanalyical procedur"sfor
moment-rcsisting Ilames in the previous section also applies for com
sDecialmoment-resistins frames.

Elementdesign. ltre design of elements in compositespecial moment-

ing lrames should incolTorate all ihe prccedures a]ld requirements for
naljr moment frames described above, and add more stringent rcqui
in order to obtain the expectealincreased member ductility and toughness.
 Laleral Besisting Systems 5.13

-9re5.s Closd-h@p detsil for u encsed composjte

For composite systems which incorporate steel and reinforced concrete

columns, all the t]?ical design and detailing provisions lor special moment-
resisting lfames ofthe two matedals should be followed. For all systems, con-
sideration of the strong column-1^'eak beam approach should be included in
the design. For composite columns, tlansvelse reinforcement r€quirements
should be equivalent to those rcqu ed of rein{orced concrete colurnns in spe-
cial moment resisting frames. Special details may be required to meet the
int€nt ofclosed-hoopand cross-tierequirements for compositecolumns with a
structural steel core. An example of a closed-hoop detail {or an encased conr-
posite colurnn is shown in Fig. 5.5
Steel and composite beams should be designed to me€t the more restdctive
br/2tr ald. dlt. compactness limits and the lateml bmcing requirements or
steel special moment-resisting frames. The additional restrictions arc neces-
sary to increase the resistance to local and lateral tolsional buckling, allow-
ing the beam elements to develop their fully plastic flexural capacity.
However, these more rcstrictive requirements arc not needed for steei flanges
connected to the conuete slab with shear conBectors since such flanges can-
not fail in lateral torsional buckling and their local buckting is substantially
inhibited by the presence of shear connectorc and the concrete slab.

Connectiondesign. Design considerations for connectionsin composite spe-

cial moment-resisting frames are simila? to those lor ordinary moment,resisr-
ing frames. In sp€cial moment-resisting frames, the connection capacity
should€lways be designed strong enongh to develop the strength of the con-
necreo Deams,

Braced Frames
Bm€ed frames have traditionally beeo the most common lateral-force-resist-
ing system with the exception of areas of high seismicity. These frames
resist lateral forces pdmarily through axial strcsses in the frame membem
that s€rve as elements of a vedical truss. Resisting lateral forces through
this mechanism generally provides excellent lateral stiffness characteristirts.
5.14 ChapterFive

As a result, braced frames are generally more economical than moment-

resisting frames. Their use is at times limited becauseofthe Dotential inter-
ferenceofb"aces wirh other bu:lding bJsremsor w:rh archirecrulajrequire

The majoriiy of braced frame construction is of structurai steel. althoueh

therp have oeensomeexamp'es^fconcrcrebracedframcs in taJ|prbuildinss
de";Cned-oreqisrmnd loads.Unrjl recen{ly,steel bracedlrane corsrrL,crion
has consisted almost exclusively of concentdc bracing, where the centerlines
of the various members which frame into a joint meet at a single point. The
ductility ol concentdc bmcing systems has been consideredto be limited bv
seismicdesgn code".becauseLheyrerl on inelaslic bucklingof rhe braceele-
ments to resist large overloads.
Dudng the 1970s and 1980s, a new form of braced frame was developed
which attempts to combine the excellent ductitity of moment-resistinq ftames
wirh rhp 'righ c-jffiressolconcenrr'callJbr.lcpdf"areb. Th:" sy"'"rrl,co^Inoo-
ly known as eccentrically braced ftames, consists of bracing elements which
are deliberately olTset fiom th€ centerline of beam-column ioints. The short
podion of beam between braces or between the brace and the column is
rcfened to as the link beam. The link beams ofan eccentricallvbmced ftame
are desigredto acr as ductile fu.es $hich Jis"iparplarge amourls ofenergy
dudng seismicoverloads.As a result, the design ofbrace elements can be pJr-
fbmed so as to preclude th€ possibitity of brace buckling. With proper choice
ofthe brace eccentricity,i.e., of the length of the iink beams, the stiffness of
this system can apprcach that of a concentrically bmced fran1e. The ability to
combine the ductility of moment frames and the stiffness of concentricalle
b"acedframe. has lco lo rn.rcasirg.rsc ot rhe in areas ofhigh seii
"ysrem
micity. Special pmvisions for the design of eccentdcally braced steel ftames
were frrst included is seismicb11ildingcodesin 1988.c5a
Braced frames ofcomposite construction have been commonin arcas oflos
and moderate seismicity.Most ofthese buildings have included encasedcom,
posite floors, composite columns, and steel braces. Composite columns are
rarely used in buildings less than about 20 stories high. Very tall buildings
are sometimes supporled on a few supercolumnscomposedof large-diameter
labricated circular steel shells frlled with high-strcngth concrete to provide
the requled lateral stiffness. Smaller-diameter concret€-filled ste€l tubes
have also been used for bracing elements in an attempt to ioprove the locrl
buckling resistance of the steel tube walts. Researchindicates that the coD-
crcte filling of tubes with high diameter-to-thickness ratios improves the
inelastic performance of such members.ctl Composite elements can aiso be
incorporated into the eccentrically braced frame system, although no practi-
ca1applications are kno$n at present.
Parallei to the previous discussionfor composit€moment-resisting ftame+
there were no building code pmvisions for the design of composite braced
lfame systems. The BSSC developedrecommendationsfor seismic atesisn
such frames; they have been included in the 1994 NEHRP Seismic Desi6
Requirementsfor Buildings.De6
 LaloralHesistingSystoms 5.15

5.4.1 ldentilicationof bracedframes

Composite bmced frame systems can be Eeparated into those with concentric
and those with eccentric bracing. As with momett frames, composite bmced
frames are Bimilar to steel bracecl frames.

Concentricallybracedframe. Concentrically bmced steel frame construction is

the most com]non form of steel fra]ning. The earliest applications began to
appear with the inception of steel framed const?uction and often included
bmces composedof built-up sections. Such bracing often was used to resist
latelal lorces in tow€r portions of laryer steel frame buildings with masonry
infills. Later applications consisted of t,'pical steel beam and column wide-
flange sectionsused in combination \.ith various brace sections,such as wide-
flange sections, tubes, double channelE, or double angles. Connections
between the st€el frame and the bracing elements is usually accomplishedby
welding or high-strcngth bolting to vertical gusset plates.
Composite concentrically braced lrames include a number of possible combi-
nations of steel, rcinforced conoete, and composite elements. Atl earty applica-
tions of these composite systems have been in regions ol low or modente seis-
micitj'' Composite brac€s of either conclete-filled steel tubes or concrete,encased
steel braces may be combined with steel ftame elements. Composite columns
may also be used in conjunction with composite floorE and steel bracing mem
berc. Such a syBtem is used frequently in tall buildings, wherc th€ composite
coh]mns become quite large to provide the reqrdred lateral stiffness.
As not€d prcviously, the lateral d€formation of concent'ically bmced frames,
boti steel and composite, is genemlly considered to be limit€d for seismic load-
ings because of the deterioration of energy-dissipation capacity which tlTical
brace elements exhibit during repeated inelastic cycles. For small or moderate
earthqual{eB wherc the braced frame elements remain essentially elastic, the
rcsponse of these frames can be e),?ected to be satisfactory. Measures such as
filling steel tubes wiUr concrete have proved to be able to inhibit the onset of
local buckling and thercby impmve the cyclic r€sponse of the brace elements.
Design of connections should be similar to that of st€el bmced fra]nes. where the
connections are intended to develop the capacity of the brace elements. Where
composite €lements are used, the connection design must consider the indeased
capacity caused by the addition of concrete to the st€el bmcing elements.

Eccenlrically braced lrame. AJter approximat€ly 10 yeals of experimental and

analltical research, the seismic design of steel eccentrically braced frames
was included in the 1988 Uniform Building Code.G5aThe ductile response of
the link elements has rcsulted in the system's being designed for loads simi-
lar to those requircd for special moment-resisting space frames. The system
has been used widely in Californi- for various types ofstructwes, with most
applications in the low- to middse range of building height. Similar applica-
tions in regions of low and moderat€ seismicity have been made, where the
desigrs capitalized on the potential simplifrcations of the member connec-
tions which can be rcalized with eccentric bracinE.
5.16

Little experience exists in the application of composite eccentrically braced

frames, but the use of structuml steel link elements, which are designed and
detailed to meet the requirements of eccentdcallv braced steel liames, in con-
junction with composite bmce or column elements would appear to be a sys-
t€m which would have seismic resistance equivalent to an all-steel Bystem. As
a rcsult, the 1994 NEHRP provisionsDe6recommended the same R and C, val-
ues for steel and composite eccentricauy braced frames, whete R ii the
respo$e-modification coefficient and Cd the deflection-amplification factor.
Conn€ctionsin composite frames should be designed for capacity similar to
steel systems to ensue that the inelastic action talies place in the link beams.

Concenlricallybracedf rames
The beam, column, and brace elements of a compositeconcentdcally brac€d
lrame may consist of one of a number of possible combinations of stmctural
steel, rcinforced conclete, and composite sections.The analysis, desig:r, ard
detailing of the frane memben is quite similar to that required ol concentdcal-
ly braced steel ftames. Force tlansfer between the elements of a composite
braced Same is unique and deserves special attention, since the connections are
generally designed to force inelastic actior into the diagonsl brace members.

Analyticalconsiderations.In general,the analltical prcceduresto be used in the

design of composite concentdcally braced frames are identical to those
employed for similar str-uctural steel systems. Elastic properties of composit€
eiements can be transformed into equivalent properties of one material for stjff-
ness analyBes using standad procedures. Since the size of composite columns
in cedain twes oithese flames can become quite large, for stifftrcss considela-
tions it may be more accurate to include a finite rigid joint size into the frame
model. Since the connections are typically required to be stronger tha]} the
membem framing into the joint, the inclusion of an elastic spring to represenr
th€ joint stiffness is generally not necessary lor design purposes. Where com.
posite brace elements include concrete intended to stiffel steel sections.thc
effects ofthe conoete on brace stifiness must be consid€red in the fta]ne model

Elementdesign. As noted above,the design of elements in compositeconceD-

tdcally braced frames is similar to the design of correspondingelements itr
other systems. The design ol steel beams, columns, and braces in these
frames can be generelly based on the requircments ol one of the commoDly
used seismic desigr codes, such as the AISC Seismic Design Provisions,c;i
Chap. 27 of the Uniform Building Code,c?ror the NEHRP Seismic Desigr-
Prcvisions.De6 Compositebeams can be designed accoding to the prccedures
presented in Chap- 3. Reduction in the capacity of shear connectors should
also be considercd,as was previously discussedin Sec.5.3.3.
The design of composite columns can generally follow the pmcedures pre-
sented in Chap. 4. Encased composite colulnns should have a minimum mtio d
structural steel to g}oss column arca of 4 percent. Tlansfer of forces betwee.,
 LateralFesisiingSystems 5.17

the str-uctual steel and reinforced concrete poftions of the section should be
made tbrough shear connecto$, ignoring the contribution of bond or firiction.
The capacity desiglr of rcinforced concrete columns should meet the require-
ment3 for columns in ordinary moment-resisting frames. The detailing of both
composite and reinforced condete columns should provide ductility comparable
to that of composite ordinary moment-resisting ftames. This potentially conser-
vative approach is warranted since there has been little rcsearch on such ele-
ments. Such requirements may be relaxed bv the rcsults of future rcsearch.
Composite brace design in corcentrically braced frames must recognize
that thcse elements are expected to provide the inelastic action during large
seismic overloads.Braces which are concrete,encasedsteel elements should
include reinforcing and confinement steel sufficient to provide the intended
stiffening eflect even after multiple cycles which have induced brace buck-
ling. As a rcsult, it is recommended that these elements meet detailing
requirements similar to those of composite colu]nns. Composite braces in ten-
sion should be designed considedng only the structural steel unless test
results justit' highel shengths.

Connectiondesign. Section 6.7.2 includes descdptions olthe design consider-

ations and calculations for connections between steel braces and composite
columns. Similar approachesrnay be followed for compositebrace elements.
The general intent ofthe conoection design is to provide sheng*h to develop
the capacity ofthe bracesin tension or compression.For compositebrace sec-
tions, the additional strength of the concrete mu6t be considered, since it
would be unconservativeto consider only the sheneth ofthe shuctuml st€el
section. Brace buckling and the resulting large rotation demands which could
result at the bmce ends should be consideredin connectiondetailing.
tansfer ofloads between structural steel and reinforced concreteelemenrs
of a composit€ braced frame should be made onty through shear lriction and
direct beadng. Reliance on bond and adhesion should not be considered
because of the cyclic nature of the lateral loading. In addition, where shear-
friction equations are used in the calculation of connection transfer forces, it
has been recommended that a 25 percent reduction on the truical shear-fric-
tion capacities be imposed for buildings in areas of high seismicity.Deo
Examples ofconnectionsbetween braces and compositeor reinforced concrcte
columns are shown in Figs 5.6 through 5.8.

5,4.3 Eccenlricallybracedframes
The beam elements oI composite eccentrically braced ftames wiil generally
consist of structural steel elements, although some research in Europe by
Kanz et al. has investigated the use ol concrcte flreproofing lor these mem-
bers.rs5A]1yconcreteencasementofthe beam elements should not extend into
the link regions where large inelastic action is developed.The column and
brace elements ofthese lrames could be composedof either stmctural steel or
composite steel and concrete sections.The analysis, design, and detailing of
5.la

/ -sled

\
,-.//--
\ i -1.
N..,
t"

\
\'"

Pan section Elevauon

FEur65.6 ConcentdcbEce @Mection to a conposite cohm.

Encas€! sleelcolumn

Plansection
Figure s.7 Altemate comection of a concentric bnce to a comloBite @lumn,
 LdteralFesisiingSystems 5,19

F'sure5.8 Concentdcbracecoueciion to a filled tube.

the fiames is quite similar to that required of steel eccentdcally braced

fiames. Since the force hansfer mechaniBms between the elements ofa com-
posite ftame rely on beafing and shear friction, special attention must be
paid to the design of these connections if they are to focus the intended
inelastic action to the ductile linh membels.

Analytical consideralions" In geneml, the anab'tical procedu?esto be us€d in the

design of composite eccentdcally bmced frames are identical to those employed
for similar structural steel systems. Elastic prcpefties of conposite elements
can be transformed into equival€nt properties of one material for stiffness
analyses using standard procedures. Since the size of composite colu]nns in cer-
tain tlTes ofthese frames can become quite large, fo? stiffness considerations it
may be more accuate to include a finite rigid joint size into the frame model.
Since the connections ar€ tJTicatly requircd to be stronger than the membe$
fraraing into the joint, the inclusion of an elastic spring to represent the joint
stiihess is genemlly not necessaly for design pu?oses. Where composite brace
elements include concrct€ intended to stiffen steel sections, the effects of the
conffete on blace stifriess must be considered in the lianle model.
Composite action of the concrcte slab with the stnrctural steel link beam
section may become significant in detenaining the initial capacity olthe linh
section, which should be considered in sizing the blace and column elements.
Tests by Ricles a]td Popov demonstrated that this effect diminishes in subse-
quent inelastic cycles but still may requirc consideration for longer links
which yield in bending.lls
5,20

Elementdesign. As noted above,the design ofelements in compositeeccentui-

cally braced frames fu very similar to the design ofconesponding elementsin
other systems. The design of steel beams, columns, and braces in these
liames can be generally based on the requircments of one of the conmonly
used seismic design codes, such as the AISC seismic design provisions,Gts
Chap. 27 olthe Uniforrn Building Code,c?lor the NEIIRP seismic design prc
visions.Ds6Reduction in the capacity of shear connecto?s shoulal also be con-
sidered, as was previously discussedin Sec.5.3.3.
The design of composite columns cajl genemlly follow the pmcealurcs prc-
sented in Chap. 4. Design loads must consider the ma-ximum load which can
be generated by yielding and some strain hardening of the link beam ele-
ments, similar to those rcquired for steel columns in these frames. Encased
composite colxnrns should have a minimum ratio of strdctural steel to gross
column area of 4 percent aB required ir vadous provisions unless they are
designed as reinforced concrete columns. Tlansfer of forces between the struc-
tural steel and reinforced concrete portions of the section should be made
through shear connectors, ignodng the contribution of bond or friction. Tb.
capacity desigr of reinforced concrete and encased composite columns ir
these &ames should meet the rcquirements for columltB in ordinary
resistingliames.The detailingofboth encasedcompositeand reinforced
crete columns should provide ductility comparable to that of intermedi
moment-resisting llames. This potentially conseryativeapproach iB \^r
ed since there has been little research on such elementB.In addition, for hi
er-performance categod€s the 1994 NEHRP prol/isionsDs6recommend
these columns m€et the tranBverse reinforcement reouirements of sDeci
moment-resisting frames. This requiement is ext€nded to all
categorieE when the link element is locat€d adjacent to the column.
Compos,tebrace de.ign in ecrenrrically braced f'a-nes musl rpcoe}tizp
these elements are intended to rcmain essentialy elastic dudng larg€ sei
overloads, Bince they are designed to be shong enough to yield the link
elements.The design strcngth of these bracesmust considerthe ,'relding
significant strain hardering which can occur in properly designed
detailed linh eiements. Both axial and bendine forces senerated in the
by the strain-hardened link beams must be considered.Braces which are
crete-encaseal
st€el eiements or reinforced concreteshould therefore
designed to meet detailing requirements similar to columns, as dis
above. Composite braces in tension should be desigred considedng only
strucruralsteel.unlessreql resulrsjusriry highersr'engths.

Conneciiondesign. S€ction6.7.2 includes descriptionsof the design

ations and calculations for connections between steel b?aces and
columns. Similar approachesmay be followed for compositebrace e
The geneml int€nt of the connection design is to provide shength to
the capacity of tbe link-beam elements. For composite brace sections,
additional stretrgth of the concrete must be considered, since it would
unconservative to consider only the str€neth of the structural steel sectj
W}lete the bhearlink :( nol adjacen{Lorhe column,the conneflionsb
 LaieralReslstlngSystems 5.21

(@nt.rhruioint)

Fe nlorcedconcreta
or

=uE 5.s Eccenldc !€ce coMecrior ro d encased composite colm!.

the bra^cesand-.c_olumnsare similar to those in composite concent cally

blaced frames. Wlere the shear iink i( adjacenl to the colurnns, lhe corurF(_
_/,/ tions should be detailed similar to composite beam-column connections in
sp€cial moment-resisting frames or between steel coupling beams anal con_
cret€_wall piers in composite wall elements. An example of-such a connection
detail is shown in Fig. b.9. The large rctation demands which could result ar
the ends of the link beamE should always be consialereil in aletailing th€ con_
nections of compositeeccentricallybnced frames.
Ilansfer ol loads between str.uctural steel and reinforcecl concret€ element!
ofa composit€ braced frame Bhould be made only through shear fi:iction ancyor
direct beadng. Reliance on bond and adhesion shoula not be consiclered
because of the cyclic naturc of the lateral loading. In addition, where shear_
friction equations ar€ used in the calculstion of c;nnection tla])sfer forces, it
has been recommend€d that a 25 percent reduction on the tvpicel shear;ic_
lion capacitiesbe inposedfor bdjdjngs in areasofhigh seibmi;iry.e6

:.5 Shear-WallDesign
i5.1 Compositeshearwalts
Composit€ shear walls can take many forms, but a fe$/ basic common svstems
are lound ir composireslruclurps.The most commoncompositesbear waLI
consists ofa str.uctural steel frame in which some bays are irlled with a rein_
fbrced-concrcte wall encasing adjacent structura-l steel columns anal beams.
 ChapterFive

In easence, this is a reinforced concrete shear wall with structural ste€l

boundary elements.This shear-wall system is discussedfu*her in Sec.5.5.2.
A sinilar composite shear wall can be for:rned w.ith a structural steel frame
and rnasonr:r installed between some of the columns to form a composite shea?-
wall system. Historically, the high-rise buildings of th€ late 1800s and eady
1900s in the Unit€d States consist€d of stmctural-steel frames with semiriEid
conncclionsor possiblewrnd gusseLsall encasedin massivemasonry enerior
walls creating, in effect, a composit€ shear-wall system. This t].pe of building
pedormed very rrell in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and formed the
philosophical basis for the dual system ofmodem seismic codes. These historic
composite buildin$ have also perforrned well under wind exposue.
Stroctural steel beams arc also used to couple tall, sl€nder pierB to form a
stiffer composite shear-wall system with s.indor openings (Fig. 5.10). The st€el
coupling beam is subjected to high shear and high moment at each erd, rcquir-
ing a mom€nt-resisting coDnection to the column and pobably a moment-resist-
ing connection of the beam on the otber side of the colurnn within the shear-wall
pier. A very strcng shear connection is usually also rcquircd. A computer analy-
sis pmvides an insight regarding the forces in the coupting beam and the effec-
tivenGs of the beam, as is described in the following para$aph lor a multistory
building with a composite wall syst€m si]nilar to that shown in Fig. S.10.
I{ the coupling beams in Fig. 5.10 were pin-connectedat each end or wer€
very flexible, as might be provided by a floor slab conn€ction, the coupling

Fisuros.l0 Comp06iteshear-vallelevairo!.
 LalsralF€sistingSystems

beam would be ineffective and the two wall piers would resist lateral loads
independenuy.As the walls deflect laterally, the floor slab or flexible beam
u]ld€rgoes considemble deformations which can lead to damage. If the cou"
piing beamsare very stiff, they can fully couplethe two piers and make them
work as a single wall reBiBtinglateral forces. The coupled piers are consid-
ered next aBa single wall with overturning moments reBiBtedby the two out-
ermost columns of the system.A free-bodydiagtam cut through the midspan
of the coupling beams gives an indication of the fovceBthat they must resist.
If the couplingbeamsare less stiff, s poltion of the lateral forceswill be
resisted by the overall system and a portion by the indiyidual elements.The
advantageof modern computerpmgrams is that they permit experimentation
by changing the stiffness of the coupling beams and thus ariving at an opti-
mum solution for eachindividual situation encounteredin design.
Another compositeshear-wall system is a building with a reinforced con-
crete shear-wallcore,possiblyconstructedby slip forming, combinedwith
structural steel floor construction including moment-resistingSames around
the perimeter of the building. This twe of building rclies on the rcinforced
concrete shear-wall core and the moment-resisting perimeter frames as its
bracing.Wlereas eacheiementmay not be ol conpositeconstruction,the
building relies on the compositeperformanceto brace the building. Computer
modelsproperly representingeachsystemprovide guidancein design.UBuaIy
the sh€ar-wal core is stitrer and more effectivein the lower stories whi]e the
moment-resistingtame is stitrer and more effectivein the upper stodes of the
ircs attention to diaphragm design to gradually transfer
the the pe meter ftames to the cenhai core.

5.5.2 Concrete lls wilh sleel boundafies

posite shear wallB consiBting of rcinforcing concrete wal1s connected to
structuml steel framing are a commoncompositesystem.The principal point
illushated in this section is the attention to design aletailsthat is necessary
for properly functioning systemB.
A composite shear wall consisting of a single bay wall encasing Etructural-
st€el framing is illustrated in Fig. 5.11. Th€ concretewall ?esistshorizontal
shear due to wind or earthquake while the shuctwal steel columns resist the
veftical overtuming forces. At ultimate loads, the concrcte wal will also add
to the over{urning resistance. If the floor beams on either side of the wall
have momenfresisting connections, then they rr-ill transfer some of the over-
turning force out to the next column, depending on theil stiflness and the
geometry of the wall. The beams also serve as collectors, collectinc the hod-
zontal forces from the floor diaphragm and delive ng those forces to the
shear wall. Thus the conn€ctions ofthe beams to the column must be able to
reBiBttleBe horizonralforces.
Figuie 5.12 illusbates a trcical conahtion at the floor beam. Ttre concrete
wall has been offset to one Bide of the column centgrline so the concrete wall
can be pou-red.lfthe wall ib centered on (he column line. {he beam makes il
 flllloor

Slruclu€l stsel ledgeto

supportslo€ deckuntir

Weldodstudsio transter
laterallorcesirom lloor

Weldedstudson topand
botlomol beamlo iransier
sh€arlorceslhroughsieel
ranges(anarrernare is io
povideholesin topand
boitomllangeand €nend
verlicairoinicrcingbals

Fisrres.l2 Floor-comlosite shed-wauinre$eciiondetait,

 LaieralResistlngSystems

very difrcult to place the concrcte unless the wall is very thick, which usualy
is not the case.A st€el ledger is provialed to support the steel deck adjacent to
the wall until th€ concrcie wall is poued. Studs are welded to the ledger Once
the wall is placed, it is stiffer than the ledger and the normal way to resist
floor loads and prevent sepamtion at the floor-to-wall connection tales place.
Welded studs are also prouded on the steel beam connected to the column to
t€nsfer horizontal floor diaphragm forces to the sheax wall (see Sec. 5.6.3 for
more diEcussion on this rcquirement). Finally, the shear shesses in the con-
c?ete wall must be properly hansfened through the floor construction- The
steel flanges of the floor beam brcak the continuity of the concrcte wall and
rcduce the effective width olthe wallto rcsist shear shesses rtithout making
Bpecial provisions. Welded studs on the top of the top beam flange and the bot-
tom of the bottom beam flange (Fig. 5.12) provide this supplementary shear-
t?ansfer mechanism. Altematively, the top and bottom flange of the beam to
be embedded within the wall can be drilled \\.ith aligned holes at regular spac-
so the vertical reinforcing steel of the wall can pass through pairs of holes,
pro !1 continuity for shear transfer. When placing concrete, construction
joints can be suitably located to facilitate the contractor's sequence of concrete
pours a]td special care is needed to properb vibmte the concrete at the beam
to prcvent voids lrom being crcated beneath the beam flanges.
In some cases,it is more approp ate to center the wall on th€ column. In
such cases, the wall may be installed as shotffete without encasing either the
structural-steel floor beam or the column. Wlren this condition e).ists, vrelded
studs must be installed on both the beam and the column to transfer all
fones at the perimeter of the shear panel- The design of such shear transfers
is usually based on sh€ar friction. Consideration should be give to either
using very long headed studs that r rill effectively tlansfer lorces between the
reinlorcing bals of the shear panel or using threaded reinforcing bar dowels
installed as welded studs. Since shear fiiction requircs contact between con
crete and steel, speciai attention should be given to the top panel connection
at the beam soffit, as slight corsolidation ofthe shotcrete or poor workman-
ship may result in a continuous crack or voids- Repairs such as epoxy injec-
tion a?efrequently necessaryto ensure goodperformance.
Fi$re 5.13 shows the detail ofan encaseilcolumn at the edge ola concrete
wali. Welded studs arc installed on the column to tmnsfer the vertical shear
forceB and overturning forces to the structural steel colu]nn, In some cases, it
may be desirable to only padially encase the column, as placing concrete al1
around the colurm can be dif&cult owing to the floor beams and steel decking
above. Assuraing that the steel column resists all ofthe ovedurning forces, it
can be considercdthe bounda4' member for seismic loads, and closely spaced
reinforcing ties will not be necessa{/. When the st€el column se?ves as the
shear-wall boundaqf member, for either wind or seismic loads, it will quite
possibly be subject to uplill or tension loads. In euch cases,special detailing
considerationsmust be given to the steel column splices,as the normal light-
Iy bolted or partial-penetration weld column splice used for milled bea ng
sur-faces{or compression may not be suitable for tension reversals. When
 Weldedstudslo lransier
vedicalsheff (overturning

F i s u G 5 . 1 3D - d i l a c o l u m : n a o b p o s pohparqatl

theBe connections are subjected to tension, the nominal column splice is the
wea]< linh in ihe member. For seismic conditions wherc overloaals are expect_
€d, the nominal connectionacts like a notch and can fail ifits tensile csDacitv
is exceeded.For such cases,full-penetration welded column splicesare appro-
priate despite their cost.
Welded studs or dowels arc generally us€d for shear hansfer betweer con-
crete and shnctural steel. Other devices acting as lugs, such as flar oars,
angles, or other steel shapes, can be welded to the steel member with the
shear acting as a bearing force on the lug v,"ith adequate welds to transfer the
{brce in the lug to the structural steel member. In such details, the eccentrici_
ty between the center of beadng on the lug and the weld to tfie shuctural
steel member must be considered,as it will influence the thickness ofsteel on
the lug and the welds to the shuctoral steel m€mber. If the shuctural steel
member haB a thin web or {lange, the eccentdcity might cause local over_
stress in the web or flange, suggesting that more lugs or lugs of a differcnt
confi guration are preferable.

5.5.3 Concrete-encasedsteelplates
In rarc cases, when extremely high shear forces must be resisted by a wall, it
becomes pmctical to use a shear wall with a steel plate web rather than rein-
forced concrete. Examples whe?e such construction has been used inciude
high-rise buildings where all lateral forces must be translered to the €ore at
ihe base of the building and multistorji hospitals in California where sbict
seismic codes attempting to keep these facilities operational after major
earthquakes result in very high lateral forces.
 LateralBesistinqSystems

Although many details arc possible for such conditions, a likely scenario is
represented by structual steel ftaming sunounding the steel plates with the
whole steel assembly encasedin reinforced concrete.The steel framing con-
sists of columns and floor beams whi€h not o.ly rcsist gravity loads but the
columns act also as boundar'y members resistirg ovedurning forces. The
shear-wall web is a steel plate welded to the columns anal beams. A simple
practical detail would be to provide a shofi piece of steel plate continuously
fillet welded in the shop to the beams and coiulllns as a tab. The shear wall
steel plate can then be installed after the beams and columns with erection
bolh to the tab. Field fiUet welds can then be installed between steel plate
and tabs. If the plates need to be installed in pieces becauseof size in ship-
ping or erection, splicescan be simple fillet welds to a common back-up plate.
If there a?e openings in the wall, additional steel boundary members or
fl angesmay be appmpdate.
Tb prevent buckling of the steel plate when it is loaded, the completed steel
assembly can be encased in rcinforced conclete. This also fircproofs ihe steel.
The encasement should be thick enough to provide the stiffness needed to
prevent buckling and should be properly reinforced for strength. Common
details would include a regular pattern of welded studs on each side of the
plate or a rcgular pattem of holes in the plate to pass reinforcing bars hooked
at each end. This pmvides a composite sandwich so the entire thickness rs
€ffective at preventing buckling. As forces can be quite high in such systems,
special attention to details is padicularly impor.tant with this type of con-
struction.

5.6 HorizontalDiaphragms
5.6.1 Oiaphragms
Floor and roof diaphragms are often one of the most overlooked elements in
building design, but their pedor:rnance is essential for any successful build-
ing. They interconnect all columns at each levet, pmvide a hodzontal hansfer
of forces to hacing elemenis, and provide stability bracing to columns that
arc not a part ofthe lateral-force-resisting system. In many buildings, they do
this rtell even when neglected in the design prccess. But composite shuctues
tend to be tall shuctures or ones with special elements concentmting bracing
so that proper design of horizontal diaphragms is usualy quite important.
Diaphragm design is no different in composite buildings than in convention-
al structural steel or reinforced conoete buildings. The same basic pdnciples
apply and $/ill not be repeated herc. The follovring sections discuss only sever-
al special considerations olforce hansfer unique to composite stmctures.
Infornation on the design of floor diaphlagms for reglons of high seismicity
may be found in Ref. G58A, which is illustrated with seveml practical exam-
ples. It should be also noted that in view of the frequetrt use of computer
analyses, simulation of diaphragms as finite elements is fairly common in the
design pmctice.
5.6.2 Concrete-filled
steetdeck ctiaphragms
Most steel decking systems have been designed and tested for gravity loads,
'$.ith the steel decking
designed to resist independenUv conshuction loaals
and the wet concrete frll. The steel deck usually haB embossments or alefor-
mations which have been pressed into the sheet during its manufachrre into
decking so that once the concrete harden€, the two;iI work compositely,
with the decking acting as bottom tension reinforcement and the cor€rere
rcsisting compression. Since these systems are proprietary, it is necessarf, to
consult the manufacturers' literature for rated loads and other infornauoa.
The design ofthese systemsis addressedbv the Steel Deck Institute.cs,
When considering the diaphmgm design, it is lmportant to rem€mber that
the concrete fill is the stiffest part of the svstem in the horizontal plane so the
shear stresses are p madly resisted by concrete. Thus. for force transler
between a steel column and the diaphragm, forces must first transfer to the
beam though the beam-to-colurrn connection and then to the concrete fiIl,
€ither though welded studB or thrcugh puddle welds to the steel deck and
through bond and the embossments ofthe decking to the concrete fill. Each of
these hansfers must be adequate for the intended forces. It is essential in
design to always keep all load paths in mind and ensurc complete load paths
in the design and detailing. When the conffete fill on the ste;l deck connects
directly to the concrete of shear $/alls or steel_encas€al composite concrete
beams, reinlorcing dowels between the two can be used for alirect hansfer
Special constmction considerations ale also necessaryfor studs welded to
steel beams though the steel decking. The steel decking is sometrmesgalva_
nized, and the zinc of the galvanizing can rcsult in poor_quality welds.
When the publiEhed literature ofthe steel deck manuiacturer gives capaci_
ties for diaphrsgm action less than needed, the concrete fill can 6e increased
in thickness and adequately reinforced so the concrete alone can resist the
horizonlal diaphragm shesses, using the metal deck only as a form for con_
crete placement and as tension reinforcing of the composite floor slab as it
spansbetween adjacent floor beams.

5.6.3 Diaphragmchordsand collectors

$.ith any horizontal diaphragm, the load paths can usually best be seen by
ls
drawing the floor slab like a beam in each direction separately and applyini
all lorces in and out of the slab and then analyzing ihe aiait rug- iit e i
beam. In this manner, the chod and collector forces can be ileternin;al.
In composit€str-uctues, it is usually easy to utilize memben alreaaly prcsent
to serve as chords and collectols. For example, the perimeter ifan]ing usually is
more than adequate lor chord forces, so the or y issues are ensurinq that ihe
perimeter fraring membershave adpquateconnecrionsat the coluJrmsfor the
t€nsion of the diaphmgm chord togeth€r $.ith other loads the connection must

Figure 5.14 shows a simplified floor plan of a floor diaphragm with two
composite shear walls at each end which brace the building in the naraoF
 Late.al Fesisiing Systefi s

buildingin one dkection

Diaphr,agm
lorcesdue lo windor eadrquake

(a)

i,suE 5.14 llasfer of iliaphraem force io 6hear ws]ls. (a) Floor iuaphracm. (6) Free body diaeram of one

dir€ction. The diaphragm forcesare either the tdbutary wind or seismic

forcesactitrg on the floor Figure 5.14 showsa ftee-bodydiagram ofthe end of
the floor diaphragm. The diaphragm $'i11have a reasonably uniform shear
flow as it nears the end. The total force divided by length gives a force per
irnit length that must be transferred ftom the con$ete fill to the Btructual
ste€lperimeterbeam as discussedin Sec.5.6.2.Assumingthat the building
has thrce bays ofequ€I length, the collectorforce at the face ofthe shear wall
at lin€ I will be two-tiids of the total force to be tmnsfelled to the shear
wall. The perimeter beam undoubtedly is shong enoughto resist this tension
collector load. The beam-to-columnconnectionat line B must rcsist this col-
lector force in combinationwith other designloads at that location. The
beam-to-colu]nnconnectionat line C must resist halfthe collectorload at lin€
B (on€-third of the total force) plus all other alesignloads. The beam within
the shear wall from lines A to 4 shov.n in Fig. 5.14, must have a suflicient
number of studs to tmnsfer the collectorforce ftom the stiuctwal steel beam
to the concreteweb of the compositeshear wall. While this example is
exhemely simplified, it illusbates the method of determining the load-path
analysis and the attention to detail that needsto be consideredin composite
5.6.4 Floordiaphragmdesign
Assume a builditrg floor plate 200 by 100 ft (60 by 30 m) with composite shear
walls at both ends as shown in Fig. 5.15. The flool is 3-in (76-mm) steel deck
with Stla-in (83-mm) lightweight concrcte frl. Check diaphragm for seismic
zone 4 or wind with net average pressure of 30 lb/fr? (1.43 kN/mr). The story
height is 14 ft (4.3 m). Concreteshensth is 4 ksi (28 MPa).
Detendne critical load.
Seismic:

u,t = 0.4w = 0.4 x ljltbft, x 100ft : 4kipsfft

Wind:
t,"-14k 30lb/fr.0.42kip,fr S e i . m i sc o v e m s
Diaphmgm shear design.

v- - ?' 4 ',2!9 - 4666p5

2'2
Check diaphragm shear on concrete Iill alone.

v":1.4V^*= 7.4x 400: 560kips

I I
FiquE5.r5 Floor diaphragm for Sec.5.6..1,
 LateralFeslstlngSystem6 5.31

Assuming 4.75 in average Blab thickness, the area of concrete slab per unit
width is

A" = 700 x 72 t 4.75= 5700l.t,

Average shear str€ss = 560 : 0.098 ksi

5700
Concreteshear strcngth : 24y0.001f;:2 x O.85x V0.001 x 4
= 0.108 ksi > 0.098 ksi O.K.
If the concrete shength alon€ is insufficient, reler to test data of the steel
deck manufacturer or add reinforcing in the fill slab.

Chord lorce design. Check maximum chord force at the diaphragTn €dge
(point A in Fis. 5.15):

pt.^ t-! z o ' .- 2 o . o oR

o -kip.
88
For simplicity,assumechordsare at the edge:

29+q : 2ookips
"-.-: 100
Assumesteel at the frame edgetakes the entire force:

Required4 = 200 : 6.67 in

0.6 \ 50
However, code allows a one-third increaselor seismic loading, so the 200 kips
tension should be combined with gravity-load requirements and multipiied by
0.75. Compare this requfuement with gravity-onty requirements and desigl
fbr the larger. CoDn€ctionsmust also be designed for the 200-kip tensron.
Alternatively, add continuous reinforcing steel to the steel deck fill.

Collectortorce design

V-d : 400 kips at each end, assumedto be unifomly dishibuted

At points B, collectorforce is (33.3/100)x 400 - 133 kips

At point C, collectorfolce is (66.7/100)x 400 : 267 kips
These lorces need to be combined with gravity forces as described above for
chord forces.

5.6.5 Designofa floor diaphragmwith an opentng

Assume the same basic buiiding confrguration and dimensions as in Sec.
5.6.4, but at the secondfloor a shear wall &om aboveis discontinued and the
 NZ
-"1,--'--
h- Shearwallabove
, oity. V= 1000kips
*sheafwat
V

^u

Wallreaclions
dueto tansterin diaphragm

Wallroaclrons
dueto 2ndjtoorInediaiorce

200kips
Fisure5,16 Floor diapbragm for Sec.5.6.5.

ibrce must be hansfened by the diaphragm to the end shear walls below
(Fis.5.16).
Wall reactions due to the diaphmgm hansfer anal due to the second floor "i
inertia force are shown also in Fig. 5.16.

Chordlorce at 4

11.- 26,6661 1!QQt5! IM : 4s,000ft_kips

200
where20,000ft-kips isM-* from Sec.5.6.4.

r- ={!p
100
: asonp"
"
DesienchordatA for this forceas in Sec.5.6.4.
 LaleralResisllng
Systems 5.33

Chod force at a Consider free-body diagla]n (Fig. 5.17) just at the left edge
ofthe wall above.
y: 950 + 200 : 1150kips

_ ( 1 1 5 0 s 0 )- ( 4 , 5 0 . 2 5 ) -
DzDKrps
100

Designchod atD for 525kips as describedin Sec.5.6.4.

w = 4 kips/itor200kipsroral

l !

I v = 750kips+ 5o'x4
t =gsokips

____lTD

rguBs,l7 FFebody diagraD at ilE sall lelt edse.

 Check shear in diaphragn at opening:

Y = 1150- (12.5x 4) = 1100kips

Distribute shear proportionally to arca or length:

,, I4\t1no
83.3 . 12 r 4.75 " ".- "",

This exceeds,corcr€te shear strenth; therefore, add sufnci€nt reinforcing steel

in concrete fill to provide strength. In normal buildings when large'force
t?ansfe$ pass through a diaphragm, the concrete will be made thickei
Check local chord lorceqa! openinp.
rn rb-ft a-rn tengtb at top

y = ]91 rror-r
= zzorip"
83.3
Assuming local point of inflection at center of opening, the moment and the
loc"l ren"ileforcpat the faceof the openingare

,'M . _ 2 2_i-
O.21 2750 fr_kips

-
r."^
F 3T9
- resups
16.7

If resisted by reinforcing steel in concrcte IiIl

? = 1.4 x 165 = 230kips

230
0.9 x 60
Use7#7bam s.ithA.: 4.20inr.
Collectomat openingparallelto walls:

r . 1-oo 'e.e
" gt.g kjp"
100

,-1.4 9i.3 -^-..,

. 0.9x60
Use4#7barswith A : 2.40inr.
Forcein collecro'ar B is .t1S0,3 - 883kips.
DragaLwallabovei. 10003 - 333kjps.
The resullsare summa-rized in F.ig.S.18.Chordforcessbown,e.g..483kips at
the bottomcornerof the righ{-hand-side qhearwallI rnustbe ;esignedinto
floor framing in addition to g:ravityloads.
 Lat.ral Resisting Systems 5,35

43i3kips
I

iraming
in

525[ips ,150tips
FiquF5.13 Chodfones.

5.7 CompositeSystemsfor Retrofit

5.7.1 Seismicretrofit
There is an incrcasing effort in rccent years to rehofit existing stmctures for
improved performance, especially for improved rcsponse for lateral forces.
This hend is most prevalent in regions of high seismicity where building
owners d€sirc to strengthen their buildings for improved perlormance in
futurc earthquales. Very significant changes have occuned in seismic design
cdteria over the past 20 year8 in the United States, and many builalings built
before the early 1970s may be quite wlnerable to severe damage and even
paftial or complete collapse in a significant earthquahe. Some jwisdictions
have enacted rcgdations requiring rctmfit of buildings with certain framine
Bystems for compliance with specified stardards. Unreinforced masonry bear"
ing wall buildings were the initial target. Other programs can be expected for
uffeinforced masonry infrll buildings and certain tr?es of reinforced concrcte
buildings, specifically those relying on nonductile moment-resisting frames
for lateml resistance.
Composite systemB are frequently the rcsult of these rehofits of the lateml-
force-resisting str-ucture. Steel diagonal bmcing is o{ten added to the masonry
or concrete building, and it is neces€ary for the design to achieve a satisfacto-
ry level of performance of this mix of materials. One of the major lactors
i[fluencing the selection of these composite systems is economy: The trew
steel diagonals and any steel shapes added to the existing beams o? columns
often must provide an econornically viable solution. The add€d steel meftbers
are relatively light. Thus a rehofit scheme u6ing steel memberc has minimal
impact on the foundations a]td minimizes foundation reconshuction, which
can b€ exhemely expensive.
Criteria for retmfit of the lateral force syBtem ca]l vary considerably. Some
mandatory prcg:rams have prescriptive requirements that must be met. Many
rctrofits are voluntary by the owner, and the cdteria must be developed by the
 (@ra* Lidztss2
theuniversit orcariromiaat Berketev
E?";""i;l""r.fj;:*::"8 3'at

engineer for the oraner's approval. The crit€ria must include movidine ductile
members.connecrions.and dplaiJsas mu.h ab resisring a specificlareial force
criteria. Considerable prcfessional engineering judgment by the design engi-
neer is always a necessaly ingredient to a succ€ssfirl seismic rehoflrt solution.
Many examples could be shown to illustrate this type of construction.
Figure 5.19 shows University Hall at the University o! California at Berkeley,
which was retrofitted in the early 1990s. The original building was completely
of reinforced concrete consttuction. The building was constmcted in thei9bos.
There were a few nominal interior shear walls in the tlansvelse alircction. but
lhe rcsr ofthe laleral forc" dependedon rhe enerior concreteframes consisrine
olslirf7-fi,-deep,2.1-rn,bpanarelbeam6and 24-in-square r0.6l-m, columnsl
Inelastic p€dormance under strong ground shaking of the o ginal building
would be absorbed by the short stif columns which, when tbey fail, coutd leaJ
to collapse. The strengthening solution consisted of stiffening the padially
exposed basement and first floo? with concrcte shear walls and addine the
sLeetbraced frame seen in F,g. b.19. The analysis for rhis designmodeletbolh
the original conoete frame and the new steel bracing, and determined that
a{ter cracking reduced the high initial sti$less ofthe coneete fram€. the steel
bracing was stif and shong enough to pmtect the concrete fiame l|om exces_
sive deformation and dishess. The steel bmcing was designed with ductile,
full-strcngth connections. The steel columns of the new bracing were designed
to support tdbutary building loads as a redundant system. As the conffete
 LaieralResislingSystems

columns separated from the new bracing, anchored steel plates w€re added to
provide partial confrnement ofthe nominally tied columns.
Many other examples of this type of composite construction could be cited.
In all cases, it requtes an analysis which allows cracking of the concmte or
masonrT structue to allow the generaliy more flexible steel bracing system to
fiDction. The allalysis must be reviewed to ensure that the cmcking will not
be detrimental to the pedormance ofthe stmcture under severe lateral loads.
Ifthe review indicat€s that cracking will be excessive,then another solution
is usually required that will provide a stiffer retrofit solution. It is very
important that the designer considersthe compositeresponseof such retrofit
schemes to ensure thefu compatibility a]ld success.

5.7.2 Betrofitfor verticalloads

When a steel column needs to be shengthened for additional vertical load-
car"rying capacity, two techniques arc genemlly available: an all-steel retrofrt
or a composite rctlofit. The ali-steel retrofit involves welding steel plates
either to the flange faces or across the tips of the flanges to form a box. In
either case, sirce the existing column is heavily loaded, the column tempera-
ture duing the w€lding operation must be carefully contrctled.
The oth€r option is to prcvide a concret€ encasem€nt of the eisting steel
column as shown in Fig. 5.20. A composite retrcfit increases the dead load on
the foundation, and hence the foundation capacity must be checked. The
design capacity of the retrcfitted colunn is deterrnined by the LRFD proce-
dule for co4posite columns. The construction execution involves the removal
of the existing fueprcofing, placement ol shear studs on the flanges and the
web ofthe steel column, placement ofthe longitudinal bars and ties, and final-
ly concrete placement. Two conditions need caretul detailing. wlren the lonei-
tudinal column bars are always ir compressior, weldable rcinlorcing bam can
be welded to the base plat€ prcvided the base plate and the g?out beneath it
can transmit the ioad. Ifthe load transmissiol through th€ plate is not possi-
bl€ or if the longitudinal reinforcing bars are in tension and the anchor bolt

Fiqures.2O Qro$ section of the retfofitte d column-

 capaci8 is inadequate, it is preferable to drill and dowel the retuforcine bals
;Droihe eRislingfouodar;onfor Lhetensioncapacjt).The oLherconside;ation
is the differential axial shortening due to the shrinkage and creep of concret€.
ThiB applies primarily to tall structures or structures where onlv a few
columns are bejng re{"ofitFd. Detailed calcuJationsare required to obiain the
cumujarivedifferenlial axiaj shortedngoler thp heighroI rhe bdlding in rhe
composite retmlitted columns versus th€ all-steel unrchofitted columnB.

5.7.3 Reftofil forwind loads

The science of wind enginee ng has been developed since the failure of the
first Tacoma Nanows bddge in 1940. Newly acquircd wind-load data led to

e
e
--"'i'T----l::
----iit
6

5 b a y sa t 3 0 - o ' ( 9 m )
Flgure 5,21 Original building f!!me.
 LaleralBsslsilngSyslems

FiguF5,22 Composrier€tmFt,

increases in the wind loads specified in most building codes.Moreover, the

wind effects such as building sway and motion perception are better under-
stood. Sway guidelines are given in the Canadian codecdaAand motion percep-
tion limits in the ISO standards.eaA Consequenily, some older buildings have
to be retmfltted for higher wind loads, sway, or perception ofmotion.
The use of a composite rctmfit fulfills the basic requirements. Composite
retrofit of columns gives higher a-yial and bending capacity required for high-
er wind loads. The additional stiffness due to composite action reduces the
sway and lowers the fundamental period of the building. Furthermorc, the
additional mass and damping reducethe motion perception.
An example of a $/ind-load retroht of an existing 47-story steel-framed
Figure s,23 Elevation of lhe rctrofitted buildins.
 Ltteral ResislingSystems 5.41

buildins built in 1971 is described belon The original plan of the building is
shown in Fig. 5.21. The lateral resistanceof the odginal building was provided
by welding the e).te or spandrel gird€rs to t}Ie exterior columns which arc
spaced at 30 lt (9 m) on centers. The odginal stNcture was designed for
strength only based on the existing code ivind loads of 20 lbfi, (1.0 kPa) up to
60-ft (18-m) heisht, and 30lb/fr? 11.5tPa) abovethat level. The building was
purchased in 1994 by a major corpomtion. lt was decided to rctmfit the build-
ing for the corporat€ requirements and for the latest building code provisions
and industry practice on sway and motion perception.
Sin schemes were examined for the shuctural retrcfit ofthe building. The
final selected system was to proyide a total of eight composite supercolumns
with nine-story tall diagonal bracing as shown in Figs. 5.22 and 5.23. At the
lower levels, all extedor columns ftom the mat foundation at the fourth base-
ment level to tbe fourth floor ir the tower were made composite as shown in
Fig. 5.23. The compositeframe at these levels transfered the wind load down
to the foundation. Expansive cement was used in the columns to minimize
shrinkage, and the diagonals s€re loose bolted until the supercolumns were
topped out. The compositerctmfit proved to be the most economicalofall the
alternates studied and also had the fewest constmction problems.
 codesallow the desigr base shear for special moment-resisting systems to be
less than or equal to that of any other system included in these codes.
Because of thc acknowledged ductility and the limited interference s.ith
architectural and oth€r building requirements, special moment-resisting
frames, especially in steel, have been a commonly useal structural system for
resisting lateral forces. The extensive detailing requirements for rcinforced
concrcte to quaiify as a special moment-resistinq frame have result€d in more
limrrcduse in bJ ld,nedesigr pradicc iE areas;fhish seibm;cit).
Composite special moment-resisting ftaming systems are similar to the cor-
ligurations previously discussed for ordinary moment-resisting frames
Analogous to steel or concrete systems, more str-ingent detailing Fovisions are
reqrired to increase the system ductility and toughness of the composite spe-
ci:l moment-resisting frame, with the commensuate rcduction in desisn later-
al lorccs.The intcnl of su.h p.oyisionsr. ro confne ineta"tichinging to rhe
beams, while the columns and connections remain essentially elastic. Tests ix
Japan have demonstrated that beam-to-columnconnectioni can be detailed
such that little damage to the connection ocnrs adjacent to beams subjected to
large inelastic rotations.rab As a resutt, the design base shear vatue prescribed
for this system is simiiar to special momentrcsisting lrame systems of steel or
reinlbrced concrcte, and no limitations have been placed on their usage.
The Northridge, Calif., earthquake o11994 causedcracks in the welds and
connections of numerous shuctural steel buitdings designed with special
moment-resisting frames. Simitar joint weld failures were observed in the
1995 K."be, Japan, earthquahe. An e>,tensive research Droaram is underivay
L o f L n h e r d e f i n pt h e f a i l u r em c c h a n i b r r sa n d d e v p ' ^ ps u i r a b l es o t u t i o n i .
Compositespecial moment-rcsisting frames are subject io the sarnepotential
failure mechanismsand solutions. For guidance, sce Ref. G91 and sutsequent
work from the same coordinatedresearch proeaam.

5.3.2 Partiallyrestrainedframes
Pmcedures for the design of partially rcstrain€d composit€ moment f.ames ss
defrned in the prcvious section have been developed and Dub1ished.121,12,!.r:r6rE
SiandardiTeog!;delirec ai-pullder devFlopmenlby the ASCE Task Commiir€e
on Design Guide for Composite Semi-Rigid Connections. This section summa-
dzes the published pmcedures.

Analytical considerations. Only a nominal amormt of slab steel at the columns

is needed to transform a simple connection into a rather stiff semirigid joint
The additional required slab reinforcing bars, shear connectors, and seat
angles provide both significant additional strength and stiffness to the fraroe
system. The semidgid behavior of the beam-to-column connections reduces
sigdficantly the lat€ral drift of these frames.
The contribution of the beam-to-column connection flexibility discussed
abovFFust b. incorpo"ar"rtinro rhe laleral forceanalvsisofrhese sr
The simplest method lor incorporating this effect in the lateral frame "tems-
 LateralResistingSyslens

sis is to model connections as linear spdngs with a:r effective stiffness

rcduced from the initial elastic stiffness to account for the inelastic nature of
the connection moment-cur-vaturc lelatio$hip. A simple method for account-
ing for this effect was presented by Bjorhovde Da6Incorporating the effective
connectionsljrfnessinro rhe frame anaty.r. wi obviou;t] affecirhe buitdrng
perioddnd latpral oene.rionsaid. ro a lesse"exrent,rhe djslributionofmcm:
ber forces. Frame stability analyses must also consider the effective stiffness
of connections in determining the rotational restraint at the enals of columns.
Including these elfects with typical effective buckling-length p."""d";;;
should result in satisfactory column design for low_rise construction. F'or
btructu'es ldlle" lhan torr btories.gcomekj. and connecrionnonlincarities
shouldbe includedin thc laretal drrtr and slabiliU analybes.
The moments of ineltia of compositebeams composealof steel wide_flange
rect'onbanda concrplenoor "ldb are.igrificanrly differenrtor negativea;d
posjhvebend.Eg.Undef.y.lic larFral tor.es.such ds rno.e.aused-by
seiqmic
grcund molion. rhe beam bendingmomcnrdiagra and rhe,efore
stiffn.s",
v!'r|icnangc ctunngthe rebponse. The usF of eilher the posiri!e or negarve
compositebeam moment of iner.tia alone will lead to significant errors in
the
calculation of the frame stiffhess.lrrA weighted average of the two values
has
beFndemonstra.led to re.uh in affcptableaccufa.y.This weightedaverageis
basedon the lbllowine eouation Dr

I": 0.6ILe+ 0.411,, (5.1)

where 1" : moment ol inertia of compoBite sectron
- lo$er-boundmomeniuf inenia for positire
L, bFnd,ng
/.. . to$er-boundlfomenl of inedia tol.negari!Fbcnding

The lower-bound values can b€ obtained ftom the AISC LRFD Manual.Drb

Elemenldesign. As noted in the previous section,the effect olthe connectiDn

stiffness must b€ inctuded in the laterat frame analyses .f part;it
restmined compositeframes. The el€ment moment and shear diagrams detei_
mined from these analyses can be used with standard member jesign proce_
dures Compositebeam design can be accomplishedusing the proced-ur;
fre-
sented in Ciap. 3 For low-dse applications, steel columns may be desigred
using "landard AlSc LRFD desjgn equdtion..wirh prope, con"iae.ari&
oi
bencltngmomenicdevplopcdrnroughll^esemirigidconnecrrors. The "oLation_
al conneciionr-esrrainrmucr be propertJconsideredin dcrerminingrne effec_
1r\e,columrlenglhs.For raller buildirgs. analysesuhich considc;geomFLric
nonnnearrr'es shoutdbF ncorporatedin lbe designoffran e colLmnb.

Connectiondesign. The connection detail typically considered for partially

restrained composite moment {iames consists of a bottom seat angle, a double
angl€ or shear tab lor the web, and stud connectors with added slib reinforce_
ment to deliver top flange forces.Section6.5.2 includ€s a completedesoiption
of the design considemtions anat calculations for semirigid c;nposite co;;;_
5.10

tions for gravityload design, and a design example is Fesented in Sec. 6.5.3.
Discussion of semirigid connection design for partially reshained moment-
resisting frames is included ir Sec. 6.5. According to Sec. 6.b.3 it is advisable
to attempt to detail these connections so that the positive- and negative-
Eoment sections have roughly the sane stifftress. This can be accomplished by
providing seat angle and web connections which are on the order ofbo Derced
qnonger than thal rFquiled for negative momenrh.
The joint rotations in connectior design should be limited to approximately
0.02 radian- If the iiame analyses indicate larger lotatiolrs, the connection
plates nust be stiffened by increasing the amount of slab reinforcement aail
providing heavier seat angles and web connections.

5.3.3 Ordinaryframes
The beam and column elements of composite ordinary moment-resrsuog
frames may consist of one of a number of possible combinations of structural
steel, reinforced concrete, ard composite sections. The analysis and design
detailing of the frame membels is quite similar to that reqlrited of steel or
concrete moment-resisting frames. Force transfer between the elements of a
composite frame is somewhat unique and desenes special attention, since i[
general the connections are desiened to be shonger than the weakest elemed
(generally the beams) I|aming into the joint.

Analylicalconslderalions. In general, th€ anall'tical proceduresto be used i

the design of composite ordinary moment-resisting ftames are identical
those emploJed in Lhedesign ofslrurlural 6teel or reinJorcedconcrelp
Elastic properties of compositeelements can be tuansformedinto equi
prcperties of one mat€rial for stif6:Iessanalysesusing standard proce
Since the size of composite columns in certain types of these frames
become quite large for stiffness consideratioN. it mav be more accurate
include a finite rigid joint size into the frame model.Additional acctracv
be obtained by including the shear stiffness of the joints. But, since the
nections are tJ.?ically required to be stmnger tha]l t|e membersframing
the joint, in many cases inclusion of an elastic spring to represent the joi
stilfness will not be necessary to obtain the accumcy rcquted for design,

Elementdesign. As noted above,th€ deBignofelements in composite

moment-resistingframes is not significantly different from the procedures
structural steel and reinforced concrete elements. In fact, the desim
dFrailrngof srrucLural"leel beam" and columnsin rheseorainar'vmon
resisting frames can generally be based on the requirements of one of
commonly used seismic design codes, such as Chap. 2? ofthe Uni
Building Code,c7lthe NEHRP seismic design provisions,Dr6or the AISC
mic design provisions.c?3Compositebeams can be designed according to
procedurespresentedin Chap. 3.
It has been suggesledand implenen[ed into LheCanadiansejsmjc
 LateralResistingSystems 5.11

requircments that reduced capacities should be used for these €hear connec-
tols in composite beams of moment-resisting frames, since thev will be sub-
jected to cyclic forces. This would be more impoftant in special moment-
resisting frames where the expected ductility demand on the el€ments and
connectionsis higher. A rcduction of 10 to 25 percent appears to be reason-
able wherc the studs are expected to be subjected to severc cyclic loading.De6
Such a reduction is recommendedfor all applications of shear connecto?sin
these compositeframes.
The design of cornposite columns can generally foltow the procedures pre-
sented in Chap. 4. Encased compositecolumns should have a minimum ratio
of structural steel to gTosscolumn area of 4 percent, as rcqu ed in the AISC
LRFD pmvisions. The shear strcngth of these columns generally ignorcs the
contdbution ofthe concrcte.D61 Conhibution of the shear shenqth ofthe rein-
forcingries i. baspdon an effecrivFshear widtl- 6 ot the .ecrion. as noredin
Fig. 5.4.DI Fo" filled.ompositecolumnb.it iq con;nari\e lo reglectrhe con
tribution of the concrcte to the shear shength of the colulnn. FoI conditions
where shear shength becomes critical, it may be possibt€ to treat the element
as a rcinforced concrete column with the steel tube considercd as th€ shear
r€inforcement. Transler of forces between the structurai steel and rcinforced
concrete portions of the section shoutd be made through shear connectom,
ienoring the contribution of bond or ftiction, using calculation procedures
such as those presentedin Chap. 6.
The design and detailing of reinforced concrete columns in these frames
should be similar to those of intennediate or special moment frames of rcin-
forced concrete.Conservative detailing practices (i.e., incorpomting the spe-
cial moment frame rcquirements) are recommendedfor these frames in hieh
roncssincetherc is liitle rFscarchln rhe useot inr,ermediate detailine
"F:smic
of concrerccolumn" in rhcsp applicdiion..D'c Tnr.
"ecomm"ndarionmat bi
relaxed in the future ifresearch indicates that the composite beam and beam-
column connection details can be designed to pedorm better and morc reli-
ably than similar elements in rcinforced concrete moment frames.

=+n 5.4 Efective wiilths for encas.d composfte colmns.

5.12 Chapter
Five

Connectiondesign. Section 6.4.1 includes description of the desien considela-

tions and calculations for moment-resisting connections between steel or com-
posite beams and compositeor rcinforced concretecolumns. Section 6.4.7 prc-
s€nts similar information for moment-rcsisting connections between steel or
composite beams and st€el colurns.
In ordinary moment-resisting frames, the tlTi€al procedure is to design the
connections to develop the strength of the connected menbers. In sersmrc
design, it is generally desimble to avoid inelastic action in the flame connec-
tions unless the joints can be detailed with sufiicient ductility. ConsideratioD
ofall contributions to member shength must be included il1 determination of
connection strcngth. Contributions which should be considered include the
shengthening effect of the composite action of a steel beam and concrete slab
in the joitrt regions.
l.Iansfer of loads between structrDal Bteel anal reinforced concrete elements
of a composite moment-resisting frame should be made only thmugh shear:
friction and diect bearing. Relia]}ce on bond a]Id adhesion forces should not be
considered because of the eyclic nature of the lateral loading. In addition.
where shear friction equatioN are used in the calculation of connection trans-
fer forces, it has been recommended that a 25 percent reduction on the t ?ical
shear-ftiction capacities be imposed lor buildings in areas ofhigh seismicity.r
Panel zone shength calculations for composite ftames with fully encas€d
steel columns may bTically be taken as the sum of the steel and reinforced-
concrete capaciti€s. Recommendations lor tuansverse rcinforcement in the
joint region of compeite frames have been presented by Deierlein et a1.116 and
I{anno.]a5 Reidorcing bar development lengths similar to reinforced concrete
mom€nt liame construction should be provided in the detailing of these joinls.

5.3.4 Specialmomentresistinglrames
The design approach for compositespecial momenfrcsisting frames is basf
cally the same as that previously discussedfor compositeordinar] moment-
restuting fraftes. The attempt to provid€the maxirrlum possibleframe ductili-
ty, toughness, and energy-dissipation capacity are the major
between the special and ordinary moment-resistingframe systems.These
ferences result in more stdngent provisions for element and joint detai
Generally these frames are designed to limit inelastic action to the be
with the intent of preventing or at least severcly rcstricting any p
yielding in columns and comections.

AnalyticaI considerations.
T}|e di.c.rssionolanalyical procedur"sfor
moment-rcsisting Ilames in the previous section also applies for com
sDecialmoment-resistins frames.

Elementdesign. ltre design of elements in compositespecial moment-

ing lrames should incolTorate all ihe prccedures a]ld requirements for
naljr moment frames described above, and add more stringent rcqui
in order to obtain the expectealincreased member ductility and toughness.
 Laleral Besisting Systems 5.13

-9re5.s Closd-h@p detsil for u encsed composjte

For composite systems which incorporate steel and reinforced concrete

columns, all the t]?ical design and detailing provisions lor special moment-
resisting lfames ofthe two matedals should be followed. For all systems, con-
sideration of the strong column-1^'eak beam approach should be included in
the design. For composite columns, tlansvelse reinforcement r€quirements
should be equivalent to those rcqu ed of rein{orced concrete colurnns in spe-
cial moment resisting frames. Special details may be required to meet the
int€nt ofclosed-hoopand cross-tierequirements for compositecolumns with a
structural steel core. An example of a closed-hoop detail {or an encased conr-
posite colurnn is shown in Fig. 5.5
Steel and composite beams should be designed to me€t the more restdctive
br/2tr ald. dlt. compactness limits and the lateml bmcing requirements or
steel special moment-resisting frames. The additional restrictions arc neces-
sary to increase the resistance to local and lateral tolsional buckling, allow-
ing the beam elements to develop their fully plastic flexural capacity.
However, these more rcstrictive requirements arc not needed for steei flanges
connected to the conuete slab with shear conBectors since such flanges can-
not fail in lateral torsional buckling and their local buckting is substantially
inhibited by the presence of shear connectorc and the concrete slab.

Connectiondesign. Design considerations for connectionsin composite spe-

cial moment-resisting frames are simila? to those lor ordinary moment,resisr-
ing frames. In sp€cial moment-resisting frames, the connection capacity
should€lways be designed strong enongh to develop the strength of the con-
necreo Deams,

Braced Frames
Bm€ed frames have traditionally beeo the most common lateral-force-resist-
ing system with the exception of areas of high seismicity. These frames
resist lateral forces pdmarily through axial strcsses in the frame membem
that s€rve as elements of a vedical truss. Resisting lateral forces through
this mechanism generally provides excellent lateral stiffness characteristirts.
5.14 ChapterFive

As a result, braced frames are generally more economical than moment-

resisting frames. Their use is at times limited becauseofthe Dotential inter-
ferenceofb"aces wirh other bu:lding bJsremsor w:rh archirecrulajrequire

The majoriiy of braced frame construction is of structurai steel. althoueh

therp have oeensomeexamp'es^fconcrcrebracedframcs in taJ|prbuildinss
de";Cned-oreqisrmnd loads.Unrjl recen{ly,steel bracedlrane corsrrL,crion
has consisted almost exclusively of concentdc bracing, where the centerlines
of the various members which frame into a joint meet at a single point. The
ductility ol concentdc bmcing systems has been consideredto be limited bv
seismicdesgn code".becauseLheyrerl on inelaslic bucklingof rhe braceele-
ments to resist large overloads.
Dudng the 1970s and 1980s, a new form of braced frame was developed
which attempts to combine the excellent ductitity of moment-resistinq ftames
wirh rhp 'righ c-jffiressolconcenrr'callJbr.lcpdf"areb. Th:" sy"'"rrl,co^Inoo-
ly known as eccentrically braced ftames, consists of bracing elements which
are deliberately olTset fiom th€ centerline of beam-column ioints. The short
podion of beam between braces or between the brace and the column is
rcfened to as the link beam. The link beams ofan eccentricallvbmced ftame
are desigredto acr as ductile fu.es $hich Jis"iparplarge amourls ofenergy
dudng seismicoverloads.As a result, the design ofbrace elements can be pJr-
fbmed so as to preclude th€ possibitity of brace buckling. With proper choice
ofthe brace eccentricity,i.e., of the length of the iink beams, the stiffness of
this system can apprcach that of a concentrically bmced fran1e. The ability to
combine the ductility of moment frames and the stiffness of concentricalle
b"acedframe. has lco lo rn.rcasirg.rsc ot rhe in areas ofhigh seii
"ysrem
micity. Special pmvisions for the design of eccentdcally braced steel ftames
were frrst included is seismicb11ildingcodesin 1988.c5a
Braced frames ofcomposite construction have been commonin arcas oflos
and moderate seismicity.Most ofthese buildings have included encasedcom,
posite floors, composite columns, and steel braces. Composite columns are
rarely used in buildings less than about 20 stories high. Very tall buildings
are sometimes supporled on a few supercolumnscomposedof large-diameter
labricated circular steel shells frlled with high-strcngth concrete to provide
the requled lateral stiffness. Smaller-diameter concret€-filled ste€l tubes
have also been used for bracing elements in an attempt to ioprove the locrl
buckling resistance of the steel tube walts. Researchindicates that the coD-
crcte filling of tubes with high diameter-to-thickness ratios improves the
inelastic performance of such members.ctl Composite elements can aiso be
incorporated into the eccentrically braced frame system, although no practi-
ca1applications are kno$n at present.
Parallei to the previous discussionfor composit€moment-resisting ftame+
there were no building code pmvisions for the design of composite braced
lfame systems. The BSSC developedrecommendationsfor seismic atesisn
such frames; they have been included in the 1994 NEHRP Seismic Desi6
Requirementsfor Buildings.De6
 LaloralHesistingSystoms 5.15

5.4.1 ldentilicationof bracedframes

Composite bmced frame systems can be Eeparated into those with concentric
and those with eccentric bracing. As with momett frames, composite bmced
frames are Bimilar to steel bracecl frames.

Concentricallybracedframe. Concentrically bmced steel frame construction is

the most com]non form of steel fra]ning. The earliest applications began to
appear with the inception of steel framed const?uction and often included
bmces composedof built-up sections. Such bracing often was used to resist
latelal lorces in tow€r portions of laryer steel frame buildings with masonry
infills. Later applications consisted of t,'pical steel beam and column wide-
flange sectionsused in combination \.ith various brace sections,such as wide-
flange sections, tubes, double channelE, or double angles. Connections
between the st€el frame and the bracing elements is usually accomplishedby
welding or high-strcngth bolting to vertical gusset plates.
Composite concentrically braced lrames include a number of possible combi-
nations of steel, rcinforced conoete, and composite elements. Atl earty applica-
tions of these composite systems have been in regions ol low or modente seis-
micitj'' Composite brac€s of either conclete-filled steel tubes or concrete,encased
steel braces may be combined with steel ftame elements. Composite columns
may also be used in conjunction with composite floorE and steel bracing mem
berc. Such a syBtem is used frequently in tall buildings, wherc th€ composite
coh]mns become quite large to provide the reqrdred lateral stiffness.
As not€d prcviously, the lateral d€formation of concent'ically bmced frames,
boti steel and composite, is genemlly considered to be limit€d for seismic load-
ings because of the deterioration of energy-dissipation capacity which tlTical
brace elements exhibit during repeated inelastic cycles. For small or moderate
earthqual{eB wherc the braced frame elements remain essentially elastic, the
rcsponse of these frames can be e),?ected to be satisfactory. Measures such as
filling steel tubes wiUr concrete have proved to be able to inhibit the onset of
local buckling and thercby impmve the cyclic r€sponse of the brace elements.
Design of connections should be similar to that of st€el bmced fra]nes. where the
connections are intended to develop the capacity of the brace elements. Where
composite €lements are used, the connection design must consider the indeased
capacity caused by the addition of concrete to the st€el bmcing elements.

Eccenlrically braced lrame. AJter approximat€ly 10 yeals of experimental and

analltical research, the seismic design of steel eccentrically braced frames
was included in the 1988 Uniform Building Code.G5aThe ductile response of
the link elements has rcsulted in the system's being designed for loads simi-
lar to those requircd for special moment-resisting space frames. The system
has been used widely in Californi- for various types ofstructwes, with most
applications in the low- to middse range of building height. Similar applica-
tions in regions of low and moderat€ seismicity have been made, where the
desigrs capitalized on the potential simplifrcations of the member connec-
tions which can be rcalized with eccentric bracinE.
5.16

Little experience exists in the application of composite eccentrically braced

frames, but the use of structuml steel link elements, which are designed and
detailed to meet the requirements of eccentdcallv braced steel liames, in con-
junction with composite bmce or column elements would appear to be a sys-
t€m which would have seismic resistance equivalent to an all-steel Bystem. As
a rcsult, the 1994 NEHRP provisionsDe6recommended the same R and C, val-
ues for steel and composite eccentricauy braced frames, whete R ii the
respo$e-modification coefficient and Cd the deflection-amplification factor.
Conn€ctionsin composite frames should be designed for capacity similar to
steel systems to ensue that the inelastic action talies place in the link beams.

Concenlricallybracedf rames
The beam, column, and brace elements of a compositeconcentdcally brac€d
lrame may consist of one of a number of possible combinations of stmctural
steel, rcinforced conclete, and composite sections.The analysis, desig:r, ard
detailing of the frane memben is quite similar to that required ol concentdcal-
ly braced steel ftames. Force tlansfer between the elements of a composite
braced Same is unique and deserves special attention, since the connections are
generally designed to force inelastic actior into the diagonsl brace members.

Analyticalconsiderations.In general,the analltical prcceduresto be used in the

design of composite concentdcally braced frames are identical to those
employed for similar str-uctural steel systems. Elastic properties of composit€
eiements can be transformed into equivalent properties of one material for stjff-
ness analyBes using standad procedures. Since the size of composite columns
in cedain twes oithese flames can become quite large, for stifftrcss considela-
tions it may be more accurate to include a finite rigid joint size into the frame
model. Since the connections are typically required to be stronger tha]} the
membem framing into the joint, the inclusion of an elastic spring to represenr
th€ joint stiffness is generally not necessary lor design purposes. Where com.
posite brace elements include concrete intended to stiffel steel sections.thc
effects ofthe conoete on brace stifiness must be consid€red in the fta]ne model

Elementdesign. As noted above,the design of elements in compositeconceD-

tdcally braced frames is similar to the design of correspondingelements itr
other systems. The design ol steel beams, columns, and braces in these
frames can be generelly based on the requircments ol one of the commoDly
used seismic desigr codes, such as the AISC Seismic Design Provisions,c;i
Chap. 27 of the Uniform Building Code,c?ror the NEHRP Seismic Desigr-
Prcvisions.De6 Compositebeams can be designed accoding to the prccedures
presented in Chap- 3. Reduction in the capacity of shear connectors should
also be considercd,as was previously discussedin Sec.5.3.3.
The design of composite columns can generally follow the pmcedures pre-
sented in Chap. 4. Encased composite colulnns should have a minimum mtio d
structural steel to g}oss column arca of 4 percent. Tlansfer of forces betwee.,
 LateralFesisiingSystems 5.17

the str-uctual steel and reinforced concrete poftions of the section should be
made tbrough shear connecto$, ignoring the contribution of bond or firiction.
The capacity desiglr of rcinforced concrete columns should meet the require-
ment3 for columns in ordinary moment-resisting frames. The detailing of both
composite and reinforced condete columns should provide ductility comparable
to that of composite ordinary moment-resisting ftames. This potentially conser-
vative approach is warranted since there has been little rcsearch on such ele-
ments. Such requirements may be relaxed bv the rcsults of future rcsearch.
Composite brace design in corcentrically braced frames must recognize
that thcse elements are expected to provide the inelastic action during large
seismic overloads.Braces which are concrete,encasedsteel elements should
include reinforcing and confinement steel sufficient to provide the intended
stiffening eflect even after multiple cycles which have induced brace buck-
ling. As a rcsult, it is recommended that these elements meet detailing
requirements similar to those of composite colu]nns. Composite braces in ten-
sion should be designed considedng only the structural steel unless test
results justit' highel shengths.

Connectiondesign. Section 6.7.2 includes descdptions olthe design consider-

ations and calculations for connections between steel braces and composite
columns. Similar approachesrnay be followed for compositebrace elements.
The general intent ofthe conoection design is to provide sheng*h to develop
the capacity ofthe bracesin tension or compression.For compositebrace sec-
tions, the additional strength of the concrete mu6t be considered, since it
would be unconservativeto consider only the sheneth ofthe shuctuml st€el
section. Brace buckling and the resulting large rotation demands which could
result at the bmce ends should be consideredin connectiondetailing.
tansfer ofloads between structural steel and reinforced concreteelemenrs
of a composit€ braced frame should be made onty through shear lriction and
direct beadng. Reliance on bond and adhesion should not be considered
because of the cyclic nature of the lateral loading. In addition, where shear-
friction equations are used in the calculation of connection transfer forces, it
has been recommended that a 25 percent reduction on the truical shear-fric-
tion capacities be imposed for buildings in areas of high seismicity.Deo
Examples ofconnectionsbetween braces and compositeor reinforced concrcte
columns are shown in Figs 5.6 through 5.8.

5,4.3 Eccenlricallybracedframes
The beam elements oI composite eccentrically braced ftames wiil generally
consist of structural steel elements, although some research in Europe by
Kanz et al. has investigated the use ol concrcte flreproofing lor these mem-
bers.rs5A]1yconcreteencasementofthe beam elements should not extend into
the link regions where large inelastic action is developed.The column and
brace elements ofthese lrames could be composedof either stmctural steel or
composite steel and concrete sections.The analysis, design, and detailing of
5.la

/ -sled

\
,-.//--
\ i -1.
N..,
t"

\
\'"

Pan section Elevauon

FEur65.6 ConcentdcbEce @Mection to a conposite cohm.

Encas€! sleelcolumn

Plansection
Figure s.7 Altemate comection of a concentric bnce to a comloBite @lumn,
 LdteralFesisiingSystems 5,19

F'sure5.8 Concentdcbracecoueciion to a filled tube.

the fiames is quite similar to that required of steel eccentdcally braced

fiames. Since the force hansfer mechaniBms between the elements ofa com-
posite ftame rely on beafing and shear friction, special attention must be
paid to the design of these connections if they are to focus the intended
inelastic action to the ductile linh membels.

Analytical consideralions" In geneml, the anab'tical procedu?esto be us€d in the

design of composite eccentdcally bmced frames are identical to those employed
for similar structural steel systems. Elastic prcpefties of conposite elements
can be transformed into equival€nt properties of one material for stiffness
analyses using standard procedures. Since the size of composite colu]nns in cer-
tain tlTes ofthese frames can become quite large, fo? stiffness considerations it
may be more accuate to include a finite rigid joint size into the frame model.
Since the connections ar€ tJTicatly requircd to be stronger than the membe$
fraraing into the joint, the inclusion of an elastic spring to represent the joint
stiihess is genemlly not necessaly for design pu?oses. Where composite brace
elements include concrct€ intended to stiffen steel sections, the effects of the
conffete on blace stifriess must be considered in the lianle model.
Composite action of the concrcte slab with the stnrctural steel link beam
section may become significant in detenaining the initial capacity olthe linh
section, which should be considered in sizing the blace and column elements.
Tests by Ricles a]td Popov demonstrated that this effect diminishes in subse-
quent inelastic cycles but still may requirc consideration for longer links
which yield in bending.lls
5,20

Elementdesign. As noted above,the design ofelements in compositeeccentui-

cally braced frames fu very similar to the design ofconesponding elementsin
other systems. The design of steel beams, columns, and braces in these
liames can be generally based on the requircments of one of the conmonly
used seismic design codes, such as the AISC seismic design provisions,Gts
Chap. 27 olthe Uniforrn Building Code,c?lor the NEIIRP seismic design prc
visions.Ds6Reduction in the capacity of shear connecto?s shoulal also be con-
sidered, as was previously discussedin Sec.5.3.3.
The design of composite columns cajl genemlly follow the pmcealurcs prc-
sented in Chap. 4. Design loads must consider the ma-ximum load which can
be generated by yielding and some strain hardening of the link beam ele-
ments, similar to those rcquired for steel columns in these frames. Encased
composite colxnrns should have a minimum ratio of strdctural steel to gross
column area of 4 percent aB required ir vadous provisions unless they are
designed as reinforced concrete columns. Tlansfer of forces between the struc-
tural steel and reinforced concrete portions of the section should be made
through shear connectors, ignodng the contribution of bond or friction. Tb.
capacity desigr of reinforced concrete and encased composite columns ir
these &ames should meet the rcquirements for columltB in ordinary
resistingliames.The detailingofboth encasedcompositeand reinforced
crete columns should provide ductility comparable to that of intermedi
moment-resisting llames. This potentially conseryativeapproach iB \^r
ed since there has been little research on such elementB.In addition, for hi
er-performance categod€s the 1994 NEHRP prol/isionsDs6recommend
these columns m€et the tranBverse reinforcement reouirements of sDeci
moment-resisting frames. This requiement is ext€nded to all
categorieE when the link element is locat€d adjacent to the column.
Compos,tebrace de.ign in ecrenrrically braced f'a-nes musl rpcoe}tizp
these elements are intended to rcmain essentialy elastic dudng larg€ sei
overloads, Bince they are designed to be shong enough to yield the link
elements.The design strcngth of these bracesmust considerthe ,'relding
significant strain hardering which can occur in properly designed
detailed linh eiements. Both axial and bendine forces senerated in the
by the strain-hardened link beams must be considered.Braces which are
crete-encaseal
st€el eiements or reinforced concreteshould therefore
designed to meet detailing requirements similar to columns, as dis
above. Composite braces in tension should be desigred considedng only
strucruralsteel.unlessreql resulrsjusriry highersr'engths.

Conneciiondesign. S€ction6.7.2 includes descriptionsof the design

ations and calculations for connections between steel b?aces and
columns. Similar approachesmay be followed for compositebrace e
The geneml int€nt of the connection design is to provide shength to
the capacity of tbe link-beam elements. For composite brace sections,
additional stretrgth of the concrete must be considered, since it would
unconservative to consider only the str€neth of the structural steel sectj
W}lete the bhearlink :( nol adjacen{Lorhe column,the conneflionsb
 LaieralReslstlngSystems 5.21

(@nt.rhruioint)

Fe nlorcedconcreta
or

=uE 5.s Eccenldc !€ce coMecrior ro d encased composite colm!.

the bra^cesand-.c_olumnsare similar to those in composite concent cally

blaced frames. Wlere the shear iink i( adjacenl to the colurnns, lhe corurF(_
_/,/ tions should be detailed similar to composite beam-column connections in
sp€cial moment-resisting frames or between steel coupling beams anal con_
cret€_wall piers in composite wall elements. An example of-such a connection
detail is shown in Fig. b.9. The large rctation demands which could result ar
the ends of the link beamE should always be consialereil in aletailing th€ con_
nections of compositeeccentricallybnced frames.
Ilansfer ol loads between str.uctural steel and reinforcecl concret€ element!
ofa composit€ braced frame Bhould be made only through shear fi:iction ancyor
direct beadng. Reliance on bond and adhesion shoula not be consiclered
because of the cyclic naturc of the lateral loading. In addition, where shear_
friction equations ar€ used in the calculstion of c;nnection tla])sfer forces, it
has been recommend€d that a 25 percent reduction on the tvpicel shear;ic_
lion capacitiesbe inposedfor bdjdjngs in areasofhigh seibmi;iry.e6

:.5 Shear-WallDesign
i5.1 Compositeshearwalts
Composit€ shear walls can take many forms, but a fe$/ basic common svstems
are lound ir composireslruclurps.The most commoncompositesbear waLI
consists ofa str.uctural steel frame in which some bays are irlled with a rein_
fbrced-concrcte wall encasing adjacent structura-l steel columns anal beams.
 ChapterFive

In easence, this is a reinforced concrete shear wall with structural ste€l

boundary elements.This shear-wall system is discussedfu*her in Sec.5.5.2.
A sinilar composite shear wall can be for:rned w.ith a structural steel frame
and rnasonr:r installed between some of the columns to form a composite shea?-
wall system. Historically, the high-rise buildings of th€ late 1800s and eady
1900s in the Unit€d States consist€d of stmctural-steel frames with semiriEid
conncclionsor possiblewrnd gusseLsall encasedin massivemasonry enerior
walls creating, in effect, a composit€ shear-wall system. This t].pe of building
pedormed very rrell in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and formed the
philosophical basis for the dual system ofmodem seismic codes. These historic
composite buildin$ have also perforrned well under wind exposue.
Stroctural steel beams arc also used to couple tall, sl€nder pierB to form a
stiffer composite shear-wall system with s.indor openings (Fig. 5.10). The st€el
coupling beam is subjected to high shear and high moment at each erd, rcquir-
ing a mom€nt-resisting coDnection to the column and pobably a moment-resist-
ing connection of the beam on the otber side of the colurnn within the shear-wall
pier. A very strcng shear connection is usually also rcquircd. A computer analy-
sis pmvides an insight regarding the forces in the coupting beam and the effec-
tivenGs of the beam, as is described in the following para$aph lor a multistory
building with a composite wall syst€m si]nilar to that shown in Fig. S.10.
I{ the coupling beams in Fig. 5.10 were pin-connectedat each end or wer€
very flexible, as might be provided by a floor slab conn€ction, the coupling

Fisuros.l0 Comp06iteshear-vallelevairo!.
 LalsralF€sistingSystems

beam would be ineffective and the two wall piers would resist lateral loads
independenuy.As the walls deflect laterally, the floor slab or flexible beam
u]ld€rgoes considemble deformations which can lead to damage. If the cou"
piing beamsare very stiff, they can fully couplethe two piers and make them
work as a single wall reBiBtinglateral forces. The coupled piers are consid-
ered next aBa single wall with overturning moments reBiBtedby the two out-
ermost columns of the system.A free-bodydiagtam cut through the midspan
of the coupling beams gives an indication of the fovceBthat they must resist.
If the couplingbeamsare less stiff, s poltion of the lateral forceswill be
resisted by the overall system and a portion by the indiyidual elements.The
advantageof modern computerpmgrams is that they permit experimentation
by changing the stiffness of the coupling beams and thus ariving at an opti-
mum solution for eachindividual situation encounteredin design.
Another compositeshear-wall system is a building with a reinforced con-
crete shear-wallcore,possiblyconstructedby slip forming, combinedwith
structural steel floor construction including moment-resistingSames around
the perimeter of the building. This twe of building rclies on the rcinforced
concrete shear-wall core and the moment-resisting perimeter frames as its
bracing.Wlereas eacheiementmay not be ol conpositeconstruction,the
building relies on the compositeperformanceto brace the building. Computer
modelsproperly representingeachsystemprovide guidancein design.UBuaIy
the sh€ar-wal core is stitrer and more effectivein the lower stories whi]e the
moment-resistingtame is stitrer and more effectivein the upper stodes of the
ircs attention to diaphragm design to gradually transfer
the the pe meter ftames to the cenhai core.

5.5.2 Concrete lls wilh sleel boundafies

posite shear wallB consiBting of rcinforcing concrete wal1s connected to
structuml steel framing are a commoncompositesystem.The principal point
illushated in this section is the attention to design aletailsthat is necessary
for properly functioning systemB.
A composite shear wall consisting of a single bay wall encasing Etructural-
st€el framing is illustrated in Fig. 5.11. Th€ concretewall ?esistshorizontal
shear due to wind or earthquake while the shuctwal steel columns resist the
veftical overtuming forces. At ultimate loads, the concrcte wal will also add
to the over{urning resistance. If the floor beams on either side of the wall
have momenfresisting connections, then they rr-ill transfer some of the over-
turning force out to the next column, depending on theil stiflness and the
geometry of the wall. The beams also serve as collectors, collectinc the hod-
zontal forces from the floor diaphragm and delive ng those forces to the
shear wall. Thus the conn€ctions ofthe beams to the column must be able to
reBiBttleBe horizonralforces.
Figuie 5.12 illusbates a trcical conahtion at the floor beam. Ttre concrete
wall has been offset to one Bide of the column centgrline so the concrete wall
can be pou-red.lfthe wall ib centered on (he column line. {he beam makes il
 flllloor

Slruclu€l stsel ledgeto

supportslo€ deckuntir

Weldodstudsio transter
laterallorcesirom lloor

Weldedstudson topand
botlomol beamlo iransier
sh€arlorceslhroughsieel
ranges(anarrernare is io
povideholesin topand
boitomllangeand €nend
verlicairoinicrcingbals

Fisrres.l2 Floor-comlosite shed-wauinre$eciiondetait,

 LaieralResistlngSystems

very difrcult to place the concrcte unless the wall is very thick, which usualy
is not the case.A st€el ledger is provialed to support the steel deck adjacent to
the wall until th€ concrcie wall is poued. Studs are welded to the ledger Once
the wall is placed, it is stiffer than the ledger and the normal way to resist
floor loads and prevent sepamtion at the floor-to-wall connection tales place.
Welded studs are also prouded on the steel beam connected to the column to
t€nsfer horizontal floor diaphragm forces to the sheax wall (see Sec. 5.6.3 for
more diEcussion on this rcquirement). Finally, the shear shesses in the con-
c?ete wall must be properly hansfened through the floor construction- The
steel flanges of the floor beam brcak the continuity of the concrcte wall and
rcduce the effective width olthe wallto rcsist shear shesses rtithout making
Bpecial provisions. Welded studs on the top of the top beam flange and the bot-
tom of the bottom beam flange (Fig. 5.12) provide this supplementary shear-
t?ansfer mechanism. Altematively, the top and bottom flange of the beam to
be embedded within the wall can be drilled \\.ith aligned holes at regular spac-
so the vertical reinforcing steel of the wall can pass through pairs of holes,
pro !1 continuity for shear transfer. When placing concrete, construction
joints can be suitably located to facilitate the contractor's sequence of concrete
pours a]td special care is needed to properb vibmte the concrete at the beam
to prcvent voids lrom being crcated beneath the beam flanges.
In some cases,it is more approp ate to center the wall on th€ column. In
such cases, the wall may be installed as shotffete without encasing either the
structural-steel floor beam or the column. Wlren this condition e).ists, vrelded
studs must be installed on both the beam and the column to transfer all
fones at the perimeter of the shear panel- The design of such shear transfers
is usually based on sh€ar friction. Consideration should be give to either
using very long headed studs that r rill effectively tlansfer lorces between the
reinlorcing bals of the shear panel or using threaded reinforcing bar dowels
installed as welded studs. Since shear fiiction requircs contact between con
crete and steel, speciai attention should be given to the top panel connection
at the beam soffit, as slight corsolidation ofthe shotcrete or poor workman-
ship may result in a continuous crack or voids- Repairs such as epoxy injec-
tion a?efrequently necessaryto ensure goodperformance.
Fi$re 5.13 shows the detail ofan encaseilcolumn at the edge ola concrete
wali. Welded studs arc installed on the column to tmnsfer the vertical shear
forceB and overturning forces to the structural steel colu]nn, In some cases, it
may be desirable to only padially encase the column, as placing concrete al1
around the colurm can be dif&cult owing to the floor beams and steel decking
above. Assuraing that the steel column resists all ofthe ovedurning forces, it
can be considercdthe bounda4' member for seismic loads, and closely spaced
reinforcing ties will not be necessa{/. When the st€el column se?ves as the
shear-wall boundaqf member, for either wind or seismic loads, it will quite
possibly be subject to uplill or tension loads. In euch cases,special detailing
considerationsmust be given to the steel column splices,as the normal light-
Iy bolted or partial-penetration weld column splice used for milled bea ng
sur-faces{or compression may not be suitable for tension reversals. When
 Weldedstudslo lransier
vedicalsheff (overturning

F i s u G 5 . 1 3D - d i l a c o l u m : n a o b p o s pohparqatl

theBe connections are subjected to tension, the nominal column splice is the
wea]< linh in ihe member. For seismic conditions wherc overloaals are expect_
€d, the nominal connectionacts like a notch and can fail ifits tensile csDacitv
is exceeded.For such cases,full-penetration welded column splicesare appro-
priate despite their cost.
Welded studs or dowels arc generally us€d for shear hansfer betweer con-
crete and shnctural steel. Other devices acting as lugs, such as flar oars,
angles, or other steel shapes, can be welded to the steel member with the
shear acting as a bearing force on the lug v,"ith adequate welds to transfer the
{brce in the lug to the structural steel member. In such details, the eccentrici_
ty between the center of beadng on the lug and the weld to tfie shuctural
steel member must be considered,as it will influence the thickness ofsteel on
the lug and the welds to the shuctoral steel m€mber. If the shuctural steel
member haB a thin web or {lange, the eccentdcity might cause local over_
stress in the web or flange, suggesting that more lugs or lugs of a differcnt
confi guration are preferable.

5.5.3 Concrete-encasedsteelplates
In rarc cases, when extremely high shear forces must be resisted by a wall, it
becomes pmctical to use a shear wall with a steel plate web rather than rein-
forced concrete. Examples whe?e such construction has been used inciude
high-rise buildings where all lateral forces must be translered to the €ore at
ihe base of the building and multistorji hospitals in California where sbict
seismic codes attempting to keep these facilities operational after major
earthquakes result in very high lateral forces.
 LateralBesistinqSystems

Although many details arc possible for such conditions, a likely scenario is
represented by structual steel ftaming sunounding the steel plates with the
whole steel assembly encasedin reinforced concrete.The steel framing con-
sists of columns and floor beams whi€h not o.ly rcsist gravity loads but the
columns act also as boundar'y members resistirg ovedurning forces. The
shear-wall web is a steel plate welded to the columns anal beams. A simple
practical detail would be to provide a shofi piece of steel plate continuously
fillet welded in the shop to the beams and coiulllns as a tab. The shear wall
steel plate can then be installed after the beams and columns with erection
bolh to the tab. Field fiUet welds can then be installed between steel plate
and tabs. If the plates need to be installed in pieces becauseof size in ship-
ping or erection, splicescan be simple fillet welds to a common back-up plate.
If there a?e openings in the wall, additional steel boundary members or
fl angesmay be appmpdate.
Tb prevent buckling of the steel plate when it is loaded, the completed steel
assembly can be encased in rcinforced conclete. This also fircproofs ihe steel.
The encasement should be thick enough to provide the stiffness needed to
prevent buckling and should be properly reinforced for strength. Common
details would include a regular pattern of welded studs on each side of the
plate or a rcgular pattem of holes in the plate to pass reinforcing bars hooked
at each end. This pmvides a composite sandwich so the entire thickness rs
€ffective at preventing buckling. As forces can be quite high in such systems,
special attention to details is padicularly impor.tant with this type of con-
struction.

5.6 HorizontalDiaphragms
5.6.1 Oiaphragms
Floor and roof diaphragms are often one of the most overlooked elements in
building design, but their pedor:rnance is essential for any successful build-
ing. They interconnect all columns at each levet, pmvide a hodzontal hansfer
of forces to hacing elemenis, and provide stability bracing to columns that
arc not a part ofthe lateral-force-resisting system. In many buildings, they do
this rtell even when neglected in the design prccess. But composite shuctues
tend to be tall shuctures or ones with special elements concentmting bracing
so that proper design of horizontal diaphragms is usualy quite important.
Diaphragm design is no different in composite buildings than in convention-
al structural steel or reinforced conoete buildings. The same basic pdnciples
apply and $/ill not be repeated herc. The follovring sections discuss only sever-
al special considerations olforce hansfer unique to composite stmctures.
Infornation on the design of floor diaphlagms for reglons of high seismicity
may be found in Ref. G58A, which is illustrated with seveml practical exam-
ples. It should be also noted that in view of the frequetrt use of computer
analyses, simulation of diaphragms as finite elements is fairly common in the
design pmctice.
5.6.2 Concrete-filled
steetdeck ctiaphragms
Most steel decking systems have been designed and tested for gravity loads,
'$.ith the steel decking
designed to resist independenUv conshuction loaals
and the wet concrete frll. The steel deck usually haB embossments or alefor-
mations which have been pressed into the sheet during its manufachrre into
decking so that once the concrete harden€, the two;iI work compositely,
with the decking acting as bottom tension reinforcement and the cor€rere
rcsisting compression. Since these systems are proprietary, it is necessarf, to
consult the manufacturers' literature for rated loads and other infornauoa.
The design ofthese systemsis addressedbv the Steel Deck Institute.cs,
When considering the diaphmgm design, it is lmportant to rem€mber that
the concrete fill is the stiffest part of the svstem in the horizontal plane so the
shear stresses are p madly resisted by concrete. Thus. for force transler
between a steel column and the diaphragm, forces must first transfer to the
beam though the beam-to-colurrn connection and then to the concrete fiIl,
€ither though welded studB or thrcugh puddle welds to the steel deck and
through bond and the embossments ofthe decking to the concrete fill. Each of
these hansfers must be adequate for the intended forces. It is essential in
design to always keep all load paths in mind and ensurc complete load paths
in the design and detailing. When the conffete fill on the ste;l deck connects
directly to the concrete of shear $/alls or steel_encas€al composite concrete
beams, reinlorcing dowels between the two can be used for alirect hansfer
Special constmction considerations ale also necessaryfor studs welded to
steel beams though the steel decking. The steel decking is sometrmesgalva_
nized, and the zinc of the galvanizing can rcsult in poor_quality welds.
When the publiEhed literature ofthe steel deck manuiacturer gives capaci_
ties for diaphrsgm action less than needed, the concrete fill can 6e increased
in thickness and adequately reinforced so the concrete alone can resist the
horizonlal diaphragm shesses, using the metal deck only as a form for con_
crete placement and as tension reinforcing of the composite floor slab as it
spansbetween adjacent floor beams.

5.6.3 Diaphragmchordsand collectors

$.ith any horizontal diaphragm, the load paths can usually best be seen by
ls
drawing the floor slab like a beam in each direction separately and applyini
all lorces in and out of the slab and then analyzing ihe aiait rug- iit e i
beam. In this manner, the chod and collector forces can be ileternin;al.
In composit€str-uctues, it is usually easy to utilize memben alreaaly prcsent
to serve as chords and collectols. For example, the perimeter ifan]ing usually is
more than adequate lor chord forces, so the or y issues are ensurinq that ihe
perimeter fraring membershave adpquateconnecrionsat the coluJrmsfor the
t€nsion of the diaphmgm chord togeth€r $.ith other loads the connection must

Figure 5.14 shows a simplified floor plan of a floor diaphragm with two
composite shear walls at each end which brace the building in the naraoF
 Late.al Fesisiing Systefi s

buildingin one dkection

Diaphr,agm
lorcesdue lo windor eadrquake

(a)

i,suE 5.14 llasfer of iliaphraem force io 6hear ws]ls. (a) Floor iuaphracm. (6) Free body diaeram of one

dir€ction. The diaphragm forcesare either the tdbutary wind or seismic

forcesactitrg on the floor Figure 5.14 showsa ftee-bodydiagram ofthe end of
the floor diaphragm. The diaphragm $'i11have a reasonably uniform shear
flow as it nears the end. The total force divided by length gives a force per
irnit length that must be transferred ftom the con$ete fill to the Btructual
ste€lperimeterbeam as discussedin Sec.5.6.2.Assumingthat the building
has thrce bays ofequ€I length, the collectorforce at the face ofthe shear wall
at lin€ I will be two-tiids of the total force to be tmnsfelled to the shear
wall. The perimeter beam undoubtedly is shong enoughto resist this tension
collector load. The beam-to-columnconnectionat line B must rcsist this col-
lector force in combinationwith other designloads at that location. The
beam-to-colu]nnconnectionat line C must resist halfthe collectorload at lin€
B (on€-third of the total force) plus all other alesignloads. The beam within
the shear wall from lines A to 4 shov.n in Fig. 5.14, must have a suflicient
number of studs to tmnsfer the collectorforce ftom the stiuctwal steel beam
to the concreteweb of the compositeshear wall. While this example is
exhemely simplified, it illusbates the method of determining the load-path
analysis and the attention to detail that needsto be consideredin composite
5.6.4 Floordiaphragmdesign
Assume a builditrg floor plate 200 by 100 ft (60 by 30 m) with composite shear
walls at both ends as shown in Fig. 5.15. The flool is 3-in (76-mm) steel deck
with Stla-in (83-mm) lightweight concrcte frl. Check diaphragm for seismic
zone 4 or wind with net average pressure of 30 lb/fr? (1.43 kN/mr). The story
height is 14 ft (4.3 m). Concreteshensth is 4 ksi (28 MPa).
Detendne critical load.
Seismic:

u,t = 0.4w = 0.4 x ljltbft, x 100ft : 4kipsfft

Wind:
t,"-14k 30lb/fr.0.42kip,fr S e i . m i sc o v e m s
Diaphmgm shear design.

v- - ?' 4 ',2!9 - 4666p5

2'2
Check diaphragm shear on concrete Iill alone.

v":1.4V^*= 7.4x 400: 560kips

I I
FiquE5.r5 Floor diaphragm for Sec.5.6..1,
 LateralFeslstlngSystem6 5.31

Assuming 4.75 in average Blab thickness, the area of concrete slab per unit
width is

A" = 700 x 72 t 4.75= 5700l.t,

Average shear str€ss = 560 : 0.098 ksi

5700
Concreteshear strcngth : 24y0.001f;:2 x O.85x V0.001 x 4
= 0.108 ksi > 0.098 ksi O.K.
If the concrete shength alon€ is insufficient, reler to test data of the steel
deck manufacturer or add reinforcing in the fill slab.

Chord lorce design. Check maximum chord force at the diaphragTn €dge
(point A in Fis. 5.15):

pt.^ t-! z o ' .- 2 o . o oR

o -kip.
88
For simplicity,assumechordsare at the edge:

29+q : 2ookips
"-.-: 100
Assumesteel at the frame edgetakes the entire force:

Required4 = 200 : 6.67 in

0.6 \ 50
However, code allows a one-third increaselor seismic loading, so the 200 kips
tension should be combined with gravity-load requirements and multipiied by
0.75. Compare this requfuement with gravity-onty requirements and desigl
fbr the larger. CoDn€ctionsmust also be designed for the 200-kip tensron.
Alternatively, add continuous reinforcing steel to the steel deck fill.

Collectortorce design

V-d : 400 kips at each end, assumedto be unifomly dishibuted

At points B, collectorforce is (33.3/100)x 400 - 133 kips

At point C, collectorfolce is (66.7/100)x 400 : 267 kips
These lorces need to be combined with gravity forces as described above for
chord forces.

5.6.5 Designofa floor diaphragmwith an opentng

Assume the same basic buiiding confrguration and dimensions as in Sec.
5.6.4, but at the secondfloor a shear wall &om aboveis discontinued and the
 NZ
-"1,--'--
h- Shearwallabove
, oity. V= 1000kips
*sheafwat
V

^u

Wallreaclions
dueto tansterin diaphragm

Wallroaclrons
dueto 2ndjtoorInediaiorce

200kips
Fisure5,16 Floor diapbragm for Sec.5.6.5.

ibrce must be hansfened by the diaphragm to the end shear walls below
(Fis.5.16).
Wall reactions due to the diaphmgm hansfer anal due to the second floor "i
inertia force are shown also in Fig. 5.16.

Chordlorce at 4

11.- 26,6661 1!QQt5! IM : 4s,000ft_kips

200
where20,000ft-kips isM-* from Sec.5.6.4.

r- ={!p
100
: asonp"
"
DesienchordatA for this forceas in Sec.5.6.4.
 LaleralResisllng
Systems 5.33

Chod force at a Consider free-body diagla]n (Fig. 5.17) just at the left edge
ofthe wall above.
y: 950 + 200 : 1150kips

_ ( 1 1 5 0 s 0 )- ( 4 , 5 0 . 2 5 ) -
DzDKrps
100

Designchod atD for 525kips as describedin Sec.5.6.4.

w = 4 kips/itor200kipsroral

l !

I v = 750kips+ 5o'x4
t =gsokips

____lTD

rguBs,l7 FFebody diagraD at ilE sall lelt edse.

 Check shear in diaphragn at opening:

Y = 1150- (12.5x 4) = 1100kips

Distribute shear proportionally to arca or length:

,, I4\t1no
83.3 . 12 r 4.75 " ".- "",

This exceeds,corcr€te shear strenth; therefore, add sufnci€nt reinforcing steel

in concrete fill to provide strength. In normal buildings when large'force
t?ansfe$ pass through a diaphragm, the concrete will be made thickei
Check local chord lorceqa! openinp.
rn rb-ft a-rn tengtb at top

y = ]91 rror-r
= zzorip"
83.3
Assuming local point of inflection at center of opening, the moment and the
loc"l ren"ileforcpat the faceof the openingare

,'M . _ 2 2_i-
O.21 2750 fr_kips

-
r."^
F 3T9
- resups
16.7

If resisted by reinforcing steel in concrcte IiIl

? = 1.4 x 165 = 230kips

230
0.9 x 60
Use7#7bam s.ithA.: 4.20inr.
Collectomat openingparallelto walls:

r . 1-oo 'e.e
" gt.g kjp"
100

,-1.4 9i.3 -^-..,

. 0.9x60
Use4#7barswith A : 2.40inr.
Forcein collecro'ar B is .t1S0,3 - 883kips.
DragaLwallabovei. 10003 - 333kjps.
The resullsare summa-rized in F.ig.S.18.Chordforcessbown,e.g..483kips at
the bottomcornerof the righ{-hand-side qhearwallI rnustbe ;esignedinto
floor framing in addition to g:ravityloads.
 Lat.ral Resisting Systems 5,35

43i3kips
I

iraming
in

525[ips ,150tips
FiquF5.13 Chodfones.

5.7 CompositeSystemsfor Retrofit

5.7.1 Seismicretrofit
There is an incrcasing effort in rccent years to rehofit existing stmctures for
improved performance, especially for improved rcsponse for lateral forces.
This hend is most prevalent in regions of high seismicity where building
owners d€sirc to strengthen their buildings for improved perlormance in
futurc earthquales. Very significant changes have occuned in seismic design
cdteria over the past 20 year8 in the United States, and many builalings built
before the early 1970s may be quite wlnerable to severe damage and even
paftial or complete collapse in a significant earthquahe. Some jwisdictions
have enacted rcgdations requiring rctmfit of buildings with certain framine
Bystems for compliance with specified stardards. Unreinforced masonry bear"
ing wall buildings were the initial target. Other programs can be expected for
uffeinforced masonry infrll buildings and certain tr?es of reinforced concrcte
buildings, specifically those relying on nonductile moment-resisting frames
for lateml resistance.
Composite systemB are frequently the rcsult of these rehofits of the lateml-
force-resisting str-ucture. Steel diagonal bmcing is o{ten added to the masonry
or concrete building, and it is neces€ary for the design to achieve a satisfacto-
ry level of performance of this mix of materials. One of the major lactors
i[fluencing the selection of these composite systems is economy: The trew
steel diagonals and any steel shapes added to the existing beams o? columns
often must provide an econornically viable solution. The add€d steel meftbers
are relatively light. Thus a rehofit scheme u6ing steel memberc has minimal
impact on the foundations a]td minimizes foundation reconshuction, which
can b€ exhemely expensive.
Criteria for retmfit of the lateral force syBtem ca]l vary considerably. Some
mandatory prcg:rams have prescriptive requirements that must be met. Many
rctrofits are voluntary by the owner, and the cdteria must be developed by the
 (@ra* Lidztss2
theuniversit orcariromiaat Berketev
E?";""i;l""r.fj;:*::"8 3'at

engineer for the oraner's approval. The crit€ria must include movidine ductile
members.connecrions.and dplaiJsas mu.h ab resisring a specificlareial force
criteria. Considerable prcfessional engineering judgment by the design engi-
neer is always a necessaly ingredient to a succ€ssfirl seismic rehoflrt solution.
Many examples could be shown to illustrate this type of construction.
Figure 5.19 shows University Hall at the University o! California at Berkeley,
which was retrofitted in the early 1990s. The original building was completely
of reinforced concrete consttuction. The building was constmcted in thei9bos.
There were a few nominal interior shear walls in the tlansvelse alircction. but
lhe rcsr ofthe laleral forc" dependedon rhe enerior concreteframes consisrine
olslirf7-fi,-deep,2.1-rn,bpanarelbeam6and 24-in-square r0.6l-m, columnsl
Inelastic p€dormance under strong ground shaking of the o ginal building
would be absorbed by the short stif columns which, when tbey fail, coutd leaJ
to collapse. The strengthening solution consisted of stiffening the padially
exposed basement and first floo? with concrcte shear walls and addine the
sLeetbraced frame seen in F,g. b.19. The analysis for rhis designmodeletbolh
the original conoete frame and the new steel bracing, and determined that
a{ter cracking reduced the high initial sti$less ofthe coneete fram€. the steel
bracing was stif and shong enough to pmtect the concrete fiame l|om exces_
sive deformation and dishess. The steel bmcing was designed with ductile,
full-strcngth connections. The steel columns of the new bracing were designed
to support tdbutary building loads as a redundant system. As the conffete
 LaieralResislingSystems

columns separated from the new bracing, anchored steel plates w€re added to
provide partial confrnement ofthe nominally tied columns.
Many other examples of this type of composite construction could be cited.
In all cases, it requtes an analysis which allows cracking of the concmte or
masonrT structue to allow the generaliy more flexible steel bracing system to
fiDction. The allalysis must be reviewed to ensure that the cmcking will not
be detrimental to the pedormance ofthe stmcture under severe lateral loads.
Ifthe review indicat€s that cracking will be excessive,then another solution
is usually required that will provide a stiffer retrofit solution. It is very
important that the designer considersthe compositeresponseof such retrofit
schemes to ensure thefu compatibility a]ld success.

5.7.2 Betrofitfor verticalloads

When a steel column needs to be shengthened for additional vertical load-
car"rying capacity, two techniques arc genemlly available: an all-steel retrofrt
or a composite rctlofit. The ali-steel retrofit involves welding steel plates
either to the flange faces or across the tips of the flanges to form a box. In
either case, sirce the existing column is heavily loaded, the column tempera-
ture duing the w€lding operation must be carefully contrctled.
The oth€r option is to prcvide a concret€ encasem€nt of the eisting steel
column as shown in Fig. 5.20. A composite retrcfit increases the dead load on
the foundation, and hence the foundation capacity must be checked. The
design capacity of the retrcfitted colunn is deterrnined by the LRFD proce-
dule for co4posite columns. The construction execution involves the removal
of the existing fueprcofing, placement ol shear studs on the flanges and the
web ofthe steel column, placement ofthe longitudinal bars and ties, and final-
ly concrete placement. Two conditions need caretul detailing. wlren the lonei-
tudinal column bars are always ir compressior, weldable rcinlorcing bam can
be welded to the base plat€ prcvided the base plate and the g?out beneath it
can transmit the ioad. Ifthe load transmissiol through th€ plate is not possi-
bl€ or if the longitudinal reinforcing bars are in tension and the anchor bolt

Fiqures.2O Qro$ section of the retfofitte d column-

 capaci8 is inadequate, it is preferable to drill and dowel the retuforcine bals
;Droihe eRislingfouodar;onfor Lhetensioncapacjt).The oLherconside;ation
is the differential axial shortening due to the shrinkage and creep of concret€.
ThiB applies primarily to tall structures or structures where onlv a few
columns are bejng re{"ofitFd. Detailed calcuJationsare required to obiain the
cumujarivedifferenlial axiaj shortedngoler thp heighroI rhe bdlding in rhe
composite retmlitted columns versus th€ all-steel unrchofitted columnB.

5.7.3 Reftofil forwind loads

The science of wind enginee ng has been developed since the failure of the
first Tacoma Nanows bddge in 1940. Newly acquircd wind-load data led to

e
e
--"'i'T----l::
----iit
6

5 b a y sa t 3 0 - o ' ( 9 m )
Flgure 5,21 Original building f!!me.
 LaleralBsslsilngSyslems

FiguF5,22 Composrier€tmFt,

increases in the wind loads specified in most building codes.Moreover, the

wind effects such as building sway and motion perception are better under-
stood. Sway guidelines are given in the Canadian codecdaAand motion percep-
tion limits in the ISO standards.eaA Consequenily, some older buildings have
to be retmfltted for higher wind loads, sway, or perception ofmotion.
The use of a composite rctmfit fulfills the basic requirements. Composite
retrofit of columns gives higher a-yial and bending capacity required for high-
er wind loads. The additional stiffness due to composite action reduces the
sway and lowers the fundamental period of the building. Furthermorc, the
additional mass and damping reducethe motion perception.
An example of a $/ind-load retroht of an existing 47-story steel-framed
Figure s,23 Elevation of lhe rctrofitted buildins.
 Ltteral ResislingSystems 5.41

buildins built in 1971 is described belon The original plan of the building is
shown in Fig. 5.21. The lateral resistanceof the odginal building was provided
by welding the e).te or spandrel gird€rs to t}Ie exterior columns which arc
spaced at 30 lt (9 m) on centers. The odginal stNcture was designed for
strength only based on the existing code ivind loads of 20 lbfi, (1.0 kPa) up to
60-ft (18-m) heisht, and 30lb/fr? 11.5tPa) abovethat level. The building was
purchased in 1994 by a major corpomtion. lt was decided to rctmfit the build-
ing for the corporat€ requirements and for the latest building code provisions
and industry practice on sway and motion perception.
Sin schemes were examined for the shuctural retrcfit ofthe building. The
final selected system was to proyide a total of eight composite supercolumns
with nine-story tall diagonal bracing as shown in Figs. 5.22 and 5.23. At the
lower levels, all extedor columns ftom the mat foundation at the fourth base-
ment level to tbe fourth floor ir the tower were made composite as shown in
Fig. 5.23. The compositeframe at these levels transfered the wind load down
to the foundation. Expansive cement was used in the columns to minimize
shrinkage, and the diagonals s€re loose bolted until the supercolumns were
topped out. The compositerctmfit proved to be the most economicalofall the
alternates studied and also had the fewest constmction problems.
 Chapter

6
Designof Joints

Basic Considerations
Connectionsor joints_arepotentiaflythe most critical and possibly
understoodparts of the structural frame.Th" rrrui" .ol" the least
oi"*""itio"" il,o
transfer forcesbetw€en membe$ anctto ma*t"i" tf," i"t"g.iGlr
ture under the appiiedloads.Usualtyseveral il*
oft[" "t*"_
*"""
at a connection,and the combination rcsults i""1"_""t" "iro"tu."
*_pf"" fr"fr."i".. e"ii",*
of a conn€ctionmay be stressedbeyonalthe efr"ti"" ..iS",
.rJ.J;d;r"
offorcesmay occurevenat serwiceIoadlevel" r, trr""i"i"i",
n"_i-triii"
ductility ar€ necessaryto maintain a *ti"f*t"; j;i"t;;;;r;';;; ".a
str-uctuai failures occurnot beca fu;,,
r.ca,..eorinaauquui";#;S"""":;JJ,""1i*iHf,
:J:r'ff *tfiT:;
joirt beh€vror.and desjsn. Even *t
tfr" _"_f". i""*J.." ,""".ri"t"
""
hno$n. oltenihFyarp nor fully undFrsrood.lllosrcurrenrcodesand
tions, padicuiarty those based o"- th" p.";;;;iiJ;lil";;;:H;" "D"cifi;a-_
approach,recognizeconnectionsas the poientr"r**xh.G-i"
irr" i.J"...
and therefore require a larger margin of safety for "ttlun lr.
corrrrectiorrs
Cur:rentstate of practicefor designof compositeconnections
of anv tr.De
mu,.iof nmes.iryrely hpaub onjudempnr *ai_aual a""ie"
and on the availableinformation for sttuctural ".i1. ";L.,...
,"f,
concletec?5,c?7 connections. Researchdirecfly "i""1czr,cs, "";"fif16
__p*fi"'""""".,
tions in the United States has been meager; o"ty "aa."."i"g
ri*it"a'U"u"iilriio""-iu*
beenpeformed. Futher, evenwhen rese-arch a"t..."
t].pe of^connection,the geometry and size rane" "r.iirtf"?"..
f"; p*;i;-.;;fi;_ ""i_i"
tionsoftenfall well outsidethe rangeor iesi param€teN. """d"d
The neces^sarJ prerequisites
.< n o w r e o g F desisn are th_
o t s t r ' u c t u r a t m c c h B n "i.
i c s .d b""*"J"fU
.Uly ro folm"""""ction
dale a ralioral couilibfl_
um model, intuition in visualizing and predicti"g tf_r"n"*
"if"r"""-i}rr""rt,
 Chapler
Six

the joint, and careful identificatior of potential failurc modes. After under-
standing the potential joint behavior the designer must propor-tion the con-
nection elements accordingly, keeping in mind the practical needs ol fabrica-
tion and conshuction.
Generally, the following items must be checked in the design of each joint:

Flexure
Shear
Bearing
Joint connnement
Anchorageof "einforcemenr
Shear-transfer devices

6.1.1 Generaldesigncriteria
All composite connections must meet a variety of design and pedormance cri-
teria outlined b€1ow.

shength. Compositejoints must be desigred for the interaction of multidi-

rectional forces which the membeE transfer to the joint including arial loads,
bending, shear, and torsion. These forces arc a consequence of the effects of
externally applied loads as well as those resulting from creep, shrinkage,
temperature changes, and settlements. All load combinations should be con-
sidercd that could produce the most seve?eforce dist bution at the joint
including the effects of member eccentricities. Connection design should djs-
ti:rguish between cases of lateral loading due to wind and those due to seis-
mic forces. Unde? wind loading, the shuctual response is assumed to rcmain
essentially elastic. For seismic loading, design is basealon the pr€Dise that
under severe eadhquakes the structure, pafticularly at connections, will
underyo inelastic cyclic loading. For seismic loading and other caseswhere
inelastic rcsponse is envisioned, the connection should be desigTredto resist
moments and sheaN associatedwith plastic hinging of adjacent members-
where appropdate to the connection tj4)e

Service. Compositeconnectionsmust also be proportioned to assue satisfac-

tory behavior under service loads. The designer must make certain that joint
rotation in moment connections at ser_viceloads does not result in unaccept-
able deflections or drift that could cause crackinq or other distress in one or
more buildins elements.

Ductility. The ability ol a conr€ction to accommodate large deform

while maintaining load without failur€ must be checked. It is
impodant in joints subjected to cyclic inelastic deformations such as
caused by eafihquaLes. Ductility is achieved by proportioning connection
ments for steel yielding prior to coacrete failurc.
 6,3

Construction. Compositejoints should allow for simple, problem-ftee fabrica-

tion and rapid construction. This point is specially impodant for composite
conne€tions containing concrete and large amounts of reinforcing steel or
other had$/are.
In sizing stluctural elements, minimum acceptable dimensions may not
produce the best solution. Elements should be proportioned in such a way
that congeBtion is kept to a minimum, the r€inforcing steel is properly
anchored, and concretecan be placed with rciative ease.Large-scaleconnec-
tion detaiis should be shown on the enginee ng drawings. Clearances and
tolerancesmust be consideredand provisions should be made for adjustments
and easy accessin the field.
Beam and brace widths should be different in the two orthogonal directrons
to avoid rcinforcing steel int€derence. Furtheranorc, beams should be nallow-
€r or wider than the columns to allow the beam bars to pass the colurrrn bam.
The use of cornection stubs is rccommended wherever practical for proper
anchorage ofleinforcing barc. Finally, superplasticizers should be used in con-
crcte to facilitate placement and compaction whenever apFopriate.

5.1.2 Generaldesignprocedure
The following steps outline a proceduie applicabl€ to the design of composite
connecuons:

1. Establish equilibdum model.

2. Identifi' potential failure modes.
3. Check design strcngth (including flexure, shear, shear friction, and bear
rngl,
4. Design joint rcinforcement (includine ties, stiffener plates, bearing plates,
shear-hansfer devices,and bar developmentlength).
< arha.L spF;.aaLili+v

6. Draw connectionto scale,

The list is a broad outline of potential factors that may be important.

Depending on the particular type of str-uctue, not all joint desigrs rcquire
considerationof each olthese items.

4.1.3 Typesofioints
Many of the most commonly used connections, including several twes for
which reseanh has just recently been completed or is still ongoing, are dis-
cussed in the following sections. The coinectiotr types are listed below $rith a
brief description ofeach. Detailed discussionatrd desig! examples are includ-
ed in Secs.6.2 through 6.7.
A recommendeddetail for the base plate connectionof a compositecolumn,
that is, a column consisting of a concrcte-encasedsteel shape, is desc bed in
 Sec.6.2. A design example is included.Also discussedis a suggesteddetail for
the base ofa compositecolumn in high seismiczones.
A detail for a composite column splice used in multistory buildings rs
describedin Sec.6.2.4.
The design of various t'?es of beam-to-column connections that arc com-
monly used in composite construction is covered in Secs. 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5.
Included are standard double-angle web or ftamed beam web connections,
single-plate shear connectionsor shear tabs, tee ftaming shear connections,
moment-rcsistine connections of steel or composite beams to composite or
concrete columns, standard moment-resisting steel or composite beams to
steel wide-flange columns, semirigid composite beam connections,and stub
girder connections.
The design and detailing of steel wide flange linli beams embedded in con-
crcte walls is prcsented in Sec. 6.6. This tJ,?e of connection couples shear
walls or cohmns ar]d shear walls in mid- and high-dse buildins conshuction. e
Of the seveml other t}?es of connections encountered in pmctice the follow-
ing foul are discussedin Sec.6.7:
Tlansition composit€ columns which transfer loads between two differenr
structural systems in a building wherc the upper floors have steel columns
and the lower floors have either concrete or composite columns
Steel brace connectionsto composite concrete,encasedsteel H shape
columns in braced coresofmid- or high-rise buildings
St€el brace connections to confiete-frlled trrbe columns also 1lsedin mio-
and high-rise buildhgs
Steel and compositecolumn connectionsto compositefloor slabs

6,2 Column Baseand SDlices

Three items arc presented in this section. The first two pefiain to the deBiga
of the base for a concrete-encasedsteel shape column, one subjectedto.witrd
or low to mod€rate seismic loads and the other to hish seismic loads where a
plastic hinge may form. The third item is a discussio; ofsplices for composite

6.2.1 Baseclesignforwind or low seismicloadDTl

A base plate for the encased steel section of a composite column (Fig. 6.1i
should normally have the minimum dimensions needed to accommodate the
anchor bolts that hold the plate to the foundation dudng the ercction phase-
The base plate must not intedere with dowels coming up from the foundatioo
to the splice $.ith the longiiudinal vertical bars of the composite column. A
sufficient number of dowels must b€ prcvided to transmit column load in
excessof tbe acceptablebearing load P, on the foundationi
 De€lgnol Jolnts

rvlo"pi€ce
columnlies C

Embedded
slee co umn

baseplate
Stoolcolumn

Anchorbolls(4 requircd

--lgure
6,1 Comlo8ite @ll]m bse plate.D?{

where P6 : 0"0.85[(As Ar)

.4,, : total cross-sectional alea of dowelB
As = total cmss-sectional area ofcomposite column
A1 = area ofbase plate ofencasedcolumn
= coneete shength offoundatioD
{
: yield stress ofdowel bars
4d
d" : 0.85; rcsistance factor for axially loaded composite columns
 ChaplerSix

6.2.2 Columnbasedesign
Design the base plate ofan 18 x 18-in (0.46 x 0.46-m) compositecolumn with
an encasedW10 x 54 ofF,: 50 ksi (345 MPa), f;: 8 ksi (55 MPa), and 4#8
grade 60 longitudinal bars. Factored axial load P,, = 1000 kips (4.45 MN),
K / - 3 1 n ' 9 . 4 m ) . U . e / = 3 k s i r 2 l M P a r f o r f o o t i n gA. s s u m eL A z l A r r r=, 2 .
See Fig. 6.2 for nomenclature. For base plate desig! procedures, rcfer to the
second edition of the AISC LRFD Manual,De6pp. 11-54 to 11-64, and to the
Steel Design Guide Series 6,Dtapp. 27 to 28.
The base plate is designed for the portion of the factored axial load resisted
bv the W10x54.

br: 10.03in
d : 10.09in
t/: 0.615in

4 = 15.8in'z
F'r. = 60 ksi
A"=4x0.?9:3.16in,

4= FactoGd ioadconribuloryloareaenclosed
bysleelshape, kips
B = Faclo€n axialloadresistedby sreel
,41= A.eaol baseplale,in 2
r, = Fullcrosssecionalareaof concret€

A! = Afeaol H-shapedporrion
ol baseplai€in

t= Specilled yieLd
minimum sl€ss otsteel,ksi
l"' = Specified
compressive
slrensth
ot

le= Thickn€ss
of basepLale, in
Od= nesislanceiactorlof coicfete= 0.6
Qe= FesislancetaclorJorbaseplate= 0.9

Fisurc 6.2 Nomenclatue for de6ign eiample.D?4

 Deslgnol Joints

Tly base plate 12 x 12 in.

1. Compute o,xial load. c ]aj,ed,by W10x54 based on the contribution of
W10x54 to the total column capacity

F^r=1+c4,++c,f;+

'50-/0.? oo.-?;l9lr06 8rl8 18 158 4 07e)

rrt r Kst
\ !J.o/ rs€

Portion of factored axial load resisted byW10x54 is

p-
'
_ !p-je ._r:o.grrps
1 5 11

2. Compute n and n
- o gsd
- : 4 - fz-!!l@ : r.zoz
22

Bo o 86r tz o.gx t0.03

. -

3. Concretc becLringstress

,"4r0; -.0.6
d . 0 . 8 s / - li " l 0.85 3.2 8.06ksi
\ ^, ./

4. Chp.h con.rcte beadng under bospplote

P. 330.9
.2.298ksr 3.06 O.K.
; i, ; 10

5. Computcfactarcd.lood conespondingto the area enclosedby W10xS4

P b.d. 330.9 x 10.03 x 10.09
Po- - - -2i2.6kips
,,.
";,

6. ComputE area of H-shaped, region

232.6 : 76.0ir,
"":oa*;t: 0.6x1.7x3
6.8 ChapterSlx

7, Cottuputec
AE= d x bf- (d - \- 2c)(b, 2ct
76.0: 10.09x 10.03- (10.09- 0.619- 2cX10.03
- 2c)

(9.47- 2c)(\0.03- 2c) = 25.2

4c, 39c+ 69.8= 0

-
c _ 39 V 1521 1117 _ 2.363in
8

8. Conpute baseplate thic&ness. Designatingas A the larger ofthe param-

-1.e88"(0##*1rq : 0.635in
12

/ 2P \r/2
"t' -
\0.9F,AH )

-"" 1 (__2: 232,6

-, %e .
: 0.a72ta
\0.9., 50 76.0

9. Designdowelsto foundation. Allowablecompression

tlansler by cotr-
crete:
2d"0.85/;(colu]nnarea baseplate area)
- 2 x 0.6x 0.85x 3(18x 18 - 12 x 12)- 551kips

Requiredcompression
transferby concrete:
1000- 330.9: 669kips > 551kips
Dowelsare requiedl.
Required area of dowels:

o ,."..r, _ 669 551 e 11;-z

- "- ''
0.85^ 60
A,,(min)- 0.005Ag: 0.005x 18 x 18 = 1.62in, (ACI318-95,Chap.15)

UBe4#T A" = 4 x 0.60: 2.40i'l2 > 2.A1 O.K-

 6.9

Embeddowels22 bar diamete$ (for 3-ksiconcrete)into foundation(ACI S18,

95, Chap.12):

2 2 x 0 . 8 7 5: 2 0 n
Dowelprojectioninto column: 30 bar diarnetem(ACI 318-95,Chap.2):

30 x 0.875- 27 in

6.2.3 Basedesignlor high seismictoad

Unless a composite column is designed and detailed as a true hinge or pin con,
nection, which is a fairly difficult and impracticat detail, it is very likely that a
plastic hinge will form in the column under a severc seismic event. Inasmuch
as such a plastic hinge can advelsely aflect the stabilitv of the stluctule a{ter
numemus eathquake cycles, it is desfuable to develop a detail that protects
this crilical roneoftne colurnn.Sucha dctail is propo.edin Fig.6.3.
The concept presented in Fig. 6.3 shows a steel jacket fiIet welded to the
top and bottom of a steel base plate. The iacket is cast into the foundation
concret€ to transmit shear and moment at the column base. leavine a void
inside the jacket below the base plate except for such concreteas m;I enter
the void thmugh the open bottom of the jacket. Reinforcing dowels are welded
to the four outside laces of the jacket inside the foundation concrcte to hetp
dissiparerhp shear and beadng forces.The sleeljscket benps ro confinethe
concrete at the v.ulnerable base zone and increase column ductilitt
The embeddedsteel WF column and column veftical bars are ;ast inro the
floor slab and the concrcte fiIljng the steel jacket above the base plate. Anchor
bolts are used to attach the base plate to the foundation and help cary verti-
cal uplift forces as required. This detail has a large capacity to dissipat€ ener-
gy while protecting the ffitical column base zone from inelastic cvclic rcver-
sals of large eadhquake motions.

ColumnsDlices
A tDical detail for splicing an embeddedsteel H shape is shown in Fig. 6.4.
The embeddedsteel H shape is normally spliced B ft (0.9 m) above the fraish
floor line using standard AISC collrmn splice details. Il wind contmls the
design aIId seismic forces arc smal], this connection is usuallv a comDressior
splice depending on the size of the column and the forces it carries. For hieh
s e i s m i ca r e a si t i s d e s i r a b l er h a r t h e . p l i c p . o n n e c i i o nd e v c l o pI n e r e n . i i e
capacity ofthe compositesection.
The requirements for splicing vertical longitudinal reinforcing bars for
compoBite coltmns should follow the rutes aDplicable to reinforced conffete
columns as specifiedin Chap. 12 ofthe ACI 5i8-95 Code.D100 1Vo additionar
comments are needed for composite columns. First, additional vertical ionqi-
r u d i n a lr e " { r a i n i n gb a r s' L R F D S p e c f i c a r i o1n2 . t . b , s h o u tbde u . e d b e r u p e u
the coln€rs where the continuous load-carrying bars are located in composite
6.10 ChaprslSix

€
I

tl
ll
tl
tl
tl
tl
ll
tl
tl

I
Anchor+ll { I
I
f
I
I
.j

FisuF 5.3 Base llate detail for high setmic zone6.

 Deslgnol Joinis 6.11

connnuols joint
lhrough

I .9

E
2

Conlinement ptat€s
siitlener
E (iace-bearing
plales-FBPs)
Cortnemenlanglesacrcssbeam
widlhaboveand betowb6arn
SECIIONA-A
or€ addirionatset oi ri€sat

Embeddedsteetefecron cotumn
spiceal3-0"aboveUnished

_z-_r:'*t,*'
Provide (3)addttional
setsot
I es at bonomof vertical

Scheduled columnv€nical
slee a.d lies.Provde2-
prececoru.nnlies. r-t]

Figub 6.4 Conlosite column splice.DTa

6,12 CharterSix

frame construction. These barc usually cannot be continuous because of inte?-

ruption with intersecting frarne members at the floor line. They are often
required to satisry the spacing requirements for vertical longitudinal barc
given i]l Sec.12.1.boftheAISC LRFD specification.
Second, it is suggested to locate velticai bar splices in high-rise composite
fram€ conshuction at the middle of the colurnn clear height. This point iB
usualy near the illflection point (zero moment) whele the more economica]
compression1ap splices or comprcssionbutt splic€s may be useal.The more
expensive tension lap or tension butt splices may be rcqutued if splices are
made at the floor line. In high seismic areas, bars are always spliced at col-
umn midheight.

6.3 Beam-to-Column Shear Connections

Vadous tlTes of beam-to-column shear connections that are used in modem
composite constr-uction arc prcsented in this section. The behavior of a con-
nection is charactedzed by its moment-rotation curve, which shows the
moment as a function ofthe angle change between the beam and the colurnn
(Fig. 6.5). The sti&ress olthe connectionis given by the slope ofthe moment
rotation curue. Connections are charactedzed as rigid (type FR fully
re8trained) and semirigid or simple (twe PR-partially reshained). The con-
nection maybe classfied as either tull-sircngth (M > M") or partial-strength
\M 11-lconnection.
Shear connections ofcomposite beams to steel columns are shown in Figs. 6.6
through 6.8. As the concrete slab is ter.rainated shoft of the connection. it has no
efect on the rcsponse to loading. In connections to composite colunns, the con-
clete embedment reshains both the beam rotations and local buckling of the
embedded steel elementE. Howeve! no guidelines are available at present for B
quandrying these rcstraints.

M"

Fisure 6.5 Connection behaviore

 D*ign of Joints 6.13

- - %l l
FXrntffil
+l*+L I t+{ |
t+il{+I t+fl]|
-:, -'ll
--ri,! I

_ zirrzd I
=E T-rll I
t+ilill]
l/1il |
ErlEl
- T/l_{]
I vt7-n
wv -41!

tsolied/weld€d,
anqlesweldedto supported
bem

Note:(1)Wdd returnson
loPofanglesp€r
LRFDSpecificaUon
SeclionJ2.2b.
(2) Concrctestab

in crosssections.

Bolted/weld€d,
angleswoldedto supporr
FlsuE5.6 Doubleagle web connection.cru

-surB 5.7 Single-plate 6hear comechon.GTe

6.14 ChaplerSix

Girder

Figure6.3 Twical applicationsoftee connections.c56

5,3.1 Double'angleconnections
One of the simplest and most common types of beam-to-column connections is
the double-angle web connection, also referaed to as the fram€d beam conn€c-
tion (Fig. 6.6).DstIt is commonly designedas a simple connection,that is, the
connection restmint is ignored. It is assumed that under gravity loads the
ends of the beams are connected for shear only and are completely free to
rotate. ThI€e additional conditions should be observed in the desiEn ol dou-
ble angleconnecdons:
1- The connections and corrrected members should be adeqnate to carrv the
facroredgravity loadsas simplebeams.
2. The connectionsand connectedmembers should be ad€quate to resist the
factored lateral loads.
3. The connections should have suffi€ient inelastic mtation caDacitv to avoid
overloadingfasrpncrsor weldbundFrcombinedfactoredgraviry and larer-
al loading.
In the vast majority of applications, any rcstraint provided by the composit€
steel deck slab or its reinforcement is ignored in the design. The design of
double-angleweb connectionsis €overcdin the AISC ManualDrs
 Designol Joinrs 6.15

6.3.2 Single-plateconnections
One connectionthat has gained considerablepopularity in recent years is the
single-plate shear connection often refen€d to as the shear tab.cts Used pd-
marily to transfer beam-end rcaction to the supporting element, it is €fiicient
and easy to fabricate. The connection consists of a piate shop welded to the
supporting element at one edge and field bolted to the beam web. Figure 6.7
shows a twical application of a single-plate shear connection. A design proce-
dure {or the shear tab is presented in this subsection and illushated with a
design example in Sec.6.3.3.
The AISC LRFD specificationDelhas th€ following prcvision for simple
shear connections:
Exceptas otheNise iDdicatedin the desisadocuments,connectionsof beams,
sirde$ or husses shall be desisnedas flenble, and are pemritted to be propor
tioned for the reaction shearsonh I'lexible beam connectionsshalt accomodate
end rotations of unreBtmined (Bimple)beams.To accohplish this, someinelastic
but selfiimiting defonation in the comection is permitted.
Single-plate connections not only should have sufficient strcngth to transler
the end shear reaction of the beam but should also have enough rotation
capacity to accommodate the end rotation demand ol a simply supported
bea]n. In addition, the conrcction should be sufnciently flexible so that beam
end moments become negligible. Thus, like any shear connection, single-plate
shear connections should be designed to satisly the dual crite a of shear
strength and mtational flexibility and ductility.

Limit states. The following limit states arc associatedwith the single-plate
framingconnections:
Shear failule of bolts
Yieldingof gmssareaof plate
Fractue of net areaof plate
Fractureofwelds
Bearing failure of beam web or plate

Each ofthese limit states is ad&essed in the following designprocedue.

Design procedure, A]Ialyses of experimental results and information avail-

able on the actual behavior of shear connections are the basis for the design
procedure.The single-plate ftaming connectionscoveredby these procedures
consist of a plate bolted to a bean web and welded to a support on one edgeof
the plate.
In design of a single-plate framing connection, the following reqrirements
should be satisfied:
1. The connection should have only one vertical row ofbolts and the number
ofbolts should be not less than two or more than nine.
6.16 ChapterSix

2. Bolt spacing should be equal to A in (76 mm).

3. Edge distancesshould be equal to or g?eat€rthan 1.Sdb.
4. The distance ftom bolt to weld line should be equat to g in.
5. Material of the shear plate should be '{96 steel to facilitate yielding.
6. Attachment should be fillet welds made with E?0)C( ol E60)Ca elechodes.
7. Thickness ofthe single plate should be less than or equal to dal2 + g.
8. The mtio of l"fob,, ofthe plate should be greater than or equal to 2 to pr€_
vent local buckling ofthe plate.
9. ASTM A325 and A490 bolts may be used.
In the above a6, : distance from bolt line to weld line
d,. - bolt diameter
g : '46 in (1.6 mm)
lp : plate length parallel with bolt and rFeld lines

The_desigrrprocedwe is valid for composite and noncompositebeams, stan_

dard or short slotted holes lully tightened or snug-tight bolts, and ior all
grades of beam steel and all loadines.
Bolts are desigaed for the combined effects of direct shear and a moment
dueLolheeccenlriciryp6oflhereacrionfromrhebolrtjne.Theec.enrriciryp^
1orsrngle-plale conneclions covercdby theseprocedurcscan be assumedro b;
equal to 3 in (76 mm), which is the distance fiom bolt line to weld line. The
value is conserative wheD the single plate is welded to a rigid support. The
value is more realistic when the supporting member is a retatively nexibte

More realistic values for €6can be calculatedfrom Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2):
If the single plate is welded to a rotationally rigid element, e, is obtaineil
from

eb = I(nb \)cl ab, (6.1)

where nd = number ofbolts
c:1.0in
eD- eccenlricit).in

Ilthe single plate is welded to a rotationaly flexibte element, e6 is the larger

value obtained from Eqs. (6.1) a]td (6.2):

(6.2)
By using methods outlined in Table 8-18 of the AISC LRFD Manuat, the bolts
can be designed for the combined €ffects of shear V and moment equal to ye6.

Design of plate. The plate is designed to yield under the effect of dircct shear.
This is done to encouragetim€ly yielding ofthe plate and rclease ofbeam encl
 6.17

moment. Actualy the plate yi€lds under the combined effects of a larye shear
and a rclatively small bending moment.
The proposeddesign equation is

ve = +0 6F!tp\,

wherc y" : veftical shear capacity of connection plate

d = 0.90
tp - thickn€ss of the connection plate

The plate must be made ofA36 steel to facilitate an early yielding of the
plate. To lacilitat€ beadng yielding of the bolt holes, it is recommended that
the thickness ol the plate be equal to or less than 0.5da + g, where g : Z6 in
(1.6mm).
To avoid edge failues, it is recommended that the horizontal and vertical
edge distancesbe equal to or gTeaterthan 1.5dr. It is also recommendedthat
the vertical edge distance should not be less tharr 1.5 in (38 mm) regardlessof
the bolt diameter In the tests that were the basis of the design pmcedure, the
bolt spacing was equal to 3 in (76 rnm) and the maximum number of bolts
was nine. Therefore, until more research is conducted on different bolt spac-
ings and larger number of bolts, it is recommended that the pmposed desigtr
procedure be used ody xrith a bolt spacing of 3 in (76 mm) and the number of
bolts less than or equal to nine.
Arother failure mode that needs to be coNidered is local buckling of the
bottom portion of the single plate. To avoid this fajlure mode, it is recom-
mended that I /tp be less than 64 for A36 steel single plates used in these con-

In addition to plate yielding, bearing yielding, and edge distance deforma-

tions, arother possible lailure mode of the plate is shear fracture of ttre net
section. Research indicated that shear fracture ofthe net section occurs along
a vertical plane close to the edge of the bolt holes rather than along the bolt
centerline plane. The following equation can be used to prcdict the shear
capacity of the net section:

R^:ltelte 0.5nb@b+ g)10.6F,

where d : 0.75.

Deslgnof bolts. Bolts are designed to resist combined effects of the applied
shear force and bending ooment that exist along the bolt line. The shear
force is equal to the reaction ofthe beam. The moment can b€ obtained from

Mo= v"u
The value ofthe eccent?icitye6is given by Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2).To design bolts
for the combined effects of shear and mom€nt- the methods Eiven in the AISC
LRFD Manual can be used.
6.18 ChapterSlx

Design of welds. The welds can be designed lor the combined e{fects of shear
and bending moment. The shear force yis equal to the beam reaction anal the
b€nding moment is given by

M-: VC,
I'l-re value of the eccentricity e. is given by the larg€r value obtained from

where z6 is the number ofbolts, c - 1.0 in, and ab, is the alistanee from the
bolt line to the weld line in inches. However, toivoid a britde failure of
welds, it is recommended that the r ields be designed to develop the strcngth
ofthe plate. In sheat tab connections,bolts, plate, and welds aie subjecteJto
a shear force and a moment. To ensure that the plate lelds before the welds,
the shear-moment interaction curve of the plate should lie inside the shear_
moment interaction curve for the welds. The M-y interaction curve for rec_
tangular cmss sections Buch as shear tabs can be appmximated by the equa-
tion of a ctucle given by

/]\. rrJ I, r.o

,v*l \ Mo,'

where yr, : 4tplr, shear yield strength ofthe plate

M@ = F!tplp2/4, plasLic moment capacity of the plate
M = Ve., applied moment
le = plate thickness

The above int€raction equation for welds is established with values siven in
Tables8-38 through 8-45 of the AJSC LRFD Marual.tr? The valuei corre-
sponding to A : 0 should be ueed. With this pmcedwe, one can assume an
eccentdcity, calculate y and M, and plot the M-y interaction cuave for weld
failure. The curve can be approximated conservatively by a circle.
To ensurc that the lailure surface for the weld line6 is Feater than the fail-
u-resurfacp for the plare. rhe foLlowingshouid be satisfied:

(+)"(#)"G,)"(ff)',
whcre y. = 210.5FFdr0.707D-l,.,.shear yietd brreDglh ofa $eld
Mr, = 2 0.5F1n,0.7O7D/" 14. plaslicmomen{ capacit}of wetd firoa L
aecuon
D, - fillet weld size
l, : weld leneth
Frr6 - yield shergth ofwelds

The value ofr,/te is limited by

 D6i9n of Joinls 6.19

D,,, 1.41F
to Fu"t

This limit will ensure that the moment-shear interactior cuve for the weld is
greater than the interactior cune for the plate. Using tr'r and ar$ equal to 36
and ?0 ksi, rcspectively,

D, > 0.75tP

The above limitation was derived for A36 steel and E70 electrodes. The gener-
al form of the above lirait can be used even il material proper.ties differ slight-
ly. In heating single plat€s with standard holes, derivations similar to the
above procedure were callieal out and the resulting relatioDships werc the

The prccediq discussion suggests that in single-plate shear connections

with standard or short slotted holes, two weld lines with a weld size equal to
0.75r,, one on each side of the plate, are necessary to ensure the desirable
plat€- failue before weld failure. If this rule is satisfi€d, the design rcsults in
a matching weld where plate yielding occurs beforc widespread yielding of
the weld.

Designot lhe beamweb. Beam webs should be designedor checkedfor trans-

fer of shear. Particular attention should be paid to coped beams.

5.3.3 Single-plateconnectiondesign
Design a shear tab that connectsa gider to the flange of a column $ith the
following proper-ties:
Beamsection:W24x11?,t, : 0.550in (14mm),A36steel
Reaction: 50 kips (222 kN) Bervicedead load and 40 kips (178 kN) ser-vice
live load
Bolts:% in (22mm),A325-N,$.ith 3-in (76-mm)spacing
Holes: standard rourd
Welds:E70lO( frllet welds
Use Vol. II of the AISC LRFD Manual.ft7 From Thble 8-11, the desien shear
strcngthof onebolt is r, : 21.6kips.
1. Cdkulatenutuberof bolts
Shearrcaction= 1. ) + \.6L : 1.2 x 50 + 1.6 x 40 : 124kips
A8srmeM:0;then

-R124
ttb-;- r. t+ Tty 6 bolts
11 A
ChapterSlx

Check moment at the bolt line using Tabte 8-18. The supporting column
flange can be considereda dgid suppod. Therefore,from Eq. (6.1),

eb: n6 1- abb:6 - 1- 3:2.0in: e,

c : 5.45
r : C x r,: 5.45x 21.6= 112.2kips < 124kips N.c.
where r is the design strcngth of a bolt group. 1\f, sevenbolts:
er:7-1 3:3.0in thusC:6.06
,": 6.06x 21.6: 130.9kips > 124kips O.K.
Ueesevenbolts.
2. Calculate plate thic&nessrequfuedto prevent shear fractue on the net

le:3nb:3 7 :2r i^
R^: +(.0.64)L[e nb@.b
+ 0.125)ltp

.- 124 -
? oJt ..$ . 58r2i- 7oi75 . 0.125,1 014 ;n

Tiy 7s-inplate. Checkplate thickness limit:

tp<0.5 d.b+ g: O.5x 0.8?5+ 0.0625: 0.b0in O.L

l"
t, - o, 0.33in o.K.
;i ;;

Checkyield capacityof grosssectionof the plate:

lio: d(0.64)lprp:0.9x 0.6x 36 x 21 x 0.375:153.1kips> 124 O.I{.
Checkplat€bearing capacity116.r
Rb.= CfO.4lt"tpd) = 6.06x 0.75x 2.4 x 58 x 0.375x 0.875
208kips 124tups O.K.
Beam web is thicker than the plate, so there is no need to check bearing on

Use%-in sheartab plate.

3. CalculatefiIl.et ueld sire D. to developshength of plate
 Designof Jolnls

UseD,,,:0.75tp:0.75x 0.375: 0.28in

use $reld slze n6 rn.
4. Since beam is not coped, there is no need to eheck bloch she@rf@ilure of
the beam web

6.3.4 Teeconnections
Tee connections listed in the LRFD AISC Manuals7 arc used in steel struc-
tures as simple connections. Published information on their behavior and
design is limited, and none is available for structures with composite mem-
bers. $pical applications oftee connectionsare shown in Fig. 6.8. The fasten-
ers in tee connectionscan be either welds or bolts as illustrated in FiE. 6.9.
Based oo inrerviews with steel fabricators. it appearc lhal rype A i. rhe mosr
popular and €fficient one with types C, D, and B following in the order of
their populadty. This section is concemed with the design oftee connections
of tlpe A in which the tee section is bolted to the beam web and welded to the
eolunn support.66G1
As for any shear connection, tee connections should satisfy the dual criteria
of shear strength and rotational ductility. The connection should have enough
shear strength to transfer the reaction of the beam. In addition, it should be
flexible and ductile enough to permit end rotation and thus to prevent the

Tv?eB

lype C
.-??2t9,2.??2?'-/ez22el"zj:bz
 ChapterSix

development of any signifrcant moment in the connection. Since r€lativelv

la rge rolariors in I hc ordp. or 0.03 rddtanare expeciedlo develoDat t'leends
of .imDly bupooneobcams when a plastic hing; forms ar midspan,rhe con_
nections should have sufncient rotational ductility to accommodate the larqe
rotarions sirhout f'aflufe.
the tee is welded to the support, adequate flexibility must be provid,
.\rylen
ed in the connection. As iUushated in Fig. 6.9, welds are placed along tire toes
of the tee flange with a retum at the top as required by the LRFD specifica_
tion.DelWelding across the entirc top should be avoided, as it would intibit
flexibiliE and therefore the necessaly end rctation of the conn€ction.

Limit states. The faiLrre modes that have been observed in tests ate listeal
below in the order ofpreference in design a]ld are illustrated in Fis. 6.10. The
n_ostfdvorablFlimil qtarpsar.e,o, and {?,.6incerhpycoffespondro yietA ng of
steel, which is ductile and reliable. Limit states (c) and (r ire the least delir-
able, since they are associated with fracture, which is generaly brittle ard
less reliable than yielding. The order of decreasing preference is as follows:

Shear yielding ofgross area of stem

Ylelding of tee flange
Bearing yielding of beam web as well as tee stem
Shear fracturc of net area of stem
Fmcturc ofbolts connectingtee stem to beam web
Fracture of welds contrecting tee flange to support

ffi
ffi
B e a r i nF
Fiqure6.lo q.]]ical failue modesof t€e cohectiors,ci0
gailure
The tee connections for composite structures are designed and built in exactly
the 6ame way as for steel structures.
The design strength ofbolts, welds, and connect€delements must equal or
exceed the required shength R,.

oli, > fi,

Design guialelines that assure that the particular fimit state does not occur
prematurely arc given below for the six limit states.

Shearyieldingol gross areaof tee stem. The stem ofthe tee in tee connections
is subjected to shear and a relatively small bending moment. In formulation
of the proposed design equations only the shear lorce is considered and the
effects of the bending moment arc neglected. Th€ tests rcported in Ref. G61
have supported this assumption. The nominal shength defining this limit
state is

R . 0 . 6 0 1| - F

where I, is the length ofthe tee and t"i is the thickness of the stem.

Yieldingof tee flange. If the thickneBsof the tee flange is less than the thick-
ness of the stem, the flange will experience considerable yielding.
Particularly in built-up tees ifthe thickness ofthe flange is less than half the
thickness ofthe stem, this limit state can be reached before the limit state of
shear yielding of the tee stem. However, in tees produced by splitting hot-
rolled wide-flange shapes this limit state is not likely to govern, since the
flange is thicker than the stem.
This limit state is defined by

R^:7.2\+4
where ir is the thictness of the flange ofthe tee.

Bearingfailure of tee stem or beam web. Research indicates that a limited

amount of yielding in the bolt holes due to bolt bearing can be beneficiai in
reducing rotational stifrness olthe connection. On the other hand, larye bear-
ing delonnations can rcsult in shear ftactue of the net arca of the connection-
To avoid exceedingthis limit state, it is recommendedto follow the estab-
lished rule for horizontal and vertical edge distance of at least 1.5 times the
bolt diameter Bolt spacing should satis& requtuements of the AISC LRFD
specifrcation.D'glIn the absence of sufficient research data for other spacing, it
is recommendedto keep the bolt spacing at 3 in (76 mm).

shear fractureot net areaoftee stem. Ihis limir state is rcached shpn th" crit
ical net section ofthe tee stem flactures in shear Researchcs6.c61 clearly indi-
cates that th€ critical net section in shear is located close to the edse of bolt
chapterSix

holebralher lhan along their centcrline.The Fffecti!e net a_reain siFar ts

more realistically calculated by averaging the net area along the bolt center_
line and the gross area of the tee stem. the following equation defines this
Iimit state based on the effective net axea in shear:

R" = 0.60A"\

A" = {4 - t}.'nJd.b + g)l}t

"t
au is the number ofbolts, d6 is the diameter of the bolt, and g is equal to
%6
in. The-numericalfarror 0.5 in A- reflectsthe averagingoi ner and grosi
areas ofthe stem 10 obtain rhe effeciivenel drea in shFar as defined above.
The AISC LRFD specificationDel rcquirements for standard bolt holes yield
the foUowing equation for calculating the n€t area in shear:

A,: {It - lnb@b+ g)l}t"t

It results in a more conservative design, with fracture ofthe n€t area normal_
ly governing the shength of the connecuron.
If the beam is coped,block shear nrpture ofthe beam web shoulal also be con_
sidered in accordancewith Tables 8-4? and 8-48 in the AISC LRJ.D Manual cfl

Shearlaiiure of botts. Bolts should be d€signedfor a direct shear equal to the

reaction of the beam. The eccentricity e6 for tee connections that Lave been
studied is negligible, especially when tde supporting member is a rigid ele_
mert such as a nonrotating column flange or an embedded plate. In the
absence of expedmental data, it is suggested that for rotationally flexible
suppofts a point of inflection is assumed at the weld line and the bolts arc
designed for dircct shear and a bending moment equal to the shear force mut_
tiplied by distance ar, between the bolt and weld lines. For rotationally rigid
supports, the eccentricity edcan be tajcn as

ee:0
and for rotationally flexible supports as

By using Table 9-10 of the AISC LRFD ManualcsT the bolts are alesigned for
the combinedeffectsofshearR" and moment equal toB,er.

Weld_ failure. The welds connecting the te€ to the support must be designed
fbr the combined effects of dfuect shear and the moment due to the eccen;dci_
rJ p- ofrhe reaciionfrom the weld line. ThF eccenrrjriLv e js conservari\elv
consideredequal ro rhe dic{ar1cebprweenbo aid xeld linet:
 Designof Joinls 6.25

By using Table 8-38 of the AISC LRFD Manual,GsTfiIlet weldB are desigred
for the combined effects of shear i?, and rnoment equal to -R,e..

Design Procedure. Tlle followirg design guidelines are suggested regading

the tees, bolts, and welds for tee connections. Tlle prccedurc is applicable to
standard and short slotted but not to ovemized and long slotted bolt holes.
The material of the tee should be A36 steel. The ratio of lr/ab- of t}re iee
stem shoulal be morc than 2. To eDsu?eflexibility of the connection, the b,/2t
rario of Lhe ree Ilange should be more than 6.5. The ratio of /,/6, of Lhe Lee
should nor exceed3.5, and to ensure ductile behaviorofthe rc; s{em, Ihp
ratin (t"t/d)/(+/t"t) of about 7aiB prefened.
ASTM A325 or A490 bolts may be used. Fully tightened as well a6 snug-
tight bolts are permitted, but snug-tight bolts arc preferaed. If for erection
pt)lposes some bolts need to be tightened, one or two bolts at the bottom of
connection can be tightened and the rest le{t snug-tight. The bolts should be
used in only one vertical row' Sta.rrdard or short slotted pr:nched or drilled
holes are permitted. The number of bolts should not be morc than nine or less
than two. Vedical spacing between the bolts should be equal to 3 in (76 mln).
Welds should be fillet welds made with E70)O( or E60)C{ elechodes. The
top ofthe fillet w€lds should be returned a distance equal to 2 times the weld
size. If th€ tee is welded to a column flsnge, it is rccommended that the thick-
ness tr of the tee flange be smaller than thickness tr. of the column flange.
Thi following steps rcsult in an orderly desigri procedure for tee connec-
uons:
1. Select the type of bolts and. calculate the nunber of bolts assuming no
eccentdcity

R
'"b
A_F

If the support is rotatioo*fly ff"Aff", tf-r" bolt group for combineal effects
of shear .R,,and moment €,eu using Table"fr*f. 9-10 of the AISC LRFD Manua],ft?
where e6is tahen as the distance from the bolt line to the weld line.
2. Calculate the required. gross cLreaof the tee stzm

R
0.604
J. Use436 steeland.selecta teeto satisfy the fol.louing requirements
by'2trof t}].et,'e > 6.5
b . d.blt
t>2.0
lhand.I,>1.50dh
d. Bolt spacings: 3 in (76mm)
I,t*> Ae
 ChapterSix

f. It/bf =3.5
e. +,>,
h. (t"tld.)/(tt/\) < )/4
4. Calculate actual shearfield strength of the grossarea of the stem

Bo= (1,r",)(0.604)

5. Check the strength afthe effectiuenet area ofthe stem

.,r]1'.,0.60d,4
>no
{,, [?r,,
or by using net area in shear as defined byAISC:

{1, In6(d6+ s)l}t",o.6o$r >fio

6. Check shear in the flange

1.2IJfF!> R,,

7. Design fillet ueld.s for the combined effects of shear and moment using
Table 8-38.Shcar i. equa,io f0 ard monenr is eoual ro,q"o^ o ii
,
the distanceFronthe bolr linp lo rhe se d t:ne "t"r"
8. Chech bearing strengr, and satisfy the following equations for the tee

2.1nbt"FbF,>-R,)
and for the beam web:

2.4nbt,d.tF- Ro
If the bolts arc exp€ctedto resist a moment, as they nomally wor d if the
support iE torsionally flexible, this calculation should reflect the reduced
strength as detemined ftom Table 9,10 oltheAISC LRFD Manual.csi
9. If the bean is coped,chechblach shear failure af the bean ueb

6.3.5 Teeconnectiondesign
De8ign a tee connectionto hansfer the beam reaction to a supporting column.
Beam: W27x114, r. = 0.57 in (14 mm)
Beam material: A36 steel
Support: flange ofa W10x?7 column
Reaction: 150 kips (factored load)
Bolts: %-in-diam€ter (22-mm)A325-N (snug-tight)
 Designot Jolnts

Bolt spacins:3 in (76 n]:n)

Welds:E70XX fillet welds
1. Calcul&tetuumberof bolts
Factorcd shear : -R, = 150 kips
AssurneM: 0
Since the support is relatively rigid, the moment acting on the bolts can be
neglected.From Table 8-11 in the AISC LRFD ManualcsTthe design st"eEgth
of one%-inA325-Nbolt is 21.6kips. Thus the requirednumberofbolts is

- :bR: ,6-R " : r ltis: 6 . e 4

n

IYy sevenTs.in.diameter A325-Nbolrs.

2. Calculate required.grcssarcas ofthe teestem

150 : 6.94in,
0.60rr 0.60^ 36

3. Try a WTgx25 tees€crionto satisry the follox'ing requirements

a. by'2+ofthetee> 6.5
7.495/(2x 0.57)= 6.57> 6.5 O.K.
b. d/t"t>2.0
0.875/0.355= 2.46> 2.0 0.K.
c. lrandl,>- 1.50d.0
,i ard to : 1.50dd- 1.50 x 0.875 : 1.32 in

UBel, : l, : 1.5in
d. Bolt spacingssatisfy the AISC specfication.

l,:6 3+2 1.50=21.0in

Itt"t= 2l x 0.355= 7.46> 6.94in' O.K.
f.4/br<3.5
21/7.495:2.A<3.5 0.K.
g. tf" > tf
0.87iD 0.57in O.It
h. Q"t/d.byif/t,): (0.355/0.875)/(0.5710.355)
: 0.25 O.K.
1. Calculateactucrlshearlield. cctpacit! of the grossarea ofthe stem
l?o: 0.604r.,4: 0.60x 21 x 0.355x 36 : 161.0kips
Chapter
Six

5. Chech capacitr of effective net area of the sten

R," -l': ,0,-,,ll,",ro-

- - 0.60{/ ,,
l' " Lz t)

n". o.aofztli ,. | . o.rss. o.zs, ss

I lz " tJ
: 164.2> 161kips O.L
or by using the net arca in shear as defined by AISC:
ft,, = 0.60{1,- tn,(d6+ c)l}r",04 >€o
4^:0.60{21 - U(.%+ 1/1Jl}x 0.BsEx 0.?bx 58
: 133.7< 161kips N.c.
If the AISC approachwere used, a larger section would have to be selectecl
arld checked.
6. Chechshear in the flange

1.21tf4>Ro
1.2x 21 x 0.5?x 86 : b1?> 161kips O.K.
7. Design fillet uelds for the combinedeffects of shear ard moment using
Table 8-38 in the AISC LRFD Manual.cs?Shear is equal to B" and the
moment is equal to ,Rnqwhele e is taken as the distancefrom the b;lt tine to
the weld line:
.Ro= 161kips
M:161 x3:48Ain_kips
Entering Table 8-38 with & = 0 a d a : e/t : S/21: 0.143yields C = 2.25.
UsingC1- 1.0,the requiredweld sizein sixteenthsofan inch is

o'"= -R" 161

2.75x1.0x21
or 2.79/16:0.U in
"dk:
Use %-in E70)C(filtet wetds.
B. Cher:hbearing capo,cirJ. For tee stem:
R":2.4d bt"r4: 2.4 x 0.875x 0.355x 58 : 43.2kips
with sever bolts, the designshength in beaug rs

Rh.:7 /.0.75 x 43.2: 226.8> 161kips O.K.

 6,29

Since the beam web is thicker than the tee stem, bearing failure of the web
will not gover-n.
9. Beam is nat coped.;therefore, there is no need for considerins bloch she.lr
rupture

6.4 Beam-to-Column Moment Connections

Three tJryesof connectionsbetwe€n colurms and compositeor steel beams are
discussedin this section:those involying (1) encasedcompositeor rcifforced
concretecolumns,(2) filled compositecolumns, and (3) steel columns.eqDse,Ds2

6.4,1 Encasedcompositeor concretecolumns-general

The design of a moment-resisting connection betw€€n steel or composite
beams and reinforced or composite columns in composite framed str-uclures ts
plesented in this section. Examples ol this t]?e of construction are founil in
moderate to high-dse buildings where the lateral-force_resistingsystem con_
tains ftames utilizing this type of rigid ioint.
For economicreasons,it is often desirable in compositeframes to mtnimize
or altogether €liminate the steel columns embeddedinside the concrete col_
umn. Such steel columns are usually designedfor erection loads only. In such
casesthe steel section is generally small relative to the size ofthe beam. The
connection is designed to transfer large forces b€tween the steel beam and
the concrete column, but the moment carded by the steel column is fairly
small. For this reason, the steel colu]nns are sometimes intenupted at the
joint to allow ihe steet beam to be contmuous though the jomt. hhe beams
are then spliced at midspan.
The design recommendations in this subsection are based principally on
tests of interior planar beam-columnjoints subjectedto fomes associatealwith
lateral defomation of the frame.rto Where applicable, the recommendations
draw on existing guidelines for steel and reinforced concrete ioints. and on
research on composite joints. The recommendations apply t; inherior and
extedor configumtions (Fig. 6.11a)where the steel beam extends through the
full width of the concrete column. They do not apply to top_interior and top-
coner connections(Fig. 6.116)becausefor the tatter connectionssupporling
test data are not avaitable and their basic force-transfermechanism i consid_
erably different. The major difference is the plesence or absenceof the con_
clete colulnn both above and b€low thejoint. Until t€st data becomeavailable
for corner and top connections,it is suggestedeither to (1) use larse steel coi_
umn sectionsin the top story and detail the connectionsin struchJral steel or
(2) design the connectionsas shear connectionswithout moment resistarce.

Limitations, The recommendationsapply for ihe transfer of shear forces and

moment3 in beam-columnjoints meeting the following limiiations (Fig. 6_12):
Joint aspect ratio: 0.75 = h/d < 2.0, where lr = depth of concrete column
 Chapt€rSix

r+-l rlr
J_---.-_-J
n---Tt f---T1
+! 1+
tl tt+
i---....__-_u
t;r
ta)

NT:TI]
+t:
IE:-R
it+ t i it+
I ti ltl t! :tt
Ti--lT
q._x
n-'--Yt-r
t! i !l
Fique6,11 Joidonngualios.Bt
tb)

measured parallel to the beam and d : deDth of steel beam measured par-
allel to the column
Mat€rials: normal-weight concrete,wherc, for calculation purposes,fi < 6
L s i ' 4 1 M P a ' :F . 6 0 k 6 ,1 4 l 3M P a r :F - 5 0 k s i , 3 4 5M p a ,
Joint design forces: applicabl€ for all cases ol loading unde? dead, live, and
wind forces; for ea?thquake loading, Iimited to regions of low to moderate
seismic zones equivalent to seismic perlormance categoies A, B, or C as
defined in ihe 1994 NEIIRP RecommendedProvisions.De6

The limits on concrete strength and the twe of aggregate are recomrnended
owing to a lack of experimental data for composite joints with high-strength
concrete and for composite joints with lightweight aggregates. Exceptions to
the exclusion of high seismicity regions may be made where it can be demon-
sbated by tests or analysis that the joint behavior is acceptable under the
anticipated inelastic response.

ceneral detailing requirements. The joint detailing considerations include

requircments for attachments to the structural steel beam and fol lateral and
longitudinal reinforcing bars in the joint region. Attachments to the steel
beam include face bearing plates (FBPS), extended face bearing plates,
embedded steel columns, and vertical joint rcinforcement (Fig. 6.12). As a
minimum, face bearing plates should be provided within the beam depth on
all beams which frame into ihe column and transfer sisnificant moment
lhrought hejoinr. Their m'nimu m widrh shouldbe equal rol he flaDgewidih.
The joint should be detailed to facilitate the anticipated construction
sequence, including provisions for the er€ction of €tructuml steel, fab cation
 Designol Joints 6.31

- F{6nd€d FBpSftmd
r-4-+-r ---+-
h"'F-'Jl"-l r,1r-rI
trii-".----fl T tTI-t I
+ti itft.|il1
|i itIt|| l
H:::::-:::*i + I h*J I
F--,-.-.1-+""1
-.-
+ |
5r-r
Engnd€d FBP

Figure6.12 Possiblejoint d€tai16.D3t

and erection of reinforcing bals, installation of folmwork. and Dlacement of

Deslgn approach. The joint strength should be checked usins the AISC
L R F D . D " SF a c t o r e d l o a d " q h o u l d b e d e r e r m i n e d u s i n e l h e e S C E
recomm"ndationsc3s or those requirpd by the applicable code. The joinr
should be designed for the interaction of forces translened to the ioint bv
adjacenlmembers.including bending,shear,and a-riaI toads.Thes" co"ces
resuit from extemally applied loads as well as from creep, shrinl<age, temper-
aturc, and settlement. The forces otr a tFical joint are shown in Fig. 6.13.
For connection design, these forces should reflect factored load combinations
and,must be in equilibrium. Note that, by definition, for an exterior joint
:M :P :0 $ig.6.14b). %1
6.32 chaprer
six

(x
FisuE 6.13 Membe. forces act-

r-\ Y"
T-_--1-f
L------LJ - -fl v..M*
[----

llry' *.
I {?l l+-
I
E=:f
:\-J
*|'

(b)
Frgure6,14Joint dcsign foraes.Du

Only the forces shown in Fig. 6.14a and 6 are consideredin calculating the
strength of the joint. These forces can be rclated by the following moment
equilibrium equation:

,M"=rM.+Vhh-\d (6.3r
\\here >14b = M + Mbz
vL- (vh! + v b2)/2
v" = (y.1+ v"')/2
W.= Mi + M"z
d = beamd€pth
,4 = columnwidth in the planeofbending
The net verticalbeamsheartransfenedinto the €olumnand the net horizon,
tal columnsheartransfered into the beao are
 LVo= yu" _ yo,
Ay"=v"r_v",
The design forces do not include the effects of the a{al fomes in the concr€te
column. Since axial forces in the beams are usually small, these are also
negl€cted in the calculations. It is conser-vativeto neEt€ctthe effects of axiat
compresbi\eload. nor-allr encounreredIn dFs
en. Te"ts ha\F sho$h rhal
compr€ssiveaxial shesses t€nd to inlibit the opening of cracks in the joint.
Test data are not avaitable on the effects of anial tension in the column, but
anial column t€nsion could result in a decrcase of shear strength as wJlI as
stiffness in the joint. Where net tension forces exist, it is reimmended 1,
neglect the contfibution of concrete to th€ compression frelal shear shength.
Deformations of the joint should be considered in evaluating defle"ctions
under both seruice and factorcd loads. Many commercially avr'it.ti" +u_.
analysis programs used in practice do not have expJicit functions to account
for joint defomations. Nevertheless,joint distortions are usualy conside; ;n
somefashion, eithe,rby neglecbingentircly the finite size of ihe joint (e.g.,cal_
culating beam and column stiffness based on centerline dimensionsfor
by
usirg a modified finite rigid joint dimension and/or moalifiecl member stiffness.
The dacking and concenhated rotations that occur at the joint under ser-vic.
laads€rc similar in magnitude to those in rcinforced concreie, and the concerr_
trated rotations are also similar to those in tully welded struc;ual steeljoints.
Joint d€sign strength is obtained by multipbnng bhe nominal shenpti bv a
resistanc€factor d. Phi for a joint should be taken equal to 0.70, a vaiue that
ls conservativeand appmximately 20 percent betow the value of0.8S used for
composite beams in the AISC LRFD specification. The lower vatue of
d,
reflects the philosophy of providing a greater reliabilitv index lor connections

Encasedcompositeor concretecolumns_strcngth
Thejoint shength should be ch€ckedfor t$ro basic failure modes:panel shear
failure and ver-tical bearing failure. Th€ strength equations given here are
based on these two taiture modes and are dependeni on ilr" lJt
detailing proyisions described in this procedure. ".ti"l5,Ug
Joint behavior is characterized by the two modes of failure shown in
Fig.6.15. Panel shear failule is simitar to that tj,?ically associated \vith stmc_
tursl steel or rcinforced conoete joints; however, in cornpositejoints both stmc_
tulal steel and reinforced concrete palel elements participate. Bearing failure
occurs-at locations ofhigh compressive stresses associated with rigid b;dv rota_
tion ol the steel beam witbin the concret€ colurm. The verlical ieioforc"-"rrt
shown in Fig. 6.156 is one souce of strength against bearing failurc of conoete.

Panelshear The effectiv€width of the joint (Fig. 6.16) within the column
6
i. equalro I he sum o. rhF inner and oute, panetwidrhs 6, and b.. gjvenab

bj: bt+ b" (6.4)

I]

6.17a Fig.6.17b

z
L

tll
(a) (b)

FisuB6,l6 Effectivejoint width.@

The inner width br should be taten equal to the greater of the face beadng
plate width b, and the bean flange width 6r. Where er':tended face beafing
plat€s or steel columns are used, the out€r pai,Iel width is calcutated using the
ovemll cmss-section geometry according to the following:

b"- c(b^ bi)< 2d" (6.5)

wherc 6- : (6f + b)/2 but not more than bf + , or more than 1.?56r
b : column width measuredperpendicular to b€am
C = G./h)ly/br)
d" : steel colimn depth
d.o: O.25d (d : beatn depth) when a steel colu]an is prcsent or the
lesser of 0.25d or the height of the extendedfacebeadng plates
when these plates are present; wherc [either the steel column
nor the extended face bearing plates are plesertrL,b, = d.: 0
 Designof Jolnts

l, = colum depth
y = greater ofste€I column or eitended face bearing plate width
jc : t where e).tended face beadng plates are present or h/2 + d /2
when or y the steel column is presenr
The joint shear strengtL is calculated based on an effective width of tlle con,
crete joint, which is the sum of the inner and outer Danel widths. as sho*ar in
Fig. 6.16.The concrerein the innpr panelis mobitizFd throughbcaringagainsr
the face bearing plates between the beam flanges. The participation of con-
crete outside of the beam flanges is dependent on mobilization of the horizon-
tal compression str-uts that form through direct beadng of the extenited face
bearing plates o? steel column on the concrete above and below the joint. as
sbown in Fig. 6.170and 6. rcspecLivety. The oulward thrus{ ar ,r'o of,h"
compression stnrts is rcsisted bv horizontal ties above and below "nd the beam.
Referring to Fie. 6.17, the ties above and below the beam are rcquired to rcsist
tension forces both parallel and per?endicular to the beam. The forces pemen-
dlcula' uothe bearnarc self-equilibm{ing. and rho"eparaltetro rhe bedlLare
transfened into the outer compressionfield. The ellectiveness of the strut-
and-tie mechanisms shown in Fig. 6.17 is based on the geometry anat propor,
tions of the concret€ column and structuml steel elements. The limits on d
and Eqs. (6.4) and (6.5) are semiempirical and based on tests. The effective
joint width is used to calculate the vertical beaing strength and also to calcu-
late thejoint shea?strcngth.

Vertical bearing. The vertical bearing strcneth is considered adequate when

the following equation is satisfred:

>M, | 0.35hLV,-<h10.,7hc.h ,,T,^- c.",1 (6.6)

where >M" and Ay6are the applied forcesand
c-: 0.6f;bjh
In Eq. (6.6), ?"" and C," arc th€ nominal strengths of the verticat joint rein-
forcement, in tension alld compression,attached directly to the steel beam;

l.-'"

k)
Fisu66.17 Ho.izontal force-transferhechmism.le
 and t,, is the distance between the bars. The lollowing factors should be con-
sidered in the strength calculation for ?" and C,"..connectionbetween the
reinforcement and the steel beam, development ofthe reinforcement through
bond or anchorage to concret€, and the material shength of th€ reinforce-
ment. In addition, for use in Eq. (6.6) the contribution of the veftical rein-
forc€ment is limited as follows:

4f,,,+ c,"< o.3f:bjh (6.6a)

The vertical bearing forces on the joint (Fig. 6.18a) arc due to the combined
effects of moments and shears transfered between the beam and column. The
moments and shears acting on the joint are shown in Fig. 6.18b. In Fig. 6.18c,

lt
::,1!
'i'I

cv
t
, ull lr"

Lor (c)
Fisur€6.13 Equilibium ofjojnt desis! forcesand intehal force resnltant.le
 the roJurnn momenrbM., and M are replaced wilh rhe forcesin lbe \ en ical
z
rernTorcemenl/ anct( and the \enicai bearing lorcesC". The beam shears
in
rrg. lt.l50 and c are r-elaledby Eq. r6.J.. Equarion 6.6 is derjvcd from
momenteq,uilibrium ofrhe forcesactingon rhejornr" in Fig. 6.t& and subsri_
tuting t}le ibrces C". 4, and C , wirh rhelr recpectivenomin;l slrenglh v-lues
ne.renglhsor tne bearing zoneso aboveand below Lhebeal1lare assumedIo
.r
be the same.and :n Eq. /6.6,they are ser equalro thFir maximu.n! djue
- 0.3i. This li,.ri! is basedon resr dara and of o"
is used in lieu of a L;miraLion
the maximum concrete strain. The nominal concrete bearing strength ",i
C-. is
cdjculated usjDg€ bearing srress of 24 over rhe bearing area"wiLht;g, h _
u.Jr. and wlclttrt'. 'fhe maximumbearjngstressof2l reflect_confinernenl "" of
rne concrpleb) the reu,rlilrcementand the surToundrnsconcrete.
Vert:cdl joinr reinfo.cementmay consicrof reiniorcrngbars. rods,
sLcel
angles, or other elements attached directly to the steel beair to transfer
verti_
cal fo"ce",inlothe concretecolumn. DepFndingon rhF type of,^nnecrio;i;
rne sreerbearn.Lhe rptnibrLemeDl msy be considerFdto act in bolh teGion
oi- In rompress;ononly I. _ 0,. \enical stiffenercor other
o e t a l r s m a ) b e r e q u u . e c l l o t r a n s l e r t h e f o r c e s f r o m t h e \ e nr pi ci n
a ll o r c e r . e n t
into the web of the steel beam.
If the amount olvertical reinforcement is too high, there is a concem
that the
joint concrete between the top and bottom flang.es
of the steel beans may be
subjefledro excessive beaflngstrebs.Equalion.6.6d,i. an upper tjmit to; I re
contribution of vefi ical joint reinJorcemenrlolhe jo nt b.aringcapacirv

Horizonlalshear. The horizontal shear strcngth of the joint is the surn

of the
nominalshearresisranceof: r I rhe sreelpanel V". ,2, rie inner
pressionstrul Y,, and r3, {he outer concrelecomprFssion fiFld y_.
"on.."," "oln_
The lhree
Jorntshearmechanismsare shownin Fis. 6.19.
The lalues y,.:.u1d V- shoutJ be derermined
, 9f.{:. foljowins {he procp_
dures describedbelow.The hor;zonralshear btrengln is concrderid
ad"quare
if the following equation is satisfied:

W" - vtjh = $lv."dr+ 0.7sv"^d.,"

+ vr"@+ d".)l (6.7)
where >M" and % are as definedpreviously,d. is the center_to_center dis_
tancebelween,l he.beamflangeb. d is rhe deprhofsreet,^eb.4 is as d.fi;;d
pi'elrously.andJl, is givenby the foLjowints:

>.1r,
>o.7h 16.'Ia)
+ c," + q)
4Ji(?," o.s^%l
whercC":2fib,A"
a" = o.5i -.,6.2sh,= < o.Bh
Ke: l>.14" -
+ 0.5^\h 6e", C,,)h,.y(,12f:bj)
Tests have shown that the contributions of the mechanisms are additive.
The conoete contribution cones from the conclele €ompressron strut
which
 ChapterSlx

f
L

j '\/--
T
ree lffil
I tlf tl
- rn-r
I LU t I

(b)

* ral -r
liri I
tl-l
rln
.-_ L
1Tl
sr.".)zl]
(cJ
Fisur. 6.19 Joint shear meclanisms.D,,

form- $ilhiD rhe inner pdnelv idlh b. and rhe compressiorfield ubich for-s
in the ouret panel width b" 'Fig.6.16,. The concrerecompj-pssion srrul ,Fig.
6.19b) is mobiliz€d though b€aring against the face beadng plates within the
beam depth. ?he compressionfield (Fig. 6.19c) is mobilized throush a hori-
z o n t a l s r r u l - a n dL i e m e c \ a n i s m ' F ' g .6 . I 7 r w h i c h f o r m s r h r o u g hb e a r i n g
against the steel column or the extended face bearine plates. For th€ case
shown in Fig. 6.19c.rhe compression field is mob;trzedbi the presence ofihe
"leel column above and below the oeam.
Equation (6.7) is derived by equating the vertical shear thrcugh the joint,
due to applied loads, to the total joint shea" strength. The joint shear
strength on the right side of Eq. (6.?) is expressed as the su]I of the vedical
shear components shown in Fig. 6.19. Refeming to Fig. 6.18c, the applied
shear thrcugh the joint is simply the sum of the beam shear and the internal
 column IbrcesI C. C,. T . AV/,,which are relalcd to rhe cotumnmompnrsL\Z
by Eq. r6.7ar.\,herej,l is equal 1o rhe horizontaldi"ranceber*een rtre re.rrl-
tant of the intemal force couple. The left side of Eq. (6.?) is based on the
appiied joint shear expressedin terms of the total applied column moments
!M" ard the beam shears %.
Thejoinr sbear strengrhincreasesasji jncrFabeb, it is conseruatjvero
"o
calculatethe shear slrenglh usiEg rhp n.inimum value ofi, 07,n. This i"
equivalent!o lhe casefor qhjch there is no vefi,icdtjointrpinlorcementand a
: 0.3r. A morc accurate (larger) value of the shear
strenqth wili be obtained
b y s o l v i n gf o r L h ea c t u d l v a l u eos f a " a n d d o f E q . , 6 . T d , . T h F c x p r e s s i o r s f o r
C and o are derived from eouilibriumof forcesin thejoin{ usrngthe mari_
mum concrete bearing shess of 2/;

Steelpanel. The nominal shength olthe steel panel V"" is calculated as

v"" : 0 .6F,Pt"Pjh (6.8a)

t"" are yield shess and thickness of the steel panel, rcspec-
Yhe.re 4p_a1d lhe
tively, and:h is-given by Eq. (6.?a).
The nominal shear strength of the steel panel y"" is calculated based on an
a\ craeeBhearyield sl rFnglh0.6 F actingove,an;IIerrivejoinr ienerhJ/i.

Concrete encasement. The nominal strength of the concrete compression

stmt mechanism Y" is calculated as the following:

v",,: o.63bt,h\E< o.'f:bed. (6.8b)

\h:re 4;.:n9 f. are in lips per squareinchand the effecr;ve

platewidth
faceb.aring
6eis limited by the fotlowrns:
bt, < (bt+ 'te) and bo= 0.2bf (6.8c)
where t, is the thickness olthe facebearinq Dlate.
The d;agonalcompression qtruL I Fig 6 l9;, is similar ro thar uspdIo
modpl
shear in monolithic rcinforced-condet€ ioints. y,^ is cajculated based on an
average limiting hodzontal shear shess of 0.65 r.f over the horizontal projec,
I i o n o l { h e i n n e r p a n e l ' 6 " &| i n 8 q . , 6 . 8 6 ' T
. h e v a t u eo i t h e a l e r a g el i m i r i n g
nolizonlar chear stfecs js consisrerl !ai{h that used in rcinforcedconcrete
joids.'a6 To preventbeariog,cr-ushingr lailu,e ai rhe ends of {hc srrul, lhe
borizonlalbhearin Eq.' 6.86,is limited by a bearingsiressof 2/ o\ er :rn area
at the top and bottom olthe face bearing plates (Fig. 6.196) equ;l to 0.286_d..
The efrectivepanel width is limited by Eq. (6.8c).
The nominal strength of the concrcte compression freld mechanism Vn, is
calculated as

V": v: + v: = 0.63
b"h\E (6.9)
where Vf is in kips per square inch and y; and V; are calculated as shown below
 ChapterSix

The equations for calculating the concretecompressionfield strength are

similar to those used to calculate the nominal shear strength in reinforced
concretebeamswith ajl effective width of 4 and depth ,4.The upper limit on
the nominalhorizonraishearstrenglhof rhe compression fielo yf" is kepr
equal to Lheaverageshear:stre." of 0.63VL ovFr rhe horizonlalprcjjecrionoi
the outer panel (6,,4).Where net axial tension is present in the column, the
contribution of Y"-= O.

6,4.3 Encasedcompositeor concretecolumns-detaiting

Horizontal column ties at a joint, vedical bars, face beaing plates, and
extendedface bearing plates are discussedbeiow.

Horizontalties. Horizontal reinforcing bar ties should be provided in the col-

umn within the b€am depth and above and below the beam to carq. tension
forces developed in the joint. The rcquired ties within and adjacent to the
joint should be calculated using the provisions contained in this section.
Pedmeter ties and cross ties may be developed eith€r by 90" hooks which
engage a longitudinal bar or by iap splicing the ties. Hook details and splice
lengths should conlorm to the provisions ofACI 318-95.Dr00
Withitr the beam depth, horizontal ties carrv tension forces associated with
the compressionfreld (Fig. 6.19c).Ties above and below the beam also pa*ici-
pate in the horizontal strut-and-tie mechanism which tlansfels the shear out-
ward to the compressionfield as shown in Fig. 6.17. Ties also proyide confine,
ment of the concrete in and adjacent to the joint (Fig. 6.20). Suggestions
contained here arc based largely on existing recommendations for reinlorced
concrctejoints and elementsD100,c46 alld on test data. Most of the tie rcqu e-
ments arc rclated dircctly to the shear Vr, carded by the outer panel.
The ma-..imum compression freld shength Vr" is limited by the su]n of forces
rcsisted by the horizontal column ties snd the concrcte.For use in Eq. (6.9),
the strength pmvided by the concreteis calculat€d as

v:: 0.16b.h\,E (6.10)

except ri/here the column is in tension, in which case V: = 0. In Eq. (6.10), 6"
rs $e ouler pane.w,dth and i is the columl widlh meisured parallel ro uhe
beam. The tenn V/; is in kips per square inch. The strength provided by the
hodzontal ties is calcuiated as

,,. A"F"ho.9h (6.11)

"":-
A"r is the ffoss-sectional arca of reinlorcing barc in each layer of ties spaced
at sr through the beam depth. A", is the area measured through a vertical
plane per?endicular to the beam. In addition to the requirements ofEqs. (6.9)
and (6.11),4/ should not be less thajl the following:
 Deslqnot Joints 6.41

15do

sscuonA
Flgure6,20 Tie reinforceheDt.De:

.4o,> 0.0046so (6.11a)

Equations (6.9),(6.10),and (6.11)are similar to those usealfor calculatino stir-

rup'equiFmenrs for shear :n reiDlorcedcoqcrerebeanrs.Where rhe mer"ber js
in tension, the horizontal ties must resist all of the shear present in the outer
compression field (i-e., V" = 0). Usually, it is more economical to provide ties
adequate to maximize Vy- [Eq. (6.9)] rather than to provide only mininum ties
as calculatedby Eq. (6.11a).The tie layout used in tests is shown in Fis. 6.20.
Wilhin Lhebeam depth. one pair ofcap ties in each layer should p""s rhrough
holes in the beam web to pmvide continuous confinement around the ioint.
Tesrsha\e shos.l thal rhc holebin the beam qeb do nor reducethe *eb ihear
capacity, provided that (1) the holes are located within 0.154 of the colum
face, and (2) the net/gross area of the web measured throush the hoies is
greater lhan 0.7. The facp bearing plate. provide confr,emenr in lhe cFnrer of
the column, enhancing the anchorage and development of the cap ties. The
minimum reinforcement specified by Eq. (6.11a) is baeed on research anal rcc-
ommendations ftom the United States and Japan for reinforced concrete joints.
6,42 Ch.pterSix

Aclditlonal tie requirements. As a minimum for all joints, three layers of ties
should be prcvided above and below the beam, and the bars in each layer
should be at least equivalent to the following:

For 6 < 20 in (0.51 m), provide #3 bar6 wit}l four legs in each layer.
For 20 in < b = 30 in (0.?6 m), provide #4 bars with four legs in each layer
For 6 > 30 in, prcvide #5 bars with four legs in each layer.
These ties should be closed rcctangular ties which can rcsist tension paralel
and perpendicular to the beam. The three lavers should be located within a
diBtance of 0.41dabove and below the beam.
Beyond this minimum rcquirement, wherc the outer compression field is
used to resist joint shear, ties should be provided to tmnsler the force yr" from
ihe beam flangesinto the outer concrerepanel. The minimum ioiai cross.
sectional area based otr this requircment can be expressealas

u" (6.12\

where Vt, is the lorce caried by the outer compression field (< nominal Vf,)
and Fi i. the yield slreng$ ofthe rransversprei orcemenL. The calculared
lie area A,, is lhe lotdl cross-sectionalarea of ties loratedwilhiD the verrica]
distance 0.4d ofthe beam. T'Ile tie area is measured through a plane perpetr-
dicular to the beam.
Ties above and below the beam selve two functions. First, the minimum
required ties above and below the beam, as shown in Fig. 6.20, provide con-
finement in the highly stressed bearing rcgion adjacent to the beam flange.
Second,where the outer compression field is necessary to resist shear, the
bars above and below the beam form the tie in the mechanism shown in
Fig. 6.17. This mF(haniqm is rpquired to transfer the lorce yr,. horizonlall) Lo
lhe comprcs.ronfield.The lorceV, mal be calculaledusingEq.,6.7rby solv-
ing for the requir€d strength y/" in tems of tM", %, y", and y.". In Eq. (6.12),
the horizontal shear force is limited by the capacity of the ties parallel and
hansverse to the beam. If the tie area rcquircd by Eq. (6.12) is not satisfied,
then the compression field st?ength Vft should be reduced as indicated by Eqs.
(6.7) and (6.9).

Vedical column bars, Except as outlined below, the size of vertical colu]nn
barB passing through the joint should be limited as follows:
. d+2d
'20 (6.13)

where for single bars d. is the vertical bar diameter, and for bundled bars 4
is the diameter of a bar of equivalent area. ExceptionBto Eq. (6.13) may be
made wherc it can be shown that the change in force in vertical bars th?ough
the joint region Ai' l, satisfies the following:
 DesignofJoints 6.43

a4b<1.2(d+2d")f (6.14)
where Vf; carries the units ofkips per inch.
The limit on bar size [Eq. (6.13)] is based on similar limits proposed for
reinforced concrete joints to limit bar slip associated with possible large
changes in bar forces due to the tmnsfer of moments through the joint. TtIe
exception to Eq. (6.13) is provided for cases where large vedical bars are
rcqufued to carry column axial forces and th€ restriction on bar size would be
inapprcpdate. Refering to Fig. 6.21, the theorctical bar forces above and
below th€ joint ca]I be calculatod based on the colunn forces (P.,,M"1,P"r,M"r)
using common cracked section analvsis for reinforced concrete. The bar
anchorage rcquirement can then be calculated as the change in bar forces
though the joint. The limit on A,{., in Eq. (6.14) is based on developing a
force,4engthof 1.2 to 1.5 times that used in ACI 318 95 lor basic development
lengths for deformed bars in tension. The morc generous development value
is permitted becaus€ (1) the actual development requirements in the joints
are for a combination of tension and comp?ession,and (2) as describedin th€
ACI-ASCE Committee 352 reportcaoa d oL pp. 726-'142 in Ref. c27, some
slippage ol vertical bars in reinforced conoete joints is generally permitted
since standard development requiremenh woutd be prohibitive.

Facebearingplstes. The lace bearing plates within the beam depth shoutd be
detailed to resist the horizontal shear force in the concrete stmt, %,, = nomi-
nal 14,. Where split face bearing plates are used, the plate height d, should
nor be lesbthan 0.45d,. The facebcaringplare rh;cknessshouldm"ei the lol
rowlne conoluons:

%>ffit\^ t,t.r",,t (6.15@)

-l

"tr
Figure6.21Fofcesinlungltudinalreinfor@meniDrr
ChapterSix

t*,
t._0.20
l!+
t'od
(6.156)
"
\ "

v,_
"P 1.2bnp (6.15c)

where lup = tensile shength of bearing plate steel

ar" : yield strcss of beadng plate steel
: ]'reld sbess of beam web
4,
Futhemorc, the thickness te should be such that

to=d
and

,,=bo _b,

1he required thiclcress of the face bearing plate is a fimction of its geometry,
support conditions, yield stleneth, ard the distribution of concrete bearinq
force. Since Lhedistribution of bearing force is nonutriform, traditioDal meth:
ods of analysis (e.g., yield line method) arc not appmpdate and usually result
in overh conserwative thicknesses. Equations (6. 15) arc semiempiical formu-
las d€riveal from tests ofjoints. Equations (6.15@)and (6.156) limit shear
stresses in the face bearing plate, while Eq. (6.15c) limits flexural bendins
srresseb.Welds connecling Lhe plare Lo tle beam should be proportioned for
the full capacity of the plate in both shear and flexr:re. The force V, may be
calculated using Eq. (6.7) and solving for the requtued shut capaiiiy
{, in
terms oflM", %, {,, and Yr" : 0.
The vedical bearing forie associated with joint shear in the steel panel
cau8es bending of the steel beam flanges. T'he beam flang€s can be assumed
capable of rcsisting transverse bending if the thickness satisfies the follow-
tIIs:

'rto'orE:ffi (6.16)

wherc t"" and 4!,are the thickness and yield stless of the steel panel,
4/. is
the yield stress ofthe beam flanges, d the atepth of the st€el beam, and i'ihe
depth ofthe conqete column measured parallel to the beam.
Equation (6.16) is a semiempirical formula from joint tests for a bearing
force equal to the shear shength of the steel panel. If the thickness of the
beam flange does not satisfy Eq. (6.16), the flange should be reinforced to
carry a bearing force equal to the \rertical shear shength of the steel panel
but not to exceed P"q, where P* is the resultant of vertical forces acting on the
 DeslgnofJolnts 6,45

inner pane1.Force {, is resisted by concrctein bearing, by vertical joint rcin-

forcement attached to the beam, and by shear friction pmvided by ties within
the beam depth. Reinforcement could consist of additional ver.tical stiffeners
or ho zontal bearing plates welded to the flang€s.

Extendedface bearingplates. Where used, the extended face beadns Dlates

and steelco{umn.hould be desigaedro rps:sta forceequal ro the joinr shear
canied by the outer compression freld Vr,. The average concrete beadng
slresbagainsl rheseplare element. should be lebsthan or equat Lo 2/- and
should be consdered 1o ac1ove" a maximum heiehr abor" rhe oeam {ianee
pqual ro
4. Wlen rhese elcmenlb ai:e nol, proporioned for r}le f.r requirid
force, the value of Vr^in Eqs. (6.7) and (6.9) should be reduced accordingly.
The column flanges or the exte:tded face bearing plates may be assumed
capableol resisting transverse bendingiltheir thicknessessatisfy Eq. (6.1?):

t,,^
t,> 0.12 |: !!e! (6.17)

where 6"" is the flange .$.idth ofthe steel column or the width ofthe extended
face be€fing plates and 4 is the specified yield strength ol the plate. In addi-
tion to Batisfying Eq. (6.17),the thickness ofthe extendedface bearing plates
should not be less than the thickness ofthe face bearing plates between the
beam flanges.
The extended face beadng plates ancyor the steel columns are requircd to
bear against the horizontal compressjonstruts, as sbown in Fig. 6.17. The net
beadng force parallel to the beam is equal to the shear force V,", where V.-
may be calculated as d€scribed previously. As shown in Fig. 6.17, ;hen a ste6i
column iir used, most of the force is hansfered through beadng to only one of
the column flanges. The desigr of these elements is usually controlled by
transveme bending in the plates or column flarges, shear strength ofthe sup-
port plate or the column web, and the connectio[ to th€ steel beam. The malo-
mum concrct€ beadng shess 2/; is the same as that per.rnitted for bearing
against the beam flanges. The maximum effective height ofthe b€aring region
d., = d/4 /Frg.6.12b)i,schosenbasedon the limits ofthe available test data.
Traditional methods of analysis lor the flexuml bendinq of the extended
face beadng plates (or column flanges) usually result in overly conservative
thicknesses. Equation (6.17) is a semiempiricat formula derived from ioint
tests and is based on the flexural bending consid€rations onlv. The extended
face bea ng plates or steel column flange should also be check€d against
shear ftacture. Welds connecting th€se plates to the steel beam shoulal be pro-
podioned for the tull capacity of these plates in both shear and flexue

joint design
6.4.4 Beam-column
Thejoint sho$n in Fig. 6.22 is subjectedto the following factored forces:

Vu,= Vu,: 105kips (467kN) V", : V, : 175kips (778kN)

 Mbr : M6, = 919 ft-kips = 11,028in-kips G246 kN.m)

M., : M", - 831 ft-kips : 9972 in-kips (1127kN . m)

Check the joint capacity and desigr the necessarydetails.

Knownvariables (from Fig. 6.22)

A", : 0.8 in,

Ati: 3.2 i2

6=30in

6r : 10.5 in = 6r

6P: 10.5in

bp"= 7.96 1r'

d :29.8 in

df :29.1n

d. = 2A.3 itl

R7AXsX 1r'

I
I

F___s___.1
c..defe {om.tweighi

Slrud Slel: Aa5

Fiqure6,22 Desigr exsnpl€-irtefior joint.D*

 {"-58ks
F -36kt
F'" = 60 ks
F,, - 36 ks
-s0ks
{-
ll: 6 ksi
t=30in
sr:6in
t"p 0.545in

d - d - 7.+s,n

forces. Frcm Eq. (6.3):

1. Joint desigtu

V.-jj*- 1 0 sk i p s

>M"= M,\ + M"2:79,940 in-kips

LVb: Vbz- Vd: 0

joint wid.th. Frcm Eq. (6.5):b,, = 0.5(6f+ 6) but < (b, + t) a]rd
.2. Effectiue
also< 1.756,

b__=0.5_90.5 30) : 20.25,br+ h:10.5 + Bo= 40.5,and l.?Sbr: 1.?5(10.5)

^+
- 18.4.Therefore,
6_ : 18.4in.

c- : { l l : 2 O L: n- "c- , r
hbf 30 10.5

b"= c(b* bi)<2d.

: 0.51(18.4 10.5)= 2(0.25)(29.8)
= 4-O< 14.9

FIom Eq. (6.4):

b j : b i + b " : 1 0 . 5 + 4 . 0: 1 4 . 5i n
Chapter Six

3. Uerticalbenring. ftom Eq. (6.6r:

c.":0.6f:bjh
: 0.6(6)(14.b)(80)
= 1b66kips
:M. + 0.35rA% < 010.1hC",+h,,(T," + C",)l
19,940+ 0 < 0.7[0.7(30X1566)
+ 0]
19,940< 23,020in-kips
Therefore,bearing doesnot conbol.
4. Joint shear. From Eq. (6.7):
Check\M - uJ h < bt\d.f + o.7B\d _ + Utu(d+ d
" ")l
From Eq. (6.?a):

^, -- I , s " , . ^ t U.'LV.h
,+cr t LM, 6(7." - C."th,,l

(19,944 0) : 163.7in'
o . 7x 2 x 6 x 1 4 . 5
o.sh- yT.2sh" q<o.ih
""=
: t5 .\ffi - 16:.J:2.1?in <o.g(30): 9in

C"- 2f;b,a": (.2)(6)(14.5)(7.17)

: 1248kips

>o.7h
6(7," + C_+ C, - 0.5LVb)

- --11?10- - --22.a8
-- > t).7 ro
0.7(124a_ O)
: 22.83in > 2L in

Steelpaael.Frcm Eq. (6.80):

\"= : 269kips
0.6F!ptEih: 0.6(36)(0.545X22.83)
b. Conoetecompression
stmt. From Eq. (6.86):
v"": o.63bphrt
= o.btbed,
O.6s(10.5)(30)\6
= 0.5(6X10.5X28.3)
486 < 891
- 486 kips
{,
 Deslgnof Joints 6.49

Concret€compressionfie1d.From Eq. (6.9):

Vr 0.63b,iVf rassuming ties are adequalc)

- 0.6J,4tr30,vG. l85 kipb

d. Resbtance to joint shear failure. Frcm Eq. (6.7):

cheek2M" - vuih < blv*d|+ 0.75\"d. + utu@+ d.)l

19,940- 105(22.83)
= 0.'71269(29.1) + 185(29.8+ 7.5)l
+ 0.75(486X28.3)
'
1?,550- 17,530 O.K.

5. Detailingprouisionsfor joint shedr

o. Ties within beam depth:
FromEq. (6.10):
v: = o.16b"hvt - o.t6L4x30r\,6
_ 47 kips

FromEq. (6.7):Sinceshearis the limiting case,

Va = nominal Vr : 185 kips
Frcm Eq. (6.9):
Reqd V;: Vr. - Y; = 185 47 = 138kips
From Eq. (6.11):
Y" : 138 : 0.085 inzlin
R e' o d $ :
sA O-9hF,h 0.9x30x60
From Eq. (6.11o):
yio f4<\ : o.oo+a= 0.004x s0 = 0.120in /in
\sr,/
Prcvide 4#4 ties at 6 in o.c.
!01 : .+, Z, o.tga = 0.26in /in > 0.12in,/in O.K.
sa6
b. Tiesadjacentto joint:
Fmm Eq. (6.12):
y. t85 ^ ^^.
Reqd 4, - ---r1= -::: = 3.08iD'/

Placewithin 0.4J = 11.25in of beam.

Provide fonr layers ol 4#4 at 2r/2ll o.c.
A,, = 4 x 4 x 0.196:3.14inz> 3.08in' O.K.
ChapterSix

6. Facebearingplate thic&ness.Frcm Eq. (6.?):Sinceshearis the limiting

V,, = nominal V", : 486 kips

Fmm Eq. (6.15a):
6,4
n"o.ar_ Y +!9_:tl!l]|Qj!! " s6, n"'?,^
0.6b,Fe 0.6. t0.5 58
FIom Eq. (6.156):
L-
R e q d / ^ 0 -. 2 0 l t ^ ' . L '"^" V / a e e i o s - ^u,4- 5 r-n
" 86 28.a
V la"
From Eq. (6.15c):
Y- 486 -
'Req.d,
''"" ' -
r.zaf, r . 2- r o . s . 5 8 u o / ' n
tp:0.77 in conhols;use %-in-thickplate. provideweldsfor tull capacityall

From Eq. (6.15d):

u" l n- (- - _ 1 2
:_ 22 0.K.
tP 0.875
7. Chechflangethichnessof beamfor bearing. FromEq. (6.16):
t-
neadir: o :oU/9!95e: 6.36 1 0 . 5 x 0 . 5 4 5 x 2 9 . 8 x 3 6: 0 . 7 2 n \
30x36

.Actualt/: 0.76in > 0.72in O.K.

8. CheckflatLgethichness
of steelcotumnfor beorizg. From Eq. (6.12):

Reqd f > 0.12

Column r& - 0.435 in > 0.28 in O.K.

L Additional considerations
o. Check steel column nominal shear capacity for Vf" = 195 pir.. 11
required, use doubler plates to enhance shear capacity of colu]nn. Design col_
umn-to-beam connection for full capacity.
6. Check nominal shear strength in the flange of the steel columns and
conn€cting w€lds under the bearing force yr, : 18b kips.
c. Check the size of the vertical rcinforcing bals of the column and bond
stless within the joint depth.
6.4.5 FilledcomDositecolumns
These are compositecolumns consisting ofhollow steel tubes filled with high-
strength concret€. Compressive strengths exceeding 10 ksi (69 MPa) are
being used in high-dse buildings to carry the large vertical forc€s and for
ardal stiftuess in resistance to latelal loads. Different methods of connectine
s l e a c h , l o o r l F v p lh a v F b e e nd e v e l o p e b
s t e e l b e a m sr o r h e s ec o L u m n a dv
designers.The relarivFlj rhin plarp olthe.reel lubp ohen prohrbirsconneci
ing steel beams directly to the tube, especiallyin seismic areas.
Beam-column connectionsin concrete-filled steel tubes are cu entlv con-
srruclederrhe*by dirFcllvweldingrhe srFelbeai. -o rhe rube or by usirg si.r-
ple shear connections.In some buildings, a moment-resisting beam-column
connection is requircd for stnrchral economy and seismic and s,ind resis-
tance of the structue. Past design pmctice for these connections has relied
heavily on the judgment and exledence of individual designers, \a.ith little
?esearchand testing information availabte.
The need for seismic resistance of such connectionsexcludesthe possibility
of dircctly connecting the beam to the steel tube. An important considemtion
is the need to hansmit beam forces to the column without ove$trcssins the
steel tube.

Possibleconneclioncletalls. Column sizescurrcntly used in pmctice arc large.

T'he relatively thin walls used in this tpe ol column require exheme carc in
translering beam forces to the coiumn, padicularly in high seismic areas
wherc the connectionmay be subjectedto force reversal. Welding of the steel
beam or connecting element di?ectly to the steel tube of the composite cohmn
should be avoided for the following reasons:

1. Ttan8fer of tensile forces to the steel tube can result in sepamtion of the
tube from the concretecore, th€reby overshessing the steel tube. In addi-
tion, the deformation of the steel tube increases connection rotation.
de$easing its stiffness.
2. Welding ofthe thin steel tubes results in large residual shessesbecaus€of
the reshaint pmvided by other connectionelements.
3. The steel tube is prima ly designedto pmvide lateral confinement for the
concrcte, which could be compromised by the additional shesses due to the
welded connection.

With these considerations in mind, attempts have been made to prevent

diect tmnsfer of beam forces to the steel tube. T\vo general tj,?es of connec-
tion details have b€en proposed,t)?es A ajld B.
1:'pe A connection detail, shown in Fig. 6.23, shows one alternative in
'ia'hich forces are hansmitted to the
core conoete via anchor bolts connectinE
rhe bteelplFmenrsio lhe sleFl Lube.[n lhis alrFrnarive.alletementscodd b;
preconnecteal to the steel tube in the shop. The nut inside the steel tube is
 ChapierSix

rattaa-

Figue6,23 TrTe A connection with mchor loli.Ds

designed to accomplish this task. Alternatively, the anchor bolts can be

attached by stud welding. Ttre capacity of this t,?e of connection would be
limited to the pull-out capaciw of the a.nchor bolts.
Another variation olthe same idea is shonn in Fig. 6.24, wherc conDecting
elemeDts would be embedded in the core concret€ ]/ia slots cut in the steel
tube. In this va ation slots must be welded to conDection elements after
beam assembly for con&ete confinement. The ultimate capacity of this detail
also would be limited to t}Ie pull-out capacity ofthe connection elements.
lype B connection detail is another option which passes the beam com-
pletely though the column (Fig. 6.25). Tiis t ?e of connection is believed to
be the most suitable. In this option a slot in the form of an I shape must be
made in the tube walls. AIter passing the beam tbrough the column, the slot
should be welded to the beam. This would be requircd to achieve confnement

In this detail a certain height of cotullm tube, together ffith a short beam
stub passing tlDough the cohmjl and welded to the tube, could be shop-fabri-
cated to lorm a tlee column. The beam portion of the tree column could then be
 Figure 6,24 Type A connection
with embeddeil elehents.Drr

Sleel

through

rye" B -*""tion-through connection

5H"!,ii.135

bolted to gLdem in the field. An o,:tensive nonlinear finite-element analysis of

the tlrough bea]n connection detail has beetr conalucted to identify the force-
transfer mechanism from beam to column. The findings of these analytical
studies wer€ then verified by experimental testing of a connection subassembly.
Figure 6.26 shows the force-tmnsf€r mechanism for the connection. It has
been identified that for a square tube with the beam passing thrcugh the col-
6,54 ChapterSix

^*n 0".- .ohection: forcetrmsfer hech-

H:;g#

umn, the poftion of the steel tube between the beam flanses acts as a stif-
fpncr.resulling in a concrcrecompression qt''ut $hi.h a.siirs rhe beam web
\.ithin the joint in ca?rying shear. The effectiveness of the comprcssion strut
is maximized by inoeasing the thickness of the steel plate betwe€n the beam
flanges. The width ofthe concretecompressionshut on €ach side ofthe beam
web in the direction norrnal to ihe beam web was approximately equal to half
the beam flange width.
A compressive-forceblock is created when beam flatrges are compressed
against the upper and lower columns (Fig. 6.26). The width of this compression
block is apprcximately equal to the width of the bean fla]rge. In the upper a]Id
lower columrs shoull in Fig. 6.26 the compressive force C is shown to be bal-
anced by the tensile forre in the steel pipe. Embedded rods in the concrete and
welded to the bea]I flanges can be provided to assist the steet tube in resistins
fie Len.ile lorcFsand ro minimize thp rfnsi le stresspsin the bleel rube.

Suggesteddesign procedure. A tentative design procedure for designing a

through beam connection detail in coniunction with circular rather thatr
square or rcctangular columrl has been developeal.T.he desigr prccedure is in
the form of equations rclating the applied extemal forces to the coirnection
details, such as thickness ofste€l pipe.
 De6l9nof Joinls 6.55

The design procedure follows the general guidelines of the AISC LRFD
specifrcation. In developing the design equations, the folloreing assumptions
are made:

1. Exterrrally applied shear forceB and moments at tlejoints are known.

2. At the ultimate condition the conqete stress distdbution is lirear and
maximum conoete compressive stless is below its limiting value.

TIIe joint forces implied in the first assumption can be obtarned from analysis
a]ld require the knowledge of applied shear and moment at the joint at fail-
ule. These quantities are assumed to be related as follows:

Y,: eVu

M. = I.V.

M"= I2V.

where Vu and M, are r timate beam shear and moment, respectively, while %
and M" are ultimate column sheal and moment, respectively.
The validity ofthe Becondassumption above can be justified by the follo$/ing:

1. Column sizes for the type of construction considered here are generally
much largff than the beam sizes.
2. The conclete t ?e used in these colunrrs is generally high-shength con-
crete with compressive shength wel1 above 10 ksi (69 MPa). The unia-rial
st?ess-strain charactedstics of high-strength concrcte exhibit a linear
behavior up to ma-rimum strength, followed by a shary descending portion.

The twe ofjoint is shown in Fig. 6.27. Fisure 6.28 is a free-body diagram ol
the beam web within the joint and the upper eolumn at ultimate load. With
reference to Fig. 6.28, the following additional assumptions are made in
deriving the desig! equations:

Flgure6.27 Assumed 10r@6on an ini€rior joini.D83

6.56 Chapterslx

Ec

vol
I
t

cc
Flgur€6.23 Free body diaerd for ajoini web_Ds
1. The concrete stress di€tribution is assumed to be linear. The width of the
concrete stress block is aEsulned to equal the beam flange width 6r.
2. As shown in Fig. 6.28, strain distibution over the upper column is
assulaed to be linear
3. The steel pipe and concrcte act compositely.
4. The portion of the upper colum shear I/" hamfer:red to the steel beam is
assuned to be nq, where C" is the resultant concrete compressive lbrce
bearing against the beam flange and B is the coefiicient of fiiction.
5. Applied bealn moments are r€solved into couples concentrated at beam
flanges.
6. The resullan[ of concrete compression6trut is aloDg-a diagonal as sho\m
in Fig. 6.28.

Considering the above aBsumptions a]ld the shain distribution shown for the
upper column in Fig. 6.28, maximum stmin in conqete €. can be related to €,
steel DiDe shain in tension:
(6.18)

Next, maximuln stress in concrete arld stresses in the steel pipe arc calculaL
ed as follows:
(6.19)
(6.20)
(.6.2r)
wnerc I, L, and fn are maximum concret€comprcssivestrcss, str€ss in steel
pipe in compression,and shess in steel pipe in tension, respectively.
SubstitutingEq. (6.18)into Eqs.(6.19)th&ugh (6.21)and multiplying EqB.
(6.19)thoueh (6.21)by the correspondingarea, the reBultant forcesfor differ-
ent connectionelementsare catculatedas follows:
^ 0.5 , (6.22)

( t-"'bl-ct: (6.23)

r,: $1,1F* (6.24)

where 4 : diameter ofBteel pipe

{r : depth ofneutral a-xrs
z : ratio of modulus of elasticity for steel to modulus of elaBticity of
 lr = thickness ofsteel pipe
I = factor reflecting portion of steel pipe effective in canying tensile
forces; experimental data for square tub€s indicate that this fac-
tor can be assumedequal to 2; the same value is assumedfor pipe
columns
t4, : stless level in Eteelpipe at ultimate (( : 0.75)
6r = beam flange width
= yield stress ofpipe steel
4r
Using the ftee-body diagram of the upper cotumn shown in Fig. 6.28, Eqs.
(6.22) tl1e1g1 16.241,and satisfung vefiicat force equitibrium, the followi;g
equation is obtained:

d" 2a zyL 16.25)

Next, considedng the moment equilibrium of the free-body diagram of the
upper column shown in Fig. 6.28, the following expressioncan be deriveal:

t I oa ,t orl 2n ot,..
a -"1a. z"'''\" 5))-,r, r,,v {6.26)

where I, is the yield shess ofthe steet pipe, d is the mtio ofcolumn shear y-
to beam shear yd, and L is the ratio ofM" over y.
Eq. (6.26), ({, is tle stress levet th'e sreel iipe is allowed to approach at
_In
ultimate condition'. Based on experimentat data and until further iesearch is
conducted,it is suggestedthat a value of0.75 be used for t.
Equations'6.25, and '6.26' relare the e\rematl) appt;d fofce q diredly
and the externally applied forces
{ and M, indirecdy (through tire coeffr-
cients a and l,) to different connection paramerers-

Designapproach. Before proceeding with the steps necessary in desigTring

the through beam connection detail, additional equations are deriv-ed ti
ralate lhe shear qtressin lhF oeam wcb rirhin {beioinr ro Lhecompressive
forcein rhe concrFtecompression srrur and exre"nallydppliedforces.
Considering the free-bodydiagram ofa portion of the beam web within the
joint area as shown in Fig. 6.29 and satisfying the horizontal force equilibri_
um, the following equation is derived:

q.+qicosi0)+BC. (6.27
)
+=0
where Q, = rcsr11an1rf compreEsionstrut shown in Fig. 6.28
V, = shear force in beam web at ultimate condition
I : arctan (d.ld,)
d : b€am depth

Equations (6.25), (6.26), and (6.27) can be usealto propoftion the through
beam coEnectiondetaii.
 6,59

Tr
I

Figue 6,29 F.ee-body diagrm for a lortioD ofjoini

The following steps are suggested for designing the th?ough bea]n connec-
tion detail in the LRFD format:
L From alalysis.obtainfanoredjoint forc.s.
2. Select the following quantities: b1,d", Fr1.
3. Solving Eq. (6.26),obtain the depth ofthe neutml axis d.
4. Solving Eq. (6.25),obtain the rcqufed thickness t, of th€ pipe steel wa]l.
5. Check stress in diflerent connection elements.
6. Frcm vertical equilibrium rcquirement of the free-body diagram sho\a'n
in Fie. 6.29:
C
(6.28)
""
"t"(0)
Using Eq. (6.22),calculate C" and ther using Eq. (6.28) calculat€q,.
7. Using Eq. (6.27), calculate y., the shear force in the beam at ultimate,
and compare it to %,, the shear yield capacity of the beam web given by the
folowing €quation:

vq: 0.6Fr_t.d, (6.29)

where 1, = bean web yield shess

t,,, : thickness ofbea]n web

If necessary, incrcase the thickness of the web witlin the joint region. In
this design procedue the assumption is that at the factorcd load level, the
web stads to yield.
8. Check shear stress in concrete in the joint area. Taking the limiting
shear force y, as that suggestedby theACI-ASCE Committee 352,e6
 ChaplerSix

v":,bRA"^,r (6.30)

where d = 0.85
R:632,471, al,d 3'19for intedor, exterior, and cornerjoints, respec-
tively
A" = pfodlrct of eflective joint width, taken as 26l, and column diameter
d,
l. = concretecompressivestrength, ksi
It is suggestedthat the vatue of/. jn the expression \f t" t*tt"a to rO
ksi (69 MPa). The units ofq in Eq. (6.30)are kips.
The procedure described above should be vi€wed as a general guideline
until furlher research is carried out. It should be noted that the effect of a"rial
load in the column on performance ofthe connectionwas not conside"edbut
is believed to be consenative since compressivea-xialshessestend to inhibit
o p P n ; n og f c r a r L si n r h e j o i n r .

6.4.6 Filledcompositecolumnioint design

Design a through beam connection detail with the following geometry and
propernes:

6/ - 5.5in (139.7mm)
d, : 14.5in (368.3mm)
d" = 15.98in (406mm)
: 36 ksi (248.2MPa)
{,,
: 36 ksi (248.2MPa)
4,
t, = 0.25in (6.35mm)
(r : 0.85

l, : 32.0in (813mm)

% : 79.0kipE(351.4kN)
M, = 138.3ft'kips (187.5kN-m)
n=0.5
t = 0.75
n=1.3
l"-= 14ksi (96.5MPa)
 E" : 29,000ksi (200 cPa)

E" : 6,700 ksi (46 ePa)

The very high shength concrete, f. : 14 ksi, was chosen in the odginat design
to provide high stiffness. However, F- - 10 ksi was used in shength calcula-
tions.
Calculate o, the depth of the neuhal a.is. Equation (6.26) yields a fourth
degee pol,'nomial which can be sho.wn to have only one positive, real root.
For this example Eq. (6.26)yields

d 5.9 in
Calculate the rcqu ed thickness ofthe steel pipe using Eq. (6.25):

592 |
t '- n
" 4 "a i h
15.98 !2 5.9) 2 2 4.3 "

Usett = %in.
Check stresses in differcnt colrnection elements against their limit values.
Filst calculate tensile stmin in the steel tube.
't JE'
. - - 0 7 5 r c - 0.000931
" e. 29.00;-
Calculate/" usins Eqs. (6.18) and (6.19)

e:-L. = 5.9 x o . o o o 9 3:10 . 0 0 0 5 4 5

15.98- 5.9

/ : 0.000545x 6700 : 3.65 ksi </; : 10.0ksi O.K.

Calculate stressesin other connectionelements using Eqs. (6.20) and (6.21).
This yields
29.000 3.65 __ ^.
|" .- -- 67r,|, - 15.8ks- J, t 0.c5 . 36 - 30 6 kqi o.K.

4 , : 2 9 , 0 0 0x 0 . 0 0 0 9 =
3 12 7 . 0 k s i < o , a : 0 . 9x 3 6 : 3 2 . 4 k s i o.K.
Calculatecompressive
force in condete compression
strut using Eqs. (6.22)
and (6.28):
/ rac \
0:arctanlffiJ:a2.2'
/^.\
-' -l!.qlA
a o'
ar.
\"r i "ra" o*"
0.5.0.23. ss. *^5-9'- ^ 0.75.36
: 59.0kips
6.62 ChapterSix

a "t oyu : 87 8 kiPs

'":
az:
"i"e: "i"
CalculateV. usingEq. (6.27):
2Y,
V, - .'., cos0 fl,'-- O
dh

Y" + (87.8cos42.2)+ (0.5

2t1ts8.3tt2
59.0
74.5
I/, : 134.4 kips

From Eq. (6.29)the shear yield capacity of the beam is

y,r : 0.6 x 36 x 0.25 x 15.98= 86.3kips < 134.4kips

Since the shear yield capacity L' of the web within th€ joint is not suficient.
increasethe web thickness to
134.4 = 0.389in
0.6x36x15.98
Using t, - % in would result in less than 4 percent oveNtress; if4 percent is
not acceptable,a web plate thicker than % in must be used. The shear rorce
carried by concrete\i'ithin the joint b€tween the beam flanges is assumedto
be the hodzontal component qi.

l'" = C", cos 0

= 87.8cos42.2:65.0 kips

For the interiorjoint the shear capacity lEq. (6.80)l is

v, : i x 632/. 24t d"\.rf

V,' : D.as *!!1 ^ 2 ,. s.s x. ts.gs t. \/i :298.6 kips > 6b.okips o.IL
1UUU
Composite columns of the type described above have been found to De eco-
nomical in practical tall building designs.

6.4,7 Conneclionto sleel columns

Perhaps the most commontj4)e ofmomert connectionbetween a steel or com
posite beam and a wide-flange column is shown in Fig. 6.30.cr1
Figure 6.30a shows a connectionwith the beam flanEes welded to the col
umn flangewrth fuil-peretralionEroovpr"eld-. Thc rlpica 'velo ,oinr or rli,
tlpe lor a rolled beam can be expectedto sbrinh about Nf,in in the lenqth oi
thejoint prepararionwher ir coos ard cunrra.r-.Tick, r r^e d-. a" "or r ..o-
ed plate girder flanges, will shrintr even more up to ls or 346in.
This amount of shrinkage can cause problems in erection, on continuous
 6.63

CheckcolumnJorstifieringrequirements
(a)Columntlangesuppoi(

FrguE 6-30 Cohlosite beam to

steel coiumn mohent con.ec-
Ch€ckcolumnlor stiifening
requiremenis
(b)columnwabsuppo

runs, in maintaining conect centerline dimensions and in plumbing the

columns. This shdnkage can be conholled best by having the beams fabricat-
ed longer than required by the amount of expected sbdnlage. An optional
m€thod, indeasing the w€ld joint opening, Iequires additionat welding and
usually is not cost-effective.
The beam web is provided with a circular access hole to permit down-hand
welding to backing bars located at the bottom of the bottom flanse and the
uDderuide of Lhetop 0ange.The e),tpnsion bar. normalJyare nor remor.d at a
column connection unless they create all inteference or if the joint is subject
to d1'namic loading. This practice in cunently under sc|utiny in lieht of the
failurcs observed in the 1995 NorUrridge earthquake. The access hole should
be left open, i.e., not welded up.
It has been shown in full-scale laboratory t€sts that a beam,s plastic
momenl .apacitj M nan be fully developedwhen ii6flange.arp nrlly wFtded
to lhp columnJlang; and the beamweb is pirher bol{edor $eldcd Loa siDste-
plate rypeofspliceplareoesignedlor rhe beamshear.
The apparent increase in beam capacity above the flexure theory occurs
because of stlain hardening of the flanges, which provides tull transfer of dre
beam plastic moment to the support. The shear lorces are cauied by the
beam web and the web connection.
Connections of beams to the column webs are prcfembly made outside of
the cohrmn outstanding flanges in order to proyide adequate clearances for
welding and boltins (Fig. 6.306).The design ofthis connectionis fairly simple
and routine and is covered in AISC publications.Des
The details shown in Fig. 6.30 are adequate for connections subjected to
wind loads where shears are not expectedin the inelastic range. However for
severe cyclic shess excursions into the inelastic range, as might be expected
in high seismic zones, this detail is highly suspect, as showTl by the problems
expedenced in the 1994 Nodhridge €afthquake in Califomia. The brittle
nature of this reelded connection in large beam-column joints as shown by
pelformanc€ duing this earthquake has prcmpted a reexamination and new
testing for this true of connection when used in high seismic zones.Gel
Sometimes the engineer may desfue to incrcase the negative moment capac-
ity ofthe connection using reinforcing steel cast into the composite slab. This
could occur, for instance, ifb€am depth were restricted or additional mometrt
capacity was required \i'ithout wanting to increase beam size and tonnage.
The AISC specification states that the negative moment flerural strength
duM, shall be determined for the steel section alone or alternatively, the neg-
ative moment flexural strcngth 46M, may be computed with Oh:0.85 and
M, determined from the plastic stress distribution in the composite section,
prcvided that:

1. The steel beam is an adequatelyhaced compactsection.

2. Shear connectors conn€ct the slab to the steel beam in the nesative-
moment region.
3. Slab ?einforcement parallel to the st€el beam, within the effective width of
lhe slab.js properl)developed.

The flexural strength in the negative-moment region is the strcngth of the

steel b€am alone or the plastic strength of the compositesection made up of
the longitudinal slab reinforcement and the steel section.
When an adequately braced compact steel section and adequately devel-
oped longitudinal reinforcing bars act compositely in the negative-moment
region, the nominal flexuml shength is detemined flom the plastic stress
distdbutions shown in Fig. 3.19. The tensile force ? in th€ rcinforcing bals is
the smaller of

T:4.4"
T :2Q"
where 4 = area of prcperly developed slab reinforcement parallel to the steel
beam and within the effective width of the slab. in,
tr'". : specifred yield shess ofslab reinforcement, ksi
 6,65

- IQ, : sum of the nominal shengths of shear connectors between points

of maximum negative moment and zero moment to either side,
kip"

A third theoretical limit on T is the prcduct of the area and yield strcss of the
steel section. However, this limit is redrmdajlt in view of practical limitations
on slab rcinforcement and shear connectors.
The longitudinal slab steel should be kept within a colu1nn stdp of six col-
urnn flange widths arld should extend at least t2 in (0.S m) past th€ theoreti-
cal point of inflection. The bar size should be kept 6mall tl€s; tbar a #Z), and
at least three bam on either side of the column should be used. Steel should
be pmvided (#3 at 12 in) in the perpendicular direction and extended at least
12 in past the negative reinforcing steel bars.

6-5 Semirigid Connectionse?r21,r25

6.5.1 Conceptof semhigidconnections

Tladitionally, beam-column connections have been categodzed as being either
simple connections where ideal hinge behavior is assumed and the connection
is proportioned for shear only, or fully rigid moment conn€ctions where ideal
rigid behavio? is assumed and the connection is Droportioneil for both shear
and moment.The desigrrof rheseconneflions$a; discussedin lhe previous
sections. The concepts of simple and fully rigid connections are ideal simplifi-
cations oltrue behavior made to simpli$' the analysis in the design process.
Recently, the concept ol semirigid composite connections has been devel-
oped. lhe additional strcngth atrd stiffness Fovided by the floor slab is acti
vated by adding shear studs and slab reinforcement in the nesative-moment
region of Lheslab adjacentto lhe columns,wbjte ar rhp same rime usine a
seal angleand double-angle qhFarconnectionto the $ pb.This connecrion, fil-
ting into the category of t]?e PR constmction, as defined bv the AISC LRFD
bpecificarion. is a !pry economjcal solulionsnd simpleexreniionola oracrical
conneclionin commonpracricp| fig. 2.6..Severaladvanrag"sca]l be cired lor
this connection t]?e:

1. ReductioD in short- and long-term deflections, cracking, and vibmtions

inherent in many modern composite floors pmportioned by limit states meth,
ods using high-strength steels.
2. Reduction in effective length of columns as a result o{ connection
restraint.
3. PR composite connections can provide the rcquired latelal stiffness for
unbraced frames up to 10 stories for design governed by winal or modemte

4. They can be detailed to limit iheir shength, so that prcblems with local
buckling of beam flanges near connections, shear yielding of the column panel
zone, and fonnation ofweatr column-strcns beam mechanisms can be avoided.
 Chapt€rSix

5. Reduction in overall shuctural steel costs because of lighter beams and

colu]nns. Connection reshaint can be added at very low added cost dedved
from a small increase in the size of lraning angles, an incrcase in the number
of shear studs, and a small number of rcinforcing barc in the slab over the

6.5.2 Designol floorframingfor gravityloads

As an illustration of the pdnciples discussed in the previous section, the
design and analysis method for composite semidgid connections proposed by
Leon and Alnmerma]1l'zs will be presented in detail, with reference to a non-
s$ray braced composite ftame. The method is based on the lollowing assump-
tions:
The compositejoint folm is that shown in Fig. 2.6, consisting ofweb angles
to transmit shear, and one seat angle and slab reinforcing steel to transmit
bending. The samejoint is used at both ends ofthe beam.
For this type of joilt, design to two shength levels is discussed. A joint is
here considered strong if capable of transmitting a bending moment equal to
the plastic capacity olthe steel bea]n alone at a rotation less than 5 millira-
dians. An intermediate joint will al]ow about one-half of the beam plastic
moment capacity to be hansmitted at a rotation less than 10 mill adians.
Unshored construction is assurned.This means that the joints behave as
pinned beforc the concrete hadens, and that the basic dead load is applied
at this stage.
The joints frame into the stlong axis of the colulnn. The coluinn satisfies
shear yielding cdteria \'.ithout requiring stifYeners.

A very important pr€liminary step in the design procedwe is the arbitrary

selection of the degree of fixity desired at the colu]nns. For optimum semi-
rigid design, in fact, the moments at the support alrd at the centerline should
be the same (PIu/6 or nulo'/16), if the section is sFnmetical and homoge,
neous. Composite beam cross section is n€ither symmetrical nor homoge-
neous. Therefore, upper and lower bounds and suggested values for some
commonloading casesol compositebeams are listed ir Table 6.1.
The desigr, to some ertent, is controlled by the number ofboits that can be
attached to the bottom flange ofthe beam. It will be assumed that for practi-
cal reasons that limit is six bolts (three on each side of the web). The joint
should be s.pected to be siip-critical at sen ice loads.
The slab is considered as effective in tension. in that it can mobilize the
tensile resistance of longitudinal reinforcing bars, for a breadth equal to
sevencolumn flange widths-
The exterior colurnn joint in the fTa]ne is desiet}ed and detailed as a simple
joint. Thus the exterior spans are pinned at one end and partially rcshained
at the other
TABIE6.1 Fangeof End Momentsfor DitterentLoadinosrt

Mt,. Mr." M* M
\"
ffiw uz,': tLr" .L; .Lt *Li uL: uL:
12 24 3a4EI" 8 21E1" 341 r4t%
"
PL' PLt PLi
8 8 I"E\ -
4 '681" 4AEI" ro ]ll
PL, sPLl PLt PL^ PL,
_J!
I 64821" 3 643EL
"E\
PLi PL, PL, PL.
16 9681" 2 S'EI. 384E1
DL, PL, L3PLi SPLr 6aPr,l :::1!,^::L
55 5 20 "" t0

d = hiddp$ defleciion

t = modulus of€la6iicity ofstocl

l. = Doment of in rtis of composilesection
Strbsdilts: /e = nreil en&,6s = simple supports, sr = semirigid joihrs, e = at end of s!h, c = ar cenrer ofsph

The follo$ring steps are rcqu ed fol desiBr:

1. Calculate design moments M". due to factored conshuction loads, and the
design dead-loadmoments M; assuming simpte supports. The self-weight
of the girder and floor beam"sis assumed to be inctuded in the oveiatl
dead loads.Appropriate rcsistance{acto$ should be selectedfor the steel
beams as well as for the composite beams; in the franework of AISC
LRFD specifrcations,Dsr the values 0.90 and 0.85, r€spectively, arc sug-
gest€dfor the resistancefactor d.
2. €elect the degree of restraint desircd by assuming the amount ofthe fac-
r o r c dl ; v F l o a d m o m e nU r . " . d e s i r e ad r t h e s u p p o n s , T a b t6e. t , O n r e M -
has becn chosenlhc facroredmomenlar r1e cenrerM _ can be compuled
a s I h e d i f f e r c n c eb e l $ e e n t h e u l t i T a l e s i m p l y s u p p o r r e df a c i o r e d
moment.Md and Mae. For exterior bays M," is the difference between M,"
and M""/2.
3. SeJecta compositebeam ro car[, M . basedon d cLpclbeam capablFof
!u.n-C.44.. wilhout reachingrrs plasr:ccapacirj aro i,l, rirhour yietd-
rnc.
4. Choosea seat angle based on the area ofthe angle leg A" being capabteof
traNmitting the total required horizontal lorce 1i_ on the bottom aiEle
dete?minedas
6.68 ChaplerSix

M
(6.31)

i.e., assuming a lever arm equal to th€ steel beam depth d. plus the di€-
tance y, from the top of the beam to the center of the slab fo?ce, which
may be differcnt for positive and negative moment. T:Lrus,

(6.32)

where -q. is the yield strcss ofthe seat angle and the 1.33 factor is adopt-
ed in ord€r to ensure that the elab reitrforcing steel, which is also
designed on the basis ofthe horizontal force }1", yields first.
For contrection purposes the angle needs to be at least as wide as the
beam flange; therefore, s€lect an angle width l" at least equal to the
beam flange width 6f and determine the angle thickness ,. as

'"7 (6.33)

5. Compute the amount of slab reinforcement A. based on the force 11. anil
the reinforcing steel yield strength
+
(6.34)

The longitudinal slab steel should be kept within a column strip less
than or equal to si-.. column flange widths and should extend at least 12
in (0.3 m) past the point of inflection. The bar size should be kept small
(less than a #7), and at least three bars on either Eide of the columD
should be used- tansve$e steel should be provided at each column lilre
and should extend at least 12 in outside the column strip.
6. Determine the moment capacity for the joint designed above at ser-vice
and ullimate by using the fomulas propoBed by Leon and Forcie/36 for
negauve moments.
For serwice loads the moment capacity M. is given by

M" = 0.17(4A,F!,+ A^F!"\d" + Y,) (6.35)

while for ultimate the moment capacity M is given by .q

M,: 0.245(44.F!"+ A"F!"\.d" + Y2) (6.36)

Equations (6.35) and (6.36)rcpresent nominal moments. To obtain design i

moments, they should be multiplied by the appropriate rcsistanc€ factor- E
Resistance factor d : 0.85 is recommended when the AISC LRFD
specifi cationDer is used.
The complete moment-?otation curve is given by

M(0):q(1 -e no)+cao (6.37)

 Designot Joints 6,69

whereC,: A,4"(.d."+ Y2)

A = Cz = 32.9(A./4)a 15(d"+ yz)
ca=24F""A-(4+Y,)
0 = rotation,mdians
7. Tb checklhe comparibilirJcondi{ionseveral t€chniques are used. The
two simplestare discuss€d
here:
o. As6umeDhaiIhe servrceabilitJ conditionwij I beredchedat aroration
ol 2.5 milliradian..and lhe ulrimale ar t0 m; imdians.For thesevdl
ues of 0 compute the moments ftom Eq. (6.37). If the moments
obtained exceed those required, the connection is satisfactory.
.
&. Developa beamlin€forrhe beam,FjC.6.J1wirhrhegirenloadingcon
c!troncby catculaiingthe fr\ed_eEd momentM/ and simply suppo,led
rchaion e. for both ser.vice and factorcd live toids. I,or Jerior'sparrs
with the exterior connection pinned, the moment at the end of
a
prcpped cantil€ver should be used in place of the flxed_end
moment to
achieve compatibility at the interior connection. An estimate of1_
can be
obtained by using a weighted avemge ofmoments ofinertia in tire posi-
tlve-moment region and negative-moment r€gion, e.g., frorn the tables
of lrB given on pages 5-9 and S-50 to 5-65 in the LRFD Manual.Dn
Approximately 60 percent ofthe spall is subjected to positive moment in
rntedor spaN. Therefore,it is suggestedto use Eq. (5.1).

Find the rotations (e^ or 0.r) at the inte$ection of the beam line
- s.ith
ttre moment-rotation curve for service and factorcd loads. This
can be
done graphically or anal),tically. The tatter involves solving the equations

M(u =M^(1
- (6.38)
") €_J

Fisure6,31 Beuiinc vq. comectior cwe.pr

6.70 ChapierSix

/ a\
Mrc,l=Mr\I- (6.39)
\:)
8. Check the stresses in the composite section due to unfactored loads.
Und€r the arbitmry point in time concept the expected live load is half of
the full live load. Therefore, a reasonable stress check rather than full
live plus dead load is
1.2oD+ 0.51',< 0.94 (6.40)
This check ensues that yielding does not occur under sewice loads.
L Design the web angles for maximum factoled shear as a bearing-twe
connection. Select the size of the bolts in the web connections to match
those in the beam flange to avoid confusion during erection.
10. Calculat€ dead-load dellection for cambering, and service load deflections.
11. To ensure complete composite action, supply the rcquired number of
shear connectom in the beam. This procedure shouid also work with par,
tially composite s€ctions, which would allow a rcduction in the numb€r ol
studs, but no experimental data have been gathered on the effecL or pd-
tial shear connection on the connection moment mtation characteristics.

This design method waB developed for typical floor framing ofbuildings and
has several limits of applicability. Most of these limits come from uncertainty
ofthe connection moment rotation beha\/ior The method shoutd not be used
for spans long€r than about 50 ft (15 m), for beams deep€r than W27, and for
beams with flange thicknessesgreater than 0.8 in (20 rnnl). The last limita-
tion is based on the presumption that for beams with very thick flanges it
would be difficult to develop the force in the bottom flange with a seat angle
bolted to the flange.

6.5.3 Semirigidconnectiondesignlor gravily loads

The design procedure describedin Sec. 6.5.2 is illustrated with a numerical
example lor a braced frame with semirigid composit€ connections.
The general layout ofthe structure is given by Fig. 6.32. The typical girder
to be designed is located along columr line B and is limited in depth to 18 in
(0.46 m). The span is 30 ft (9 m) and the beams are spacedat 10 lt (3 m). The
matedals are A572 steel with yield stress of 4 : 50 ksi (345 MPa) for the
girder, A36 steel with 4 = 36 ksi (248 MPa) loithe connectionangles, grade
60 steel with F = 60 ksi (413 MPa) for the reinforcing bars, and a lightweight
condete with t compressive shength /- : 3.5 ksi (24 MPa). The beams have a
t?ibutary area 01240 ft'z (22 m'), and the loading for the girders is simulat€d
by point loads at the third points.
Design a typical interior bay using the following data:

Sr = serwice dead load : 60 lb/ff

i', : factored dead load - r.2 x 60 = 72lvft2

 6,71

F r@2zh I
F i g u E 6 , 3 2l b ^ J n o o r l d \ o . l o r d p s , c nc r r
I.e

S, : service live load - 100 lbfft,

i', : factored live load : 1.6 x 100 : 160 lb/fi,

P, = point load on girder due to service dead load : 14.40 kips

P, - point load on girder due to servicelive load = 24.00 kips

PDf : factored PD : 24 x 10 x 72 - 1?.28 kips

PLf : fa.t$edPL:24 x 10 x 160 = 38.40 kips

P/ = factorealpoint load on gtuder : 1?.3 + 38.4 : 55.? kips

Th€ floor slab is made with lightweight concrete of 110 lbfft3 and is S in thick,
including 2-in formed st€el deck. Thus the weight ofwet conuete is about 40
lb/ft'?, and the conshuction loads are:

S", : constr-uction dead load : 60 lb/{t,

t'", : factored construction dead load : 1.2 X S"D:721b/ft2

6,72 Chapler
Six

S"r : construction live load = 20 lb/fl'

: factored coastructlon live load : 20 x 1.6 = 32lvft'z
4,
,'? : factored construction loads :4, + 4, : 104lb/fr?

P"/: factored construction point load on girder - 24.96 kips

The maximum moment M"r duing construction is 249.6 ft-kips (resisted by

the steel section aione), and the ma-rimum centerline moment at ultimate M-
is 556.8 ft-kips (rcsisted by the compositesection).The W18x46 is the light-
est W18 shape that €an resist these moments. For this section with full com-
posite action +Mp" = 611 ft-kips, so partial composite actior could be used
with tQ,, = 492 kips and SM"" - 569 ft-kips. With this choice ol partial com'
posite action the rcquired number of %-in shear studs is 50 for the entirc
span. The service-load defl€ction for this beam iE 0.82 in, or about /441.
The design of braced steel lia]Tle utilizing semirigid composite connections
entails the foflowing steps descdbedin Sec.6.5.2.

Step 1. Calculate desigr moments M.I and MD:

Ptl _zt.g6xBoxtz
M" : 2995 in-kips
33
Porl r7.28xBox12
: 2074 in-kips

step 2. Calculate the factored live-load moment -44,, destued at the supporls
and the factored moments M," and M," for a simply suppoded beam (se€
Table 6.1):
P'.rI 3 8 . 4 x 3 0 x 1 2
M : 1536in-kips
9 I
EI 55.7x30x12
M"" : 6684 in-kips

M* - M*:6684 1536= 5148in-kips

Step 3. Assuming A572 steel (4 : 50 ksi; 345 MPa), the rcquied elastic sec-
tion modulus S. and plastic section modulus 4 for the steel beam are
M-, 2074
"4
M, 2995 - o o o t n "
'-
6"F"- o9- 50
The lightest W18 which meets these criteria is a W18 x 35, with S" = 57.6
in3,Z" : 66.5 in3, and gMr," = 5628 in-kips.
 As fbr most casesofunshored constluction, the construction loads are going
to detemine the beam size. Although reasonable values of construction Ioadi
were assi]rned in this example, the composite section is still mu€h stronger
than needed
An alternate method for design is to find the 6teel section requ eal for tbe
construction loads and prcvide sulficient end restraint so the compositesec_
tion with this steel shape is sufficient fo" the fult loads. This can be
e4)ressealas

M,.:+:+Mt_
This equation is subject to the limit M,," < 1.2M,. ff this limit is exce€ited. a
larger beam section is required, and construction loads do aot control tie
design. This is the case when the ratio of fult load to construction loaal is
greater than the ratio of 4'M,"/6..M
".
Step4. From Eq. (6.31),takinC y, as 4.1 in,
M 1536 :
70.5kips
d."+Y2 77.7+ 4.1
The limit on Il, imposed by the friction force capable of being hansmitted by
bolts to the angles is 158 kips. Thus i0.5 kips governs. From-Eq. (6.S2)using
yield stresst'" ofthe seat angle:

A __133H" t.33.70.5 _.
".,
The comection is slip-critical for the unfactored liveload moment. Usine si..
b o h s a n d o b s c r v i n gr h a t l h e l i v e - l o a df a c t o r i b t . 6 , r h e r e o u i " e ds i e a r
s{rengrh ofeach bol aL servicc Joadis
-- H _ l ;?;n_<z . J a k i e s
y,
r.e.o
Fmm AISC LRFD ManualDet Table 8-16 the design resistance to shear at ser_
vice loads of one %-in-diameter A32g bolt is ?.51 kips. Use sj_.r%_in AB2g
bohs.
Since six bolts are rcqufued for the connection, the angl€ l€g along the beam
Bhould be about I in long. For connection purposes thJ angie needs to be at
least as wide as the beam flange (W18 x 3b, 6. - 6.0 in)i ttercfore. select an
angle width I, of 6.0 in. The requircd thickndss of the anEte, based on the
minimum widl,hof6 in. is catcula{edfrom Eq. !6.J3,:

. A" 2.6r
0.435 - 1/16
in
" t" 6.0
The smallest thickness available in a g-in angle is % in; thereforc, the seat
angle_is a 6.0-in-long L9 x 4 x % connectedwith six %_in.{325 firly tight_
enedbolts.Altemately,onecan use a 6.0-in-longL6 x 4 X Z6 wiih four %_in
A490bolts.
6.74 ChapterSix

step s. CalculateA, from Eq. (6.34)for slab steel yield strength Fe : 60 ksi:

' H" 705

l.l8 m

This rcquircs 6#4 bars (1.20 in') or 4#5 bars (1.24 in"). Because the intent is to
yield the slab st€el first, care must be taken not to pmviale an excess amount
of slab steel. The 6#4 bars v/ill be selected here. The total area is 1.20 in'?.
For best efnciency these should be erouped within a strip equal to 7 times the
column flange width, or 84 in ifa W12 column is assumed.

Step 6. Calculat€ the moment capaciw of the connection at ser-vice and ulti-
mate loads. Using Eq. (6.35)with O = 0.85,A. : 1.2 in'9,and Aa : 0.5 x 6.0 :
3 in', the serwicedesign moment is

+M"= 0.a5\ 0.r7(44,F + A"F!"X4+ Y,)

"
: 0 . 8 5 x 0 . 1 7 x ( 4 x 1 . 2x 6 0 ) + ( 3 x 3 6 ) l ( 1 7 . 7 + 4 . 1 )
M
= 124l rn-krps> : 1536:
1_6 1.6 960in-kips

The ultimate moment capacity M, is given by Eq. (6.36). As the only ditrer-
enc€between Eqs. (6.35) and (6.36) is their numerical coeffrcient,the ulti-
mate moment capacity may be computed as
6 14\
aM,- fMs:::': - 1247 "d"it' 1797 |u:,-kips M- - ls36 in-kips

Since both the service- and ultimate-load capacities exceed the required
moments, the design is adequate.Ifthe required moments were not satisfied,
then it would be necessary to either go back to step 2 and assume a smaller
value for M* or increase the strcngth of the connection in steps 4 and 5.

step 7. l\'o simple techniques are illushated below for checking the compat-
ibilitv
1. Calculate the moment from Eq. (6.37) assuming that ihe serr'rceability
condition iB reachad at the rotation 0 of 2.5 milliradians and the ultimate at
10 milltuadians:

Cr: 4F,,(d" + Y,) = 1.20x 60(1?.7+ 4.1) = 1570in-kips

A = 32.e1+I (d" + Y2)

: szo(a!:!!)''izr sr= szr

 D€signol Joints 6.75

C : 24\"A"(d. + Y") = 24 x 36 x 3 x 21.8: 56,500in-kips

"
For 0 : 0.0025
1 e Ar:I -e 13'z3!ooo2t:0.8?3

4,M,5: 0.85(0,873C1
+ Cao)
: 0.85t(0.873
x 1570)+ (56,500x 0.0025)l
: 1285in-kips > 956in kips

andfor0:0.01
1 eAo=1 e o23roo1)=1.0

= 0.851(1.0
01.110 x 1570)+ (56,500x 0.01)l
= 1815in-kips > 1536in-kips

Sincethe momentsobtainedfrom Eq. (6.3?)exceedthosercqutued,the con-

nection is satisihctory
2. Calculate the fixed-end moment M, and the simply supported mtation 0"
for both serr.iceand factored live loads. For two factored conc€nhated loads
placed at the third points of the span, the moment at the frxed end of a
prcpped cantilever is
2P,.t 2x38.4 x30 /.12 :
n9 3072in-kips

Compute 1" +om Eq. (6.38)usingAISC LRFD Manual,Drsp. 5-60.Assuming

that the plastic neuhal axis is in the top flange, the lower-bound moment of
inertia for W18 x 35 and y,:4 in is 1360 ina for the bottom flange in the
positive-moment region. For the steel section alone in the negative-moment
region the moment of inertia is 510 ina. Assuming a modemte allowance for
slab r€inforcement, the lower bound moment of inefiia in the negative-
moment rcgions is estimated at 655 ina. Using Eq. (5.1),

1. = 0.6 x 1360 + 0.4 x 655 - 1078 in4

Tlle simly supported end rotations and the serviceload flxed-end moment a.re

- P"rI" 88.+x. zo,t. ua : 17.7 x 10 r mdian

gEI" 9x29,000x1078

2PLI 2 x 2 4 t B Ot 1 2 -
1920in-kips
9

9EI
=ffin.t 1 03 : 1 1 . 1x 1 0 3r a d i a n
"
6.76 Chtpt€rSix

The rotations (0., or 0"r) at the inte$ection of the beam line with tlle conlrec-
tion moment-rotation curwe for service and factor€d loads are found by solv-
ing Eqs. (6.38) and (6.39). Frcm the $aph in Fig. 6.31, e.":0.0024 radian
and er: 0.0065 radian. Find the service a]ld factorcd live-Ioad moments as
M10::= rsro/r 999?1) = rsosin-kips
ur.,-u" u"" 0.uirt
\ /
-
au:mo : sor(' ffi) : *o*--r.'o"
ff
anal rccalculate the factored moment at centerline:

'.-,* 1l B i . 1t l o t r 2
1944 = 4740 in-kips
'-Mrr 3
This is less than th€ 5630 in-kips that the W18 x 35 with a s-in slab can
carry as a compositesection,atrd thus the sectionis satisfactory

step 8, Checkthe shessesin the sectionalueto ulfactored loads:

Pol r4.4 Bo . 12 ^- -.
= = dr'u ksr
", 3s: a <5t$-
(PLU') M"l
%: s,
So can be approximated fron the table of1r, in tlp LRFD ManualDe5for full
composit€ action by the equation
I"u 1360
+ 0.5Y2 0,75x 17.7+ 4.1x O.5
o.73d,

t(24 . 30 t I2rl31- 1505

" 887
This gives a total stress under unfactorcd loads of 45.5 k-si,which is less than
the nominai yield stress of 50 ksi. The liveload shessesgiven are for the full
live load. Under the arbihaly point in time conceptthe expectedlive load is
halfofthe tull live 1oad.Thercfore, a reasonableshess check,rather than tulI
live plus deadload,is
1.26D+ 0.501: (1.2x 30) + (0.5x 15.5)= 43.8k€i < 0.9.F: 45 ksi
Thus the W18 x 35 is satisfactory for this case.

Step9. Design connectionweb anglesusing %.in A325 bolts with theads in

the shear plare. The maximum shear is

q:E=ffi:z+ano"
 Destgn
ofJoints 6.77

Checking for beadng and shear on the beam web, the number of bolts is
found as

-=
'-o
v" 74.A
2.4F,dt 2.4 65 0.75\ 0.3

: = o75lf4i : 1.66
",
Thereforc, tbree bolts"r#h-
are required. Checking beadng on the angles, we can
find the angle thickness r.l

74.3 = 0.237in
" ' \'
2.4F,nbd 2.4x58x3x0.75
Therefore, a %-in angle is suJficient. Based on clearance anal minimurn ilis-
tances,belpcla pair of4 \ 4 '.
angLe.8.5 in long for rhe \aeb.
The FsLs on ,whi.h this melhod is basedall had a minirrum oI rhr"e bolrs
{br the connection of the web angles to the beam; therefore, it is not recom_
mended to use a lor rer number ofbolts.

step'10. Calculate dead-loadand seruicelive-load deflections:

23PDts
64881"

23x14.4x303x1728
648x29,000x510

5P,13 I o 5x24x303x1728
\- 64881- 4 648x29,000x1078

+ (0.25x 30 x 12 x 0.0024)= 0.49in

Ttfs live-load deflection is equal to l/2A1, much lower than the largest accept_
alle l/360. This is as expected for beams with semirigid composlte connec_
tions. The small serviceJoad deflection suggests that r,ibration problems are
likely to be minimized.

Slep 11. The negative moment at the support is 1949 in-kip and the Dositive
moment under rhe poin! loadsis 4740 in-tup.This imptiesihar the irflecrion
point $ril be 35 in from the end. From the AISC LRFDManuat p. b-44,
>g" :
515 kips in the positive-momcntregion. which will require iiAy_L*o.._;n
dramelcrstudcoverthe center290 in. ln the negative_moment region,
>Q" - A,F!, : r.2 x 60 = 72 kips
which will rcqu e four studs in the end 35 in. One stud everv 6 in over the
5.78 ChapterSlx

enttue span will be suf&cieni. NorE: Discount the value ofthe stud by 25 per-
cent because ofthe single stud per row.
For this example the use of semidgid composite connections rcsulted in a
beam selection of W18 X 35 with sixty % in shear studs, as opposed to the
W18 X 46 with 6fty %-in shear studs required if the beam were designed as
simply supported. The savings of24 percent in w€ight is offset by Z0 percent
increase in the number ofshear studs and the addition of 1.20 in, of rcinforc-
ing at each end of the span. This small amount of reinforcing raay have been
provid€d also in the simply suppoded beam design in ord€r to reduce the
amount of c?acking in the conffete slab at the colu]nns. The major difference
is in the ser-viceload deflections, for which the semidgid composite beam
gives 1431 versus l/441 for the simply supported one.

6.5.4 unbracedframeswith semtigid connections

The connection described in the previous section can also be used for
unbraced frames up to about 10 6tories. In lrames in which the lat€ral load-
ing is large when compared to the $ayity loading, the connections will expe-
rience moment reversal and be loaded under positive moment. In this case it
is des able to detail the connection so it has stiffness in the positive,moment
rcgion similar to that in the negative-moment region. This requires increas-
ing the area (and especially the thickness) of the seat angle and increasmg
the area olthe web angles. It is recommendedto provide a s€at angle area of
1.5 times that required for negative moments and increase the size ofthe web
angles by 50 percent from that requircd for shear. These increases are needed
because the connection angles have different behavior when loaded in tension
from that when loaded in conplessron.
Semirigid composite frames have much better behayior than other semi,
rigid frames when subjected to combined gravity and lateral loads. cenemlty
semirigid conn€ctions are very nonlinear, but semirigid composite connec-
tions have nearly linear behavior in the service r€gion, and the complete
moment rotation curve can be modeled quite acculately with a trilinear cune
approximating Eq. (6.37).
The calculation of &ifi for sericeability requires a second-order analvsis
because of the semirigid nature ol the connections. Usually for frames less
than 10 stories the P-A moments are small, and mary designem do not per-
form second-orderanalvsis lor these stluctules. When the connections are
semirigid, however, the d itB associated with even these low-dse strucures
can be substantial and the P-A moments can become signifrcant. For this rea-
son it is recommended that a second-order analysis be used for all stmdurcs
with semirigid connections.
A check should be made for the adequacy of the connections. Il any connec-
tion rotation is greater than 0.020 radian, the connectionshould be stiffened.
It is very unlikely a ftame which meets atl serviceabilitv €riteria could have
connection rotations this ]arye. If the moment at any connection is greate?
than the assumed moment, that connection must be strenethened. If the
 ftame is adequate,the final design ofthe connectionscan be done. Th€ num_
ber of bolts required can be detemined lrom the laryest moment at the con_
nection, as the stifness olthe connection.pdor to stip, is not affected by the
number of bolts.
If the preliminary frame design proves to be too flexible or fails due ir_rsla,
bility, the frame must be stifened. This can be done in several ways. The
least expensiv€ way is to increase the stiffness of the connections bv increas_
ing the size of the connection angles and th€ amount of reinforcins which is
conlnuous acrossthe slab. lf the connecr:onc have ceachedtheir maximum
size€nd drift is stilt too large, then the framing memben must be stleng1h,
ened. If the depth of the beam is increaseal, this will also increase the
sbength and stiffness of the connections,or else the stiffhess ofthe coluons
can be in$eased, either by using d€epercolumns ofthe same nominal weieht
or by using heavier cotumns of the same depth.

6.5.5 Stub-gkdercolumnconnections
The stub gider system was developed in 1970 as an inte$ated str-uctwal
and mechanica] floor ftaming system for office buildinqs.D[,DalAn elevauon
ofa truical stub girder is shown in Fig. 6.98. The stub girder usually consists
of W14 bottom chord utilizing A5Z2-80 steel and shop_attachedstub pieces
which vary in length from approximately B to 6 ft (0.9 to 1.S m). The girder
frames between buitding columns and is shored durinq construction. Floor
beams span transversely between gitlers alrd are spacedbetween 8 ald 15 ft
(2.4 and 4.6 m) on centerc. Corrugated steel deck 1% to g in (38 to 76 nr]I)
deep spans betwe€n the floor beams, and the assembly is compieted by the
placement of shear studs, reinforcement, and a concrete slab. More imorma_
tion on the stub-girder system can be found in Chap. 3.
Structurally, the behavior of the stub girdei is similar to that of a

Semill9hn4eiqht
concrele

xv,t-1
,s,pans5x3/40

L
-- n ffnnwnnnnnnnn Y I | -
f
153/4 5,,,,u;'il/ w,u.,o
119'6 l2+*
- \
t

11 0'

Flsure6,33Elevalioroftull-sizesrubCiderD.
"'-_i1
6.80 Chapter
Six

Viereadeel girder with a concr€te slab as compression top chord, a high-

strength steel bottom tension chord, and steel stubs as vedicals. Hence the
utilization of concrete and steel to their optimum material shengths ?esults
in sayings in cost. This section concenhates on the end connection ofthe stub
gider io its supporting column. Consideration is given to the simple shear
connection for canying $avity loads only, as is most olten the case. and also
the special case where the stub girder is connected to the coiumn with a
moment connectior to provide continuity for carrying superimposed floor
loads or to cany lateml frame loads.
T)"icaly a stub gid€r is connected to its suppor-ting columtr to calry only
$ayity loads in pure shear (Fig. 6.33). The bottom chord of the girder is provid-
ed $/ith a standard double-angle lramed beam web connection prcportioned for
direct shear only. The connection may be either welded or bolted and is
designed accoding to standard AISC practices. The top slab is usually provided
with an a]}gle or channel seat support to the colulnn. Often the slab is doweled.
These connections are consistent with the usual Vierendeel analvsis ofthe stub
girder The bottom chord and top slab rs assumed to be pinned to the column.
An altemative connection to the column has been oroposed as shown rn
Fig. 6.34. This configuration has several advantagei, including a deeper
space lbr the end connection to the column, more room available for studs on
the end stub, and more dtuect space avaitable at the girder end, permitting
berrerinregrarionof buildingseryices.
In wind-resisting systems, the design of the girder column connections is
one of the critical aspects of the design. The furdametrtal problem is the
moment transfer at the column-girder intedace. For relatively large
moments, the solution is to extend the first stub piece to the coh]rnn face as
shom in Fig. 6.35. The top flange of the stub piece and the bottom flange of
the W14 gtuder are welded to the colunrn, as in a t].!'ical moment connectlon.

*l'i*f' '^
A w e l d sa r e s / i b n l b l .

3', 33h"

6"
a1h' 4" 11"

f- 1116^tr rrru
wtz +o tl*"

Fisures.3a Moiulied end comcction.

Fisure6.3s Moment rcsistins stub eirder.s

lhe design ofthe connection,therefore, is identical to that

ofany other beam-
to-column moment connection.carc 6h""1d be
tem.is checkedatong irs full length for the crifi"rf""";Jd;ffi"';;*
wlnd-loacttmces.Dependinguponthe magnitude
*-;".ti* ci."i;; """ ."a
ofreversatofstrisses"duero
"i
wlnd load,the bracineofthe hoftomchordmay be necessary
The modeiused
for the analysis is a simulated Vierendeelt"ri" *fr"*
trr"'-""rJ;
the bottomsteetpieceare simulate.las linear "1";;""
subdividedinto severalvedical elements.Th" "1";;;;;;;;;;;il;;*
gl."ity- ,"d *r;;b"J"?".". "
forcesand momentsa.e then intrcatuceatas toJ
,J#;;il;;*l
forccsand momentsin eachsecrionof the stub ";*;,
,;;;;",;"JAli;"
of the girder arc then checkedfor combinedaxirfcr.d". r"-"",
by the AISC and ACI codes.The controlling s*ti"" f". tr,""h""i-r"i 'i" _]"#."r"
the cnd orrhe firsr blub piecefarthestfrorqthe ei"";"ft,
cotumtr. "t.t "r
ln the casewhere the wind moments are small, an
alternate aletail shown
in Fig. 6.86is possible.In rhis case,the mom""t t;;f*;fi;";;"
il.,
?lace thrcush the concreteslab and the W14 ;i;;#
be attached to the colurm either by tong defo"_"a "t""1 J"..
";;i;;"d; t"
ing bars wetded to the column. Ia the ;efom"a .ir"ii,"_
.r""*"a"
*"a,""T,l,"r"?i""]"g
bam are generalty ptaced alongsidethe studs to transfer"t"J" the i;"" *"i-irr"
endof rhesrubs.tn rhecaseoiexiremebto$ wind rn"rn"",.,
iri"', j" **,
ble to desisn the liame utilizing rhe girder with d,ff;;;;;;;;"-Jii;i,
at its two ends
At the end where the concreteslab is in comprcssion,
the fidl depth olsec_
tion is us€d (the slab width is reducedto ti," *iatr,'.ii["
whereasar the orher etrd, th€ moment of ine.ti_ rl""t,
"J"T"
trr" Wli-i"ti,rn'"1"i?"_
tion is considered alone. "r

Beam-to-Wall
Connections
In mid-.and high-risebuildings,concreteshear walls
are ofl€n used to Dro_
vide resistanceto lateral wind analseismic1""a". f.."q"""tfy,
ti" .."frii."i"._
al layout is such thar corridors or tobby acces"t" th"
rng requirewalts to be separatedor intenupt€a ty r*g" ";;;;;i:;.;;th";h_
op".ing" ir.il. o.jil.
1,roma structural standpoirt, the overall pedormance
ot dre-tater-al_toaa_
 ChapterSix

Reiniorcingbar =---\ -.'-,/

weidto co
llanqe p,l-
t\

Figure 6.35 Wind-resisting stub-glrder ftlm€ cs

resisting system can be dramatically improved if tltese walls are "coupleat"

mther than act independently. This coupling, while improving the ]ateral
stiffness, puts a large shear demand on the coupling element, whether steel
or reinforced concrcte.
Properly desigred coupled walls have many desirable eadhquake-resistant
design featurcs. Large lateral stiffness and sheneth can be achieved. The
eneryy dissipation can be controlled to occur over the height of the building in
the coupling beams rathe! than concentrating it prcdominantly at the four-
dation level. Postearthquake repair costs car be reduced, as damage in the
coupling beams may be kept within tolerable limits. Considedne these
 6.83

Et&aron
Fisue 6.37 Ple ad elevation of a multisrory buitdnrg.lr

advantages,seismic design ol sfuuctural walls coupled by reinforced concrete

beams has been studied extensively in the past. Wellestablished design
guidelines are now available.
During major earthquakes, large seismic lorces are transferred between
individuat wal] piers through the coupling beams. The coupling beams are
expected to undergo large inelastic load revelsals without a sisnificant loss of
clrcDgth. sriffness.and enej"gy-di..iparion capdbitily.That is. the coupting
beams should be adequately stiff and stlong and should possess stable hys:
tercsis response, Such requirements on conventional reinforced concrete cou_
pling beams will demand special detailing, adequate anchorage of the rein_
forcement in the wall pie$, and closely spaced confinement around the nain
reinforcement to prev€nt buckling. As a rcsult, reinforced conoete couDline
beamsare typicall5 deep.making rhem u,r6uirabtpfor qtrucruresuirh lowl
story heights. For such cases,shuctural steel beams embeddedin door lintels
are commonly used as coupiing beams (Fig. 6.88). The transfer of forces
ChapterSlx

-fj
lll'
lmm!"|fr
*TNTN:
t-l
l',4odeB
Flgure 6,33 Couplitrs bean
detail Dd modehrs.rartus

between the steel coupling beams and reinforced concrcte wall piels has not
been completely understood until the completion of recent research.
Recent research was conducted at the Univelsity of Cincinnatilal and at
McGi[ University in Montreal.l3! On the basis of his studies at Cinciinati,
Shahrooz concluded the following regarding tbe perforllance of steel bean
coupled shear rralls:
l. The steel coupling beams have stable hysteresis curr/es with little loss of
strength. The theoretical plastic moment capacitiee can be reached and
exceededwhen the cotrnection region is under compressive stresses. When
the boundary element is subj€cted to lalge tensile shesses, the rcsulting
cracks reduce the stif&ress. Hence the moment that can b€ developed in the
bealn becomes smaller. The addition of ver-tical barc to the beam flanges helps
to develop equal moments for cycles producing tensile and compressive
stresses on the connection rcgion.
2. A significant portion of energy is dissipated though "plastic hinges" in
the exposed portion of the coupling beamB. The contributions of flexural and
shear defolmations are signfieant.
3. The stiffiess of the coupling beam is found to be different depending on
whether the ovedurning moment and axiat load would cause compressive or
tensile stresses in the boundarf/ element amund the connection rcgion. For
details with auxiliary bals attached to the beam flanges, the stiffness is morc
synmetrical and larger.
4. The rate of stiffness degradation, although small, is slso different for
cycles resulting in tensile and compressive stlesses in the connection region.
Addition of auxiliary vertical bars to the bea]n flanges slightly helps to main-
tain the overall stifhess.
5. The initial stiffness of the coupling beams is smaller than the value com-
puted assuming full fixity at the face of the wall. The beams are €trectively
fixed at a point inside the boundary elements. However, it should be noted
that a similar lack of rigidity at the support faee is also possible for reinforced
concretecoupling beams.
6. If the additional flexibility of the coupling beam is consialered, the
 demands i]I the walls and the overall lateral deflections obviouslv become
larger than those obtained if the beams are assumed to be fulv fly;d at the
faceof lhe walt.
7. If th€ connectionbetween steel beams and concrctewalls does not have
special details to imprcve the stiffness, models that simulate fixitv of cou-
pfing beams inside the wall piers should be used.The .effective fixed point,, of
the coupling beam can be taken at approximately one_thtud of the em;edment
leneth from the face of the wall.

6.6.1 EmbedmentIengthof couptingbeams

The required embedment length olthe steel coupling beams in the wals can
be evaluated based on two methods that are variations of the prestressed
Concret€Institute guidelin€s for desien ofsteet beams used as brackets.c?7Jn
each model (Fig. 6.38), the concrete strain is assumed to vary linearly, with
the maxrmum concrete stmin taken as 0.003 at the face of the wall. The first
model, model A, is that proposedby Mattock and Gaafar.slUsins the distribu_
tion olbeadng strcssesshown in Fig. 6.38, the required embedment length l"
can be computedfrom

\:osfb|{"w#:t (6.41)

wherp/- b e a r i n gs t r e n ghl . k s i - l . 7 t i . 4 , 0 . 6 \ /
/ - widrh ofwall ,a bounddrvelF;enrl
6/: beam flange width
l;: concrctecompressivestlength, ksi
Br = ratio ofthe average concretecompressivestrcss to the maximurn
stress as defined in the ACI buitdine code.r00 Sec.10.2.7.8
l. : embedment length
M"M"
"": : ultimate
M,, beam moment
Y" = ultimate shear

The required embedment length to develop a vertical shear at the distance

d from the face of the wall is computed ftom this equation. In the seconal
method, model B, the concrctestrcss distdbution is modifred to reflect larser
drengtlr and sliffirpssdue lo the confirempnrprovtdcdby laq. amoLrnt,oi
hansve$e reinforcement in typical boundary elements. The modifred Kent_
Park mod€1t33can be us€d to represent the concrete stress-shain relation_
ship, and the assumedstless distdbution is chanEedas shown in model B ol
F:g. 6.38. S:m;ldr ro Lhe der:vaL:onof rtr" mod.t prnposedby Gaafar ard
Mattock, the effective beadng width is taken as 6.(1.76.)0i6. A closed_form
expression for computing the required embedmeni li:nEth t, cannot be
d e r i v e d .T h e n F c e s c a r lye n g l h / r o r d F v e L o p i nrgh e c o m p u r e d. h e a r a n d
momentol rhc couplingbeam ar an) floor can be calculdtedlor a number of
6,86

different levels of confrnementexpressedin terms of th3 ratio of the compres-

sive strength of confined concretel; to the nomlnal compressivestrength of

6.6.2 Computermodelingof coupledshearwatts

The obsened lack of fixity of the steel coupling beam at the face of the wail
during tests raises concernsabout the level ofcoupling that can be devetoped
between individual reinforced concrete shear walls. A simple modet that is
easy to apply in practice is to assume that the beam is eflectivety frxed at
some distance inside thc wall as shown in Fig. 6.39. This "effective fixed
point" of the coupling boam can be taken as approximately one-third of the
embedment length ftom the face of the wall. The actual design of the shear
wall system should accountfor this fility of the coupling beams.

6.6.3 Detailingconsiderations
The longitudinal barc in the boundary elements should be so arransed that
the coupling beams can fit witbin the boundarv elemenh.This constrarlu usu,
ally results in bars that are placed on oppositefaces of the bor:ndary element
with a clear distance at least equal to the width of the coupling beam. Large

/-Facedwal

4
4-\ -Beam
i
^l
A:
ti-
unn"t" n'"u poinrora couprins
i"D"{:,lr?,:,
 a-]f,ialloads can develop in coupling beams as compression and tensile loads
liom flexural, axial, and shear stiffuess chamctedstics ofwall piers. Adequate
headed studs should be welded to the beanl over the embedment length. A
majority o{ the studs should be distributed over the top and bottom flanges.
These studs have the added benefit of hansfening bearing shesses into the
surrounding concrete and helping to incrcase the stiffuess. Standard design
methods can be used to compute the size and number of the studs. Small hotes
may be punched in the web to facilitat€ compaction ofcon$ete. The effects of
these holes on the shear capacity of the web should be checked.

6.6.4 Coupledshearwalldesign
t?ical design and detailing procedu:res are illustmted in this example using
the structure shown in Fig. 6.40. The reinforced concmte walls are couFled bv
sreelbeamsFmbpodedin the door linl,els.ThF tarerattoadsare assumedto be
rcsisted entiely by the coupied walls. The contribution ofreinfomed concrete
door lint€ls, which are usually reinforced lightly, to the shength and stiffness
of the coupling beams is neglected. Seismic design forces may be determined
accoding to the requ ements ofthe Uniform Building Code (UBC). The rein-
fbrced concret€ walls are proportioned and detailed in accordance with the
UBC and seismicprovisions of the ACI Building Code.
Design of steel coupling beams and the design ofthe connection between steet
coupling beams and reinforced concrete walls are illu,shated with rcfercnce to a
tpical floor. Similar calculations can be carded out at other locations.

Designof steel coupling beams. flltimate required moment M, and shear y,

M, = 558ft-kips (757kN-m)
v, = 323.7kips (1440kN)

r 8" Stab
{

L
6',4'
f

F i s u r e 6 . 4 0f l o o r p l d n v i ' h c o u l l p ds b p d w a l l s | | D '
Design web thickless:

V"= 0.64dt.
= 36 ksi ,A36 steel,and d 18 in {depLhofbeaml
4
Solve for 1,,,(web thickness) ftom

323.7< 0.6 x 36 x Lgt.

,, > 0.833in
Uset.: 'trin.
Designbeamflanges:

M"=F,Z

frl
where
z:ltbltrd - t t t l+ -%ri,l
l+td
I
bf=flange\ddth=8nr
,; = flang€thickness

M-
z_ ry:12 r8ein.

186- l8r.,18 i rl r | 0 875r]s - 2r.r,

,I I
Solvefor tr > 0.948in
Userr:16 itt.
Checklocal buckling requirements:
Flaage:
b, a.,
8.6?
ztf v\
A
:L- 8 ,
no oK'
'+=Zi*:
Web:

4=!*:u".,
t_ _\/F1

d - 18
-"
2o.b u.K.
t,,, o.a75

Deslgnof connectionbelween couplingbeamandwatt. The requircdembedment

length is computedusing the method prcposedby Mattock and Gaafar.al
 Deslgnol Joints

Substitute the following values into Eq. (6.41):

M
: 1.72fL = 2O.'7ttt
323.7

/;:4ksi
81: 0.85(for 4-ksiconcrcte)
,. = thickness ofboundary element : 20 rn
6, : flarge width of couptingbeam : 8 in

r,-"'(;)"""c
: r.zr(f)'""ra=e.zo
r"r
Then

323j 0 . s . 6 . 2 6 . 0 . 8 5 / 8 \ 1e 0 . 5 ; 8 ; ( 0 1 2 ; : 0 . 8 5 )
u,6d+ \zu.tu.l

Solvefor 1".The rcquired embedmentlength l" is Bg in.

6.7 MiscellaneousConnections
6.7.1 Transilion
composlte
column
In multistory buildings a por.tion of the height is frequertly constructed using
one structural system while another por.tion is constr'ucted using a differcnt
structwal syst€m. For example, structwal steel is used in the upDer levels
becauqeofspeed and easeoferection,and reinforcedconoel,eis uied in rhe
lower levels for parking. If a large steel base plate is required on top of the
concrcte, the joint between the two cohDns can be architecturallv and stluc-
turail\ cUlnbemome,
It is advantageous to use a hansition composite column between the steel
and concrete columns as an effective means to transmit the axial forces
between the two structural systems (Fig. 6.41). The tmnsition column is
made composite and the axial forces are hansmitted along the length of the
column using headed stud shear connectors or other shear-transmittins
device.In this way.a nominalbaseplate,tolally coMned within rhe nomi_nal
steel column croBs Bection, can be used that does not project outside the foot-
print of the concrete colu1}n and does not Dose an architectural Droblem.
This detail also permits rhe column concre[eio stcp below the 0oor construc-
tion (Fig. 6.41), thus maling the forming easier. Usually the reinforcing steel
cage from the concrete columtr below is useal in the comDosit€ tmnsition col-
 ChapterSix

Stee decldsteeliloor system

FisuB 5.41 llansiiion composite colllm.

umn. The verticalcolumnbarc prcjectup past the nominalsteelcolunmbase

plate.

5.7.2 Steelbracetocompositecolumns
Bmced composite megasystems such as that ri6ed in the Z2-story Bank of
C h i t r ab u r l d l n g . a 0 . r 0 v / i j nH o n g X o n g r F t y o n t h e r r a n s t e ro f t a " s ea R i a l
forces between srpel or compositebracesand reinforced concretecolumns. To
desclibe the behavior a]rd design of connections for such stmctures, a h]?o-
thetical composite braced buitding system shown in Fig. 6.42 is considered.
This hypothetical building includes many of the design featues used in the
Banh of China building, but to simplii, the discussion the structurc has a
more regurar geometry,
The building shown in Fig. 6.42 is 48 stories tall arat its geometry is based
on four bmced modules s/hich measue 15? {t (48 m) by 1bZ ft (48 m) for a
total height of 624 ft (190 m). Each module includes 12 stories with a floor-to-
floor height of 13 ft (4 m). The primary structural system consists of the
 q

Fisure6.a2 Cornlolite bracedbuilding srsr€nr

perimeter braced frame made up offour large concretecolumns at the

corners
connectedby diagonal ste€l braces and horizontat steel floor beam ties. In the
overall structural concept,this pedmeter frame resists a1l lateral loads and
canies appmximately one-halfofthe total gravity toad. The remaindcr ofthe
glayity load is carried by interior columns located in the building,s
sewice
core. The membem shown dashed in Fig. 6.42 are steel columns and floor
beam ties which transfer. gravity toads to the mair diagonals. In tum. the
diagonals calry the loads to the corner columns. The dashed steel columns
al:ldties cr€ate a secondarybracing system that provides latelat stability to
the floors between the panel points of the main composite bracing system.
ThF ra n -ysten p,.ovro-."igd bracepoirrr ar evFfy c xrh rt^or...ndrhp
onoE{' <)sLP_o"ov desb"aCepointr dl FVe"rothcr roor. "e-_
T\Jromain advantages of the composite nature of the braced mesasvstcm
j f r l - ec o n ," p r p ,o l u r n . s n d - h .
a r a . " l a r F dr o \ F e c o n o m o of Ue
detai,-. Firsr.the sv"tem is oesignFo10 cd"ry "impticrr
mucir of rr,e
gravity load and all of the column overturning wind forces in the fou rein,
forced concretecolumns. This improves the economyofthe system, since rein_
 ChaDterSix

forced concrete is a more cost-effective compression matedal than stluctural

steel and the ma-rimum oveduming forces and tendency for t€nBion in the
columns are minimized. The second main advaniage is that the connections
between the bracing and the four corner colu]Ins are greatly simp)ifred by the
composite connection detail. For an all-steel system, the comer connection
would require complicated weldments to connect to the diagonals framing
into the joint in thee dimensiotrs. In the composite system, all steel elements
and connections are pla[ar, and the forces in the thid direction are hans-
fened through shear stresses in the conffere encasemen!.
The following discussion is focused on the design of the bnced corner con-
nection at the 12th floor shown in the circled d€tail in Fia. 6.42. Forces in the
diagonais.horjzonlal ties. aDd columns framing into r-hjsjoint are shown
schematically in Fig. 6.43. The dead- and live-load forces in the diasonals
resulr from loads Lransferred inro the diagonats by the secondary members
shown dashed in Fig. 6.42. The vrind loads are for the case of wind cominE
fiom lhe lefi. The wind is resisLedb) forces in the braciog members in the
front and back elevations. The forces shown in Fig. 6.48 are ftom simple hand
calculations which neglect any forces in the diagonals on the vdndward and
leeward elevations caused by axial shoftening and elongation of the comer
columns due to the wind.
A plan a]ld elevation view of the comel connection are shown in Fies. 6.at4
and 6.45.As indicated.Lhesl,eeldiagonalsconsisrof Wt4 {WJ60)shapesori-
ented with their flang€s in the ptane of the bracing. At the 12th floor, the

D:5640

D:1140
/ L: 501
D..1144 , , n.4n
L:501
| ., L:236

\ L: 166

/ o'
D: 7800
L ; 1"u,
66
I L:3350

F sure 6.43 Forces at cohposile comq connection ar rzth floor

 6,93

I
IT
il
[-l.,"jj
Fisure6,44 Sectionat comer columnat 12thfloo.

reinforced concrete column measurcs 60 x 60 in (1.5 x 1.b m) and encases

two steel sectionsdesignedto rcsist the concentratedvertical reaction of the
diagonal bracesin the two orthogonal planes. The encasedsteel columns atso
serve as election membem during the construction ofthe building. tvhile rhe
centerllne locations of the encased steel columns remain llxed throueh -mor"sthe
neighr of the building,rhe cenrroidof tl-e rcinJo.cFd.or"rcre column
as the column size changesbased on the total axiat load in the column. The
column size is changed while maintaining the outer two edges ol the floor
slabs and varying the locations ofthe inner faces of the corner columns. The
minimum column sizo at the top of the building is constrained by the loca-
tions and siz€s of the encased stoel columns. Tho locations of the encased
steel columns are fixed in the direction par.allal to the facade based on thc
48-m modrle for the bracing (Fig. 6.42) and are set back from the edge ofthe
slab the minimum amount required to allow for fuepmofing and for fab ca-
tion and erection tolerances.
Referring to Fig- 6.45, the basic idea in the composite connection is to
transfer the force from the flanges of the W-shaped braces and encascd
columns through large steel connectionplates. The inside sufaces ofthe con-
nection plates arc aligned to match the inside flange-to flange dimension of
the W14 (W360) brace and column menberst the $'eb plates carrv littlc load
and p r i m a r i l Jr o h o l o r h e f l a n g p si n p l a c c .H o r i z o n r at lb " . p sE r , r r r r .
"FrvF
6.94

\\
'l'
.'
-^-
ii
W 18iloor beam
W 1 4x 1 S 3 - _ -

s
Fisure6.45 Elevation ofbrace detail ar 12th floor

fened into the floor beam ties through top and bottom flange plates welded to
the inside of the connection plates, and field botted to the W18 (W.160)ties.
The net design forceslor the upper diagonal and the steel columns aboveard
below the connectionare p mar.ily compression,so lorces can be transferred
to th€ connection plate through beadng with only nominal tension co rec-
tions made by padial-penetration gyoovewelds or bolted splices. Since the
lower diagonal is governed by tension desigl force, it will require full-pene,
tration welding of its flanges to the connectionplate. It is generatly advanta,
geousto make the full-penetration welds in the shop while using partial-pen-
etration welding and bolting in the field.
The steel-to-steel connections shown in Fig. 6.45 are similar to those for
odinary structwal steel conshuction and ar'e rclativoly straightforward. The
pdmary pu4ose of the composite aspect of the connection is the hansfer of the
resultant vedical force between the encasedsteel column and the reinforced
FiguF6.a6 Scbematr!dragradof torce iresfe!

concr€te column. A schematic diagram of this force transfer is shown in

Fig. 6.46, wherc it is assumed that the vertical axial load apptied to the steel
coiumn at the 12th floor is transfened into the reidorced ioncrete column
$adually over the six floors below the 12th floox This is the reason why the
steel column below the 12th floor is a relatively large member while the mem_
ber above the 12th floor is the minimum size required for erection. As shown in
Fig. 6.46, the encased steel column decreases in size going downward from the
12th to the 6th floor, and this pattem repeats itsetf below the corner bracins
ronneclion5ar Lhe 121h.24rh.361h.and 48rh floorb.As rhe sreel.olumn sizei
decrease.rbe forcFin $e .oncreF ponion of the column is incFasing. and
LnPreroFI hF concrelpdimcnbionsor lhe rein_Corcing oar arpa rs incrpas:Dg.
Refe?dng to Fig. 6.46, the total force p transfered from the steel io the
concrete column is equal to the resultant of the vertical force in the two main
diagonals:
^ Fr+ F2
y2
Assuming that this force is transfened uniformly over the development
tength ld, therc is no moment induc€d in either the steel or reinforced con_
crete column.providedIhar a meansis prcvidedro rcs:strhp rFsultanrhori_
Tonlal lorcesr?. as shown in Fig.6.46.comparitrgFig6.6.46 and 6.44, Lhebe
horizontal forces are applied in the direction ofthe eccentricity which, in gen_
eral, is out of the plane of the bracing ftaming into the steel column. As
shown below, the resultant force can usually be rcsisted by the typical floor
beams and the conne€tions which ftame into the steel or reinforced concrete
column at each floor level.
For the loading shown in Fig. 6.43, the totat vertical forces tuansfened
from the steel coiumn to the concreteare P, - 1079 kips (4.8 MN), P, = 472
kips (2.1 MN), and P., : 1488 kips (6.6 MN). Usins the ASCE 7-95 load com,
bitration of 1.2D + 0.52 + 1.3W,this resuits in a factorcd hansfer force P" =
346? kips (15.4 MN). The question then adses as to what means are available
for hansferring this force out of the shuctural steel column and into the sur-
rounding concrete..Mechanisms which are at work include (1) adhesion and
liiction between the steel and concrete, (2) transfer through shear studs
attached to the steel column, and (3) tocal bearing b€neath the floor beams
and connection plates ftaming into the steel column at each floor. Since the
sheneth of the bond (1) and beadng (3) are difficult to quantify, a conser.va-
tive and rcasonable assumption is to include only the shength of the shear
studs for translening the force. Using the strcngth design proyisions of the
AISC LRFD specificationDeland assuming normal,weight concret€with a
shength of at least4 = 4 ksi (27.6 MPa), the nominal shear shength of a %-
in (20-mm) stud is 26.1 kips (116 kN). Since the required stud capacity is
being calculated based on the applied factored load, a resistance factor of d :
0.85 should be applied which gives a design stud sheneth of 22.2 kips (99
kN). Using this value, 156 studs are required to transfer the factored load of
346? kips (15.4 MN). Attachirg four studs to the flanges as shown in Fig.
6.44, the rcquired studs can be provided $/ith a minimum ver-tical stud spac
ing of 24 in (0.6 m) on the encasedcolumns over the tlansfer length between
the 6th and 12th floors. In spite ol the fact that the design approach of
neglecting both bond and beadng is very conservative, the rcsulting mini-
mum stud spacing is fairly modest and on the order of what one would use as
a minimum to maintain integrity olthe column.
The eccent city € shown in Fig. 6.46 between the st€el and reinforced con-
crete colunrn centerlines can be determined by refening to the colulnn section
drawing in Fig. 6.44. For the instsrce shown where the outer colunm dirnen-
a
sions are 60 x 60 in (1500 x 1500 mm), the eccetrtdcity

: \[-y] + z" = 16.1 in (0.41 m)

"
Using the tmnsfer force of P,, : 3467 kips (15.4 MN) and the transfer length
of 80 ft (24 m), the eccentdci8 of 16 in (0.41 m) results in a requircd lateral
bracing force B/, : 58 kips (260 kN). This force could easily be carried by the
two orthogonai floor beams framing into each of the two encased steel
columns. For example, assuming the floor beams were connected to the
columns with %-in-diameier (22-mm) A49O bolts, ihe 58-kips (260-kN) brace
force would require an addition of at most two bolts. Arother way to consider
the relative significance of the 58-kip force is to compare it to a nominal
rcqutueal column bracirg equal to 0.5 percent of the total a.ial load in the col-
 umn. In this case,the total factorcdload (1.2, + 1.6Z) just belowthe 12th
s l o q -s 1 47 2 0 k . p s6 5 . 5 J \ l N . . 0p. be r c e no,t u h i c h i s . t I i . p . 3 3 6 1 1 1 ,1. 1 . , r "
tnF rolce ^- arr"rngtrom rhe Fc.p'1lric,rJ
is or lhF ofder ofthe.raroacd brac
lng lo'ce con..derd in de"ign.A. :n ar) I arI builoing I heracolumn [orce.
arF
rarge.rnp t'ooi-bFa.1cand thei" conneclio,r"ro rhe colurrs ld bp r hecl,ed
"hou
to assure adeqrate strength and stilfness to resist out_of_plan€ bracing
There.are sev€ral additional aspectsto the design ofthe compositeconnec_
.
tion and the column which are not addrcssealin this exampte or the refer_
encedfigurcs but should be considercd.Thcse include the following items:
1. For clarity, lateral reinforcing bar ties are not inctuded in the
column
crosssection shown in Fig. 6.44. Such ties should be provided according
to the
ACI-318 provisions to (o) reduce shrinkage cracking, (6) facititate
elrection
arld prcvent bucktins ofthe longitudinal r;int"*"-""i, ,"a f.l pr"ria" -"j-
est confinement to the concrete.

fl
D€ck
_

(Iypical)

Co umi c oslre
Fique6,47 Compositesr€el deck
6.98 Chapler
Six

2. Since the steel frame is usually e?ected in advance ofthe concrete

encasement, erection connections and tempomry bmcing must be provided to
stabilize the steel lrame dudng conshuctiotr.
3. Detailing of both longitudinal and hansveme reinlorcement in the col-
umn needs to be carefullv coordnrated with the structuml steel and the vada-
tion in column sizes up the heisht of the building.

6.7.3 Connectionsto comDosltefloor slabs

In most building shuctures, the floor slabs function as horizontal diaphragms
for the purpose of delivering the itr-plane shear forces from lateral loads to
the vedical-load-resisting elements. It is impor.tant that a clear load path is
provided, particularly in cases where there is an abrupt change in the config-
uration or stiffness of the vertical elements resisting lateral loads. In such
cases (Fig. 6.47) and also in situations where the diaphragm is interr.upted or
contains large openings, these in-plane shear forces can be very large, war-
ranting special supplemental rcinforcement in the way of rcinforcing ba?s in
the concrete slab or even hodzontal steel bracing. This condition is discussed
more firlly in Chap. 5.
The floor slab is often called upon to brace the columns in situations wherc
there is no floor beam framing to the column in one or boih d ections. In
such cases the cornection of the slab to the column must pmvide 0.5 percent
times the column load as a bracing force to stabilize the column.
Finally, the composite floor slab around the column must be adequately sup-
ported to transmit the dead and live floor loads. This can be accomplished by
using a light-gage steel deck closure furnished by the deck manufacturers anal
custom-fitted arcund the coiumn as shown in the bottom portion of Fig. 6.47.
Altematively, srpplemental angle or chalrnel framing can be provided by the
steel fabricator to support the floor slab as shown in the top pafi of Fig. 6.47.
In both cases, reinlorcing edge bars are oflen placed in the slab to help trans-
mit the floor loads around the colulnn opemng.
 Chapter

7
Literature

7.1 Guideto References

References throughoutthis bookrefer to equallyd€signateditems
through ?.6.References in Secs.,1.2
to literature dealing*itl *ilp""ft"
listed in Secs.?.2 throush 7.5, while thos! a".irre-;i1h"i""..;ih* _"
""""t ""t." tl."
compositec.onstruction are givenin Sec.2.6,c""*"f] m"
sectlonare listedby yearsin ascendingordeT. *"f,
""tii*.ritii"
Relerenc€s dealingwith compositec-onstruction
., arc subdividedaccordingto
their pincipal charactelistics:Sec.7.2, R""".."h;
S;;;.;, iJ*, ."a s*.
2.4, construction.Section7.4 co.vers- the b*td_g p;;;""" ;;;ii."i""*,n_
tions of comptetedshuctures.An ."f";;;:J;;;;"
constmction,either cuttins across"rh", ,;;i"';f""";n"",,"
bwoor alt rhreeprincrpd ;;so.i;" ,.
fitrins into any one of them. are lisred in se".
t;, irt"";il;;;"";j;;n"",r". ""_
Researchreferencesare identifiedbv numbe;. ^ti
;;;i;;;;:;"ji"
tified by a letter and a mrmberstading wilh D fo.
aesigrr,Cio. """
M for miscellaneous, and G for general.Afew *f"*r*i "-onJuction,
manuscdptwas essentiatlvcompteted. *"r" .ia"Jrft". *r"
Their a*icrri; i""i"d"" ;pia bt-
ter A foltowinethe numbe;

7.2 Besearch
1.
I'rlJ";,"l:;rul;i il ,..,:i;'ri;.ij,--p \- d a 1-,,,,,,,,n
o
p;H 1i* jl I ; i.:'_
::; y': ;* : i ::"' -i:
J:;-..
::
3. n: I ;;::".,'"::i,r':i:.1.,
i.',"r;;;,t;; " :; :i":'':; ! ?;";
''Load ' ft6ts, Ttuscon Steei Co.,younssroan, Ohio.
1s23.
 5. "Inpac! T$ts or Highway Bridge6," Progles6 Report of Cooperative Resedch Conducied at
Ames, Iowa, PzDl;. Aoarts, vol. 5, Septoder 1924, p!. 10 13.
6. W. B. Scofi, 'The Stxenglh of St€el Joists Embedded i! Coturete," The Structurul Ensineea
JDne 1925,pp. 201 209,228.
?. II. M. MacKat Steel I Beabs Hamched with ConeetE," Engineeriie and Cantdctine
(Chicaco),vol- 66, no.2,192?, p!. 53 57-
8. S. G. Mar'tin, "Tests of Steel Floor Frmibg E.cased in Conftte-PErt I,"./ozl@1, Westem
Socieiy of Engineem (WSE), vol. 35, Jue 1930, p!. 157 171.
9. Q. C. Whittier, 'Tests of St€l Floor Fr@ine En@sed in Concreie PaIt II," Joumol, WSE,
vol.35, Jue 1930,!p. 1?1 199.
10. F. A. Rlnilal, "Tests of Steel Fioo. Frahing En€sed in Conftte -Part III,' Jounol, WSE,
vol.35, June 1930,pp. 199 225.
11. M. Ro!, "Les comtructions scier b6ton, s}stine Al!l,a," L-Ossatute Matdllique (Wselle6),
!ol.3, 1934,pp. 105-208.
12. A. Voellny, "Sirength ofAbha Coeposiie Sections mder Static and Dynuic Sbesses,"
Swis6 F€ileral Muterials Teslins Laboratory Znri.h, 1936,
13. "Tesis Made on Four Floor Panels De6igned According to lhe Alpha System," Porete
Mannfactuins Compey, No{hArlinEto4 N.J-, 1937.
14. C, Batho, S. D. Lash, and R. H, H. Kirkham, 'The Propefiies of Composiie BeamB,
Co4isting of Steel Joists Encased i! Conoete, bder Direct and Sustained Loarling,"
Jou rzdl, ICE, vol. U, no.4,1939, p!.61,104,
15. H. Maier-Leibnitz.'Versuche nber das ZusanheDwirken von I-Treeern mit
E . " " o b e r o r d p G - n .D t p A o ! 1 r , l " , , f B p l ; n . r o l . 1 9 . t 9 a _ .p ! . 2 6 5 2 ? 0 .
16. R. M. MaiDs, "Retolt of Tesis on CompoBite Steel-Conqete Beans," Friiz Engineeing
Labomtor-n I€high Universitt May 1943.
1?, ?epo of Tests of Qonposjte Sleel and Concrete Blocks," Fritz Enginee.ing Lebomtorr,
I€high Univercity, 1943.
18. M. Roi, "Tt:ieer in Yerbbdbauweise," teport 149, Swiss Ferleral Institute for Testine
Materials. Ziinch. 1944.
19. A. Yoellny, "Shrin}age ftstE on Two Cohposite Bems," Porete Mandactuing Co., North
Artington, N.J-,1945.
20. A. Voellny, "Tests io Investigate tbe InIfuence of InitiEl Bending Stlesses on the Ca$yilg
Calacity of Conlosit e Bems, ' Porete Manulacturing Co., No*h Arlington, N.J., 1945.
21. D. Fuchs, "versuche mit Sp$nbeto.-verbundttigeh," Det Bduinsenhu @erlla), aol. 25,
1950,!p- 289-294.
22. O. GIEJ, "Versuche iiber den Verschiebewider6t&d voD Dnbeh ftir VerbDdhegem," De-
Bduineetieu. rol. 25, 195tt,pp, 291-3A3-
23. E. W. Blumehschein, "Can Reliance Be Placed on Natual Bond between Concrete dil
Steell" CiDil Engineeine, Americu Society of Civil EngiDee$ (ASCE), vol. 21, no. 7, 1951,
Pp.42-43.
. H. A. Fn1lea "Skunk River Bndse E:hibits CoEposite Action Alter thenty-Eight Yed of
S*icc," Ciuil Engineerine, A.SCE,vol. 21, no, 7. 1951, !p. 40 42.
25. O. Graf, "trbe! Versuche mit Verbundtriigem," Abhand,luneen aB dem Stahlbau, Sta\1-
Tasue Kalsruhe, 1951, pp. 74-90.
96. N. M. Nemak, C. P. Sie66, bd I. M. Viest, "Tbsts and AnelFis of Cohlosiie Bems Fit!
Incomll€te Interection," Pmceedizgs, Society for Experlnent.l Stress Analysis, vol. 9, 1951,
pp. 75-92.
2?. C- P Siess, L M- Viest, and N. M. Nemark, "Studie6 ofslab and Beah Highway Brirlges,
Part III Snall Scale Te6ts of Shear ConnectoN and comDosite T-beams." Bulletin 396_
u d . . l l . E n e .L r p s d . . 1 9 1 2 .
28- L M. Viest, C. P Siess, J. H. Appleton, ed N. M. Ne@ark, "Studies of Slab and Bed
Highway Bidses, Pert M\rll Scal€ 1bsts of Ch@el Shear Conlecto.s and Conposit
Tbeams," Bulletin 405, Univ Ill. Eng. E:p. Sta., 1952.
29. V Lapsin6, "A Compeative Stldy of Composite Action in Stmctual Steel and Conftte
Beams." M.S. thesis, Department of Civil Engineedng, Si€ie Uniremity of lowa, 1953.
29A- L M. \iiest and C- P Siess, 'Composite Cohstruction for I-Beam Bndges," ,+o.eedtqB,
Eigbway ResearchBoad (HRB),1953, p!.161 1?9.
30. L M. Viest, thstE of Spinl Shear Comectom," Nelsor Stud Weliling, Lo.ain, Ohio, 1955i
see also EnAineerine Test Dara, Net6on Stud Welding, Inain, Ohio, 1956.
31. G. M. Sinclair, "Faticue Sfensth of 3/4 irch welded srud shee conneciors," tzsTu eztzef
 7,3

, ' : ' i " l " i1 1 " 1 " ; : ; ' , i , ! l l i ; l , i - " s b : - a! r - J 4 , / , / ' " ?A n ! ,.,, '
' : . ; ; i " l ; : , ' ' ; i """i ;l ; : t r ' n n !F' . n ? nd ds ' d , ' ' -
" l;).1 i, if i il:""''
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-";
, t-fft::.;":;,,.; ! :\t:.;li.: ":; ",, ,"
*
";;:"; ;_",":,
wiih studshea'connecrors,"
Bnrrctin
1i4, HRB,
*,*illlill|l" .ls3lo6ir'eioams
i6A I M vipcr, F S Fo;ntain. and C. p

::l l;;::;;;:;;;'l;li""'""1- f I ;, l" )" ;:i. 1."

"i ;:-?:';1,:.1
,. a;dstaii. sbeneth
.f srudsh€dconD€ctors,'rol,,ar,
Acr,rcl.
i.lHlllH:ir;riifl!:
* alRei38'raa'\n ath" s'/z'r.,arDi,,szo4
-{scE,De.embc,
ibrtd,:|:!lt11r*""""ia\
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8 1 , r . a 1 2 .\ . 1 1 t q 6 q p p . I . i 2 - .
" I i"''1''',-,'o" i::$d:;;-f;K,"" o o.1o.i'"r."-n.
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"";:"'";,i'i:';d;"::.1:"'..rr"osr""r
.1?. J.r]i4ap!a. "BehanD ;i cnhpo"fte Cu"tellur"d Hybrid Beams,'M.s.
thesis, Lrnive*jry of

s""""r
" B;..1;i''1,'l"i';ti;S.l;f;1;X"t*' "rshedcoDn€ctors"''c'|E'uor
Eps'ur"r
'' " B.r- ,",c
: i ",i::;.:?:l"'.::?u"T'".?,J,'-:..',
i,,"i,i",ul-*-
B%m
"T;;"
.l i l,;i?li i";;lfi.ij.i;'.iT";
,";"T,"":
fi:: "",r;;1.;;: J):iij, "'i:;;.;;;;";'"'"
J' j";;""Tj.:i
l* ;" ilii:''i:i: :"'lt;,
* lls:;,;;". :
Jz fi. ,r Mainsrune Jnd J B. Menzrrs, Shed C;
:iI "'; ::";"i ".::r':;";
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7.4

5?. A. O. Adekola, PErtial Interaciion beiween Elssii@ily Connecleil Elements of a Comlosite

Beam| Intpmdtianal Joumal ofSali{s dn l Sttu.tures, !al. 4, 1968,pp. 1125-1135.
58. G. G. Gobie, "Shed streneth of Thin FlaDge Conposite Specimels." ,4 aaC tist4eelt4€.
Jozrtur, vo1.5,Apdl1968, pp- 62-65.
59. A. H. Maitock and S. B. Jobnst n, "Behavior Dder Load of Comlosite Box-Girder Bndges,"
Jo@@l af ttu Stru.tural Diu6io4 ASCE, vo]. 94, October 1968,pp. 2351 23?0.
594 L. C. P Yam eil J. C, Chapman, "lnelastio Behaviour of Simply Slpporled Composite
Beams of Steel dil Concrete,'Ptuceed;ngs,ICE, 1968,!p. 651 683.
60. H. Robinson, "Comlosite Beam Incorporating CeUular Sieel Decking," i/o&radl o/ tAe
Atu.turul Di,isi.t, I'SCE, aol. 95, Mach 1969,!p. 355-380.
60A. P K. Dai, T. R. Thiuvengadah, anil C. P Siess, "Inelastic AnalJsis of Composite Beams,'
P.oceedtzgs, ASCE SpeciElty Coderence, Univer6ity ofMissouli, May 1965.
61, R. P, Johnson, "Longiiudinal Shed StrenCth of Conposite Bems," Jozl,a1, AC1, vol. 67,
Jue 1970,pp. 46:l466,
62. n. P Johnson, "Reserch on Cohposile Sieel Con@te Beffis, 1960 796A," Journal of the
SttuctDal Dioision, A.SCE,\ol. 96, Marc! 19?0, p!. 445-459.
63. R. II. R. Tide anrl T. V Ga1ambo6."Composiie Open Web Joisis.",4ISC trstaeertns
Jor"dl, vol. 7, Januu4' 19?0,pp. 2?-36.
64. J. G. Ollaaard, R. G. Slutter, dd J. W Fisher "Shear Shensth of Stud Conrcctors in
Lightweight and Nomsl-Weight Condete.".4-aSC gagireerinE Journal, \o1. a, Api) 1971,
pp, 55 54.
64-4.. Y. C. Wu, R. G- Slufiq and J. w Fishe., "Aualysis o{ Coniinuous CompGjie Beans,"
Friiz Engineerjng LabomtoryAepol' 359.5. Iahigh University, 19?1.
65. M. H. Azml, "Comlo6ite Open-Web l}usses {ith Metal Cellular Floor," M.E. thesiE,
McMater Universjty, Alril 19?2.
66. J. A. Crd, "Dcsign and lbsting Comlosite Open Web Steel Joists," Technical Bntletin 11,
The Steel CompanyofCuad4 Ltd., Janudy 1972.
6?. J. H, Daniels, G. D. Kroll, and J. W Fishe}, "Behavior of Composite-Beamto Collmn
Joirts," Joumdl of the Stru.tural Diuisia\ ASCE, ro1. 96, May 19?2, pp. 671-685.
68. A. Dobruszkes, J. JaBq dd C. Massohne!, "E:pedment3l Reseaches on Steel Concret€
Fmme Comections," Prblication 29 11, IhtemationalAssociation for Bddge ud Structual
Eneineedng (IABSE), 19?2,!p.67 100,
69. R. P. JohnsoD ed M. Hope-Mccin, "Seni-Rjsid Joilts jn Compo6ite Franes," Prlintad'r.
Eep.r/, Ninth Colgress, L{BSE, 1972,pp. 133-144.
70. R. P Johnson dd R. T. Willninston, 'r/erticai Shear in Continuous CoDposite Beams,'
Proce€dirAs,ICE, vol.53, Sepiehber 1972,pp. 189-205.
?1. Y Maeda mdY Kajikawa, "Faiieue Sirensth of Sieel Plates with Stud Shear Connecto6
for Applicaiion to Continuous Conposite Beamr." P/eltmtndry A.po7t, Ninth Coneress,
L{BSE, Am6terdam, 1972,pp- 145-156.
?2. J. W Roiledck, "Further Sludies of ComloEite Steel dd Condete Structnre6," P/elintzdD
ieporr, Ninth Congress,L{BSE, 19?2,!p. 165-172.
?3. C. P. lleins and H. M. Fa4 'Etrective Comlosite Beam Width at lltimaic Load," Jo&/nal,t
the Structutul Ditision, ASCE, vol- 102, Nov€nber 1976,pp. 2163-21?9.
?4. W D. Hende.6on, "Effects of Stud Eeight on Shear Conn€ctor Strength in Comlosite
Beams with Lightweight Concrete in Tbrce-Lch Met€l DecL' M. S- thesis, The Uniereit-r
of Texa6.Austin- 1976.
?5. M. L. Porter and C. E- Ekberg, &., "Behavior of Steel-De.k Rei.lorced Slabs," a/oundl o/
the Structural DiDision, ASQE, vol. 102, November 1976, !p- 663 66?.
?6. P Burkhsdt, "Le Comportement ElasUque et Plastique des Portrcs Mixtes," Thesis 264.
DepEnment of Civil Ensineedns, E.ole Pob4echnique Fede.al de Lausme, Switzerleil
1977.
?7. J. A. Grat, J. W. Fisher, and R, G. Slutt€r, "Composiie Beam wiih Fomed Sieei De.t'
AISC EtleineerineJaumal,1st Quarie. 197?,!p. 24--13.
78. R. Bjorhovde, "Full Scale Test of a Composjte Trrss," Structutdl Eneineerins Repart fi-
Departnent of Civil Engineerin& Univer6ity ofAlberte, 1980,
?9. W. C. Clawso! ad D. Dllrin, "Sbensth of Comlosite Beams with Web Openines," a/oz.rd
afthe Atructural Diuision, ASCE, vol.108,1982, !p- 623 641.
80. W C. Clawson ad D. DNin, 'Ie6tr of Cotuposite Beahs with Web Olenings," ./d&.ro1 of
the Strwtural Diuisian, ASCI, vol. 108. 1982,pp, 145 162.
81. A. E. Matiock and G. H. Gaafd, "Strensth of Enbeilded Stcel Scctions a6 Arackets," ACI
.-ro&&ol, March April1982, pp. a3-98-
 ':i.;iiT';ii':l1'|' rs"bc'rdo'" ,," ." '.
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108. B. Leon, "Semi-Rieid Composite CoDstruction," Pro.eedtzgs, Engineering FoDalaiioD
CoDferehce on Conposiie Constnction, ASCE, 1988, p!. 585 597.
109. S. Morino, Y Uchiila, and M. Ozali, "E:perinenial Study of ihe Behavior of SRC Bean
Colubns Subjected io Bisial B€ndiDc," P.o.e€dtzss, Engineedns Fohdaiion ConfereDce
on CompositeConsiruction,ASCE, 1988,pp.753 77-
110. t Orito, T. Sato, N. Tanrea, and Y Waieabe, "Siudv of Ulbonded Steel Tirle Conoete
Structure," Prcceedtzgs, Engineeing Foundaiion Conference on Composite ConstmctioD.
ASCE. 1988,pp. ?86-804.
ll1. M. Pdr,ick and R. Q. Bddge, "Behavior of Australian CoDlosite Slabs," Proceedines,
Enginccring Foundation Conference on Composire Construction, ASCE, 1988, !p.
663 6?9.
11t. H. Robinson, "MulNiple Stud Shear Comections in Deep nibbed Meial Deck,'Caza.ltaz
Joumdl of Ci\il EneiaeetinE,vol. 15, 1988,pp. 553 569.
113.II. Robinson and K. S. Naraine, "Sljp and Uplift Effects in CohpoBite Beams,_
P.aceedinCs, Engtaeeiq loundation Co.ference o. Comlosite Constnction, ASCE,
1988, pp. ,18?49?.
114. Slrao-Iluai Cai, "Ultimate Strergih o{ Concrete-Fillerl Tlbe Cotumns," Prcceetl,inqs,
Ensineerina Foundation Conference on Comlosite Corstruction, ASCE, 1988, pp.
'102 727.
115. M. Wakabayashi, "A Hjstorical Study of Research on Composite Construction in Japm,'
e.ceedtzgs, Engineeing Foundation Conference on Composite Consttuction, ASCE, 1988.
pp. 440427.
116. G. G. Deierlein, T. M. SheiLh, J. A. Yura, and J. O. Jirsa, "Beah-Colunn MoheDt
Cohnecfions {or Comlosite Fnmu, Part 2." Jourl@l of Sttucturdl Elsineetine, ASCE,
November 1989,pp. 28??-2896.
t1?. B. S, Jayas aDd M. U. Hosain, Sehavior of Eeaileil Stuils in CompositeBeah6: Flll-Sia
Tests," Canadinn Jalrndl af Ciuil EneineetinE, !oI- 16, 19a9, pp. 712 124.
118. S. J. Lee and Le-wu Lu, "Cyclic Te6t6 of Frll Scale Conposiie Joint Sub$sembhses-'
Jauraal af Structuml E4ineetng, ASCE, vol. 115.August 1989,pp. 197? 1998.
119. J. M. Riclc6 Dd E. P, Popov, "Composite Action in Eccentdcally Bmc€d Frames," Joz.u dl ot
Structlral Enei@eritg, ASCE, vol. 115, Auslst 1989, pp. 2046-2066.
120. T. M. Sheikh, C. G. Deierlein, J. Yua, md J- O. tusa, "Bem-Co1urm Moment Connectioc
lbr Composite Fmmes, Pet 1," Jaurral of Structuml Eneiruen,g, ASCE, November 1989-
!p.2858 2876.
121. D. J. Annerhd and R. T. Leon, 'Unbracad Fr@cs with Seni-Rieid Conn€ciions," ,4JSC
Eryiaeei\g Journdl, Aplil1990, !p. 19-21.
122. R. Bjorhotde, "Construction Stability of Composite Frames," P.o.ee.li,gr, IABSE
Sjmposium at Bruss.1s,IABSE Report, vol.60, Zuich 1990,!p.293 298.
123. D. J. L. Kennedy, "T€sts of Tvo Fnll-Scale Conposiie T!u6se6," Pro..edizgs, AISC
Ensinee.ins Confer€nce,AISC, Chicaso,1990,pp. 14.1-14.27.
124. R. T- Leon, "Semincid Comlositc Construction," ./ournal of CoLsttutitnal Steel Re*arch-
vol. 15, no. 2, Elsevier, 1990,!p.99-120,
125. R. T. Leon and D. J. Amermd, 'Seni'dgid Cohposiie Conneciions for Grevjty Loads,'
AISC EnaineerineJaumdL,1d quater 1990,!p.1-10.
126. R. M. Lloyal anrl H. D. Wlisht, "Shear Connection between Composite Slabs lnd St€el
Beans," Jaurnal af Consttuctional Steel Resedrch, eol. 15, 1990, pp. 255 285.
12?. W K. Lucus and D- DaMin, "Steel and Comlosite Beahs ivith Wel Openinss," SM Aeporr
23, Center for Resea&h, UniversitJ' of Kmsd. LaMence, 1990.
128. L Alsam6am and R. T. Leon, "ExpenmeDt€1 lnvestigatioD ofcomlosite BeD Deflectios'
P/oceedtzgs, Thiil Intemaliotul Co.ference on Steel-Concrete Comlosite Sbuctures, SeF
2G29, 1991.Fukuoka, Japan, p!.401-407.
129. R. P, Jolnson and N. Molenstra, "Partial Shear Con.ection in Compositc Beams fE
Btrilalin$," Proceedings, Insiiiufion of Civil EDgineers, vol. 91, lErt 2, necember 1991, pF
679-104.
130. S. A. Mirza md B. W. Skrabek, "Relisbility of Shori Composite Bean Coluhn Sf.en€Il
InteractiaL," Jaumal of Structutu| EnqireeinE, ASCE, 1991, no. 8, pp. 2320 2339.
131. M. Aschheim, A. Astaneb, and J. Moehle, 'Experinenial Sluilies of Short Conlosir.
Colunns." Pro.e?d;n€s,Stmctu.es Coneless92, ASCE, 1992,p!. 910-913.
132. A. Azizinamini, B. Prakash, and D- Salmon, "Force Transfer Mechanism for Ste€l
Cornections to Tubes Filled with Concr€te," Pacific Simctual Steel Conferenc€, ftLJa
1992.
 7.7

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7.8 Chapter Seven

7.3 Design
D1. U.S. Paient 743,086, Sedat 155,6?7,"Composjte Shuctural Member," issued to Julius
Khan ofDeboit. Mich.. on Nov 3. 1903.
D2, "Progress Report of the Speciat Committee on Concreie and Rein{orced Concrete,"
buu sd.rtod, ASCE, vo]. 66, 1910,pp. 431-493.
D3. E. S. Andrews, Alenentarr Principles af Reinforced. C.ncrcte Constructian, Scott,
Greenwoodad Sons(Enslad), 1912.
D4. "Progress Report of ihe Special Committee or Concretc and Reinforced Concrete,"
Ila6@tions, ASQE,!o1, 77. 1914,p!, 3893?.
D5. "Finai Relort of the Joini Comittee on CoDcreie md R€infoted Conoete," ?e"td.rto,s,
ASCE, rol. 81, 1917,p!.1101 1206.
D6. U.S. Patenl 1,597,278,Sedal465,352, "Cohlosite Bean Constumtioq' issued to Jrilic
Khan ofYoungstoM. Ohio, on Aug. 24, 1926.
D7. R. R. Zippmdt, "A Review of TestEto Dei€rmine Efiect of Concrete Floors and Fire!rcoing
on Stressesin Siractual Ste€1,'Joz.uzl, WSE, vol. 34, 1929,pp. 286 299.
D8. "The Steel ad hon Amendment to New York City\ Buildins Code." taA,aeetns Neus'
n€cor.t, Apr 10, 1930, !p- 692 624.
D9. "Joint Standad Buildins Code,"ACI, Delroit, 1932.
D10- U.S. Patent 2,016,616, Spiral Shear CoDnectoN, issued to Otto Schaub on Oct. 8,
1935.
D11. "Slecification for the Desisn, Fabncation and Ercction ofstructural Steel for Buildi.gs,"
AISC,1936.
D12. C. P Cueni, "Cohposiie Sfeel ald Reinforced Conoete Construction lbr Highway
Bridges,"Aoa& oz.l Srr.ts, Decehber 1939,pp. 499.
D73. Alpha Campasite Co6tructian Eneln.einE Hund6oo&, Porete M@ufactuine co., 1940-
EiDanded editions Dublished in 1949 dd 1953.
D13A. L M. viest and C. P Siess, Desisn of Cbonel Shea Comectob for Composita I-Be@
Bidges," Pztl;c Aoodr, Ap. 1954,pp. 9 16.
D14. "Standa.il Specifications for Highway Bridges," Amcdcan Association of State Highway
Omci!16 (AASIIOI, Washington,D.C.. 1957.
D15. L M, Viest, R. S. Fountain. and R. C. Singleton. CompositeConstruction in Steel and
Cancrcte far Bndees atd Buildtags, McGraw-EiI, New York, 1958.
D16. JoiniASCE ACI Cohmittee on Comlosit€ Construclion, '"lentative Recommenilations fo.
ihe De6je! and Construciion of Cohposite Bees dil Gilders for Bu dings," Jozrul o/
the Stru.turul Diaisiad, !,SCE, vol. 86, De@nber 1960,pp. 7+92; see also Jozltu1, ACI-
December1960,pp. 609 628.
D17. "Specilication for the D€sien, Fabdcation dd Erection of Structual Sieel for BuildinCa,'
AISC- 1961.
D18. "Slecification for th€ De6ig!. Fabrication ed Erection of Structual Steel for Buildinss,"
AISC. 1963.
D19. R. S. Delaneter, "Dxperihenial De6isn lor Short-Span Bridges," tzgtu eertne Neus
Be.ord, ao1. L'12,Mar. 26. 1964. pp. 22 2X.
D20. R. W. Flrrone, "Desisn of Sieel Enca6ed Concrcte Beam-colnmns," Journal af the
Sttuctural Dilisi.t, ASCF, J anuary 1968,!p. 267 281.
D21. "Interim Specifications 1966 1967," A-{SHO Committee on Bddses and St ctures-
Washington,D.C., 1968.
D22. G. S. Vincent, "Tentative Cdteria for Loail Factor lesiEn of Steel Highvay Blidges,'
Bulletin 15, Ameican ircn and Steel Institute, Mdch 1969.
D23. "Specification fo. the Desien, Fabncadon and E&ction ofsiructural Stecl for BuildiDes,=
Arsc.1969.
D94. J. W Fisher 'Desicn of Composite Beams with Fomed Metal Deck," -4JSq Ezgi,ez.tng
JoumdL JulJ 1970,pp. 88 96.
D25, E. E. Dellai.e, "Celhiar Steei Ftoors Maiure," Cioil ta€.izeertng, ASCE, vol. 41, Jllt
1971,p!. ?0-74.
D26. W. C. Ilansell ad L M. Vicst, "Load Factor Dcsign for Steel Highvay Bridges." -4JSC
Eneneenne Joumal O.rober 19?1,pp. 113-123.
D2?. "Inteim Specilicaiion, 1971," AASHO Committee on Bridges anil Structrfts, Washinston
D.C.,19?r.
D28. J. P. Colaco. '!{ StDh-Gidcr System for High'Rise Bnildi.Les] Eneineerine JourlaL |JSQ-
vol. 9, 2d qEter t9?2, p!.89-95.
 7.9

D29. R. P John6on,"Design of ComFositeBeam. sith Deep Hauncnes,"p.o.sdtfs, ICE, vol.

51.Jauary1972, p!. 83-90.
D30. A. G. Tarics, "Concreie-Filled Sieel Colnmns for Multisrory Consuuction,,' ,tlode.u Sreel
Comtlz.doz, vol.12,AISC t9?2, pp. 12-15.
D31. P \yeidlinger "Shear Field Pancl Bracins, ASCE Annust and National EDvjfonmental
M€eting. OcNober19?2,Houston,Tby.
D32. J. L Colaco, "Partial Tube CoDcept for Mid-Rjs€ Sdtcttre6," Eh eineering Jaurndt, !\ISC,
rol 11,4th Quarler 1974,pp.81 a5.
D3J.f Da.4_\p/.4,.tapta,fN. c B d o r . . o . b , d , , - . . L . n , B p C u u d { i nL i , d
D34. R. l'. JohNon and L M. May, "Parrial hiefdcrion D€sisn of Conposte Beams.' flr.
qt t tLratL.
E . p a , v o l 5 1 .n o .' r d L g l s t q 7 5 p ! - 0 5 1 . .
D35. R. \t. Iurtong, "AlSc Colunn LositMdk€s S€;se fo. Composft€cotun.s, Too,, _4.sc
EneineerinEJournal. lst Qta{er 19?6.DD.1 ?.
Piq :luildlle code Requiremenrsfor Rei.Joic;d concrere (Acr 318-7?),,,ACr, D€rroii r9??.
D37. W. C. Ilgnsell, T. V Calahbos, M. It Rdlindra, anit I. M. Vi€st. .ComDositeBearrcrircia
. n L R r D . J o , a l a r t , , S . " J r . u t o lD t o.. A5.F.ut. tOj S;od. uF-.o?E.pp.
1109-7426.
D38. lI. Robinsn, E. l{. Fahmy, dd M. H. Arni, "ComposireOpcr-Web Joists with D.forhed
MeteJFlao\" Canadidn JoumaL ofCiil EnEinarine,M.rch 19?8,pp. r lO.
D39. "Specificationfo. fhe D.sien, Fabncation a;d Ereciion ofSr.ucd.J stccl for Bdldinss..
Alsc, 19?8.
D.10. SSIC Ta,sk eroup 20, A Specificarion tor the D€sign of Ste€l-Conc..tc Cohposfte
_- ColuhG,' ,4aSC EDg; reering Jaunlal, 4th quarter, 19?9, p!. tot 115
Ir41. R. Ejo.hovde and T. J. zinnehan, ,Sone
AspectB ;i Siub cirder Desisn., AISC
r r e , , n EJ o ' r ' o t o l . . 7 r o Q r o r e l t q E o . ! p S . H g
D4z. l V L" dnoo6 ano c,apJi-, ' . " i
e - i d t o " a ; a p o . i " r ' o t r m , . , d B e J m( o r t u ! . ,
w ! - h i e D d U n ! r - r "r .. S L o L r . .A l o . 9 8 0 .
Di13. T. J. Zimmeman and R. Bjorholde, "Analysis lnd Desisn of Srub cirders, ' Sl/,.rz,zl
EnqineeringRepart 90,Unlversity oftlberta, Ednorlo!, Canada,March 1981.
D44. E. llartilez Romero. "Conlinuous Stub cir.lcr Structurat Srsten for Ftoor Dectrs.,,
ftar?j, A,p-i. EVRSc. N-t.o CicJ.Ijelho 98,
D r i R B j o l o \ o e ." E . f " d so F o R - - ' r a n ' o n . o u o " S - e h g j h p-s.i." \ppt..ho
l/SC EnEineetin+Jou.aal 1984. oD 1-13 "
0 4 6 . H . B o o F E i r s - B r m p r kr c p / i . V ^ " d u - C , n o r o : o t . . h 4 1. m s r a t r t \ F " o L - d b "
aestrcn.,i iot,t, Instiiu! fiir kolstruktiver Ingenieubau, Ruhr Unjvefsitit Bochuh,
Seltember 1984,pp.399 411.
D47.L.\. l.,hi"nd dJ K. Rit.tc.torp,:r Ftao.\J.e.s.\a aoi" ..JI .o S..I
I o d " l r u c l o n . W i U o q d a l aO. n , e i . , c r . a o a . t 9 8 , 1
D48. N. M. Eawkins and D. Mitchell, ..Seisnic Responseof Conposire Shear Colneciions,,,
- J " d F o t a t S ! t u d , t u t a B , " p . , . e . A s a L . v o t t i o . t q S ap p 2 i 2 0 2 t J 6
u 4 e - t { - , l a r g u l o r| o ' . \ n i r n . o r d E c c " l l , U - F , l f o " p d w F b p " 1 F . - " , . - . u o p o " i , ,
B€ams A DesignAid," U.S. Steet Corp., p rsbu4h,1984.
D50. 'Specifications od comhentdies foicomposite-Sieel Ftoor Deck,,, Sreel Dectr Ihstiiure,

D51. Specificationsfd rle DesiF. and Consrnctiob of Composiie Slabs ard Comnenrary or
_ _ specifilaiions forthe Design and consrncuod ofco-poiite stat,,'escr, roel.
D52. C- V€llenilla and F, Bjorhovde, "EiTectiveWidih Cdi€ria for ComposfteB.an6_'A/SC
EneineerinAJourtdl, \ol,22, 1985.DD.169-17I.
D53. L. G. Grif{ls, "Some Desisn Considerarions for Comlosit€ F.ahe Srructures,' ,41SC
Eqineerine Jaurndt,2d qnarter, 1986,pD.Eg si!.
D54. M.-$'alrabayashi. Desien of Edrthquak; R.sinau I Bz'dtngs, Mccraw-llil, Ne{ york,
1986.
D55."Load & Rsisfance Factol D esisn," Matual af Steet Cansr.z.ri.4 AISC, 1986.
u56."Load and Resjsijdrce Factor D€sien Specificauon for Sr.ucturai Sl.eel Buitdinss,' AISC,
Chicaeo.Ill.. 1936
D't-. .StiuctuEl Calculations of Sieei R€infor.ed Condete Sbuctures,' A.chit€ crur,l trstitute
D58. D . D " . w r n s l d R ( Du-d\ey. LRFD h-rumposr. Bpd*.r,h U renro.rld$..
Opqi r o t a s t r t t u t E A . n e c . n: e . A S . E . , n . r t 4 t 9 8 8 .p p , t 5 i 5 2 .
-e,. hr'
D59. c c ' D c e J " | r ' J ' q ' \ | t a a d J o ' J ' s d ' D e d g i o ' ' I 4 o r " n | . U M ; ; i
7.10 ChapterSeven

Fhmed Stncture6," Phil M. F€rguson Stncturl EngiDeeirg Labomtory, University of

TexasdlABtin, Repod 88-1,1988.
D60. C. M. Donoghue, 'Conlosiie Beans with Web Openi^ss. Desisa," Joumat of AbuctutuI
F n E r ? " r ? g ,q S C F \ o . l . 4 , . o ' 1 , I 9 a 8 . o D . 5s - q t a .
D 6 l . R . W F L r l o n g . S . " " | - C o r , r e l " ,o r p n 6 r ; c o l r n . . - t t . ilSnrt Cot,reaa.qphrta
Srzcru Es, edited bJ R. Narayanan, Etsevier Alplied Sciences, 1988. p!. 195 220.
D62. W ZeiLDer, "Recent D€sien of Cohposft€ Bidges and a New Tr"e oi Shear Connecron,"
Pmceedtzss, EnsineeriDs Founilatiotr Conferoce on ComDosite CoNrruciion_ ASCE 19sa.
pp 240 252.
D63- Wbration of Steel-Conc.ete Slab Floors,,, Tecbnicsl Digesr E, Steel Joisr Instiure, Myr e
Beach.S.C..1988.
D64. R. B. Heagle! LRFD Desic! Mdudl for Compo6iieBeams and cidcrs w ! Ste€i Deck."
s t " p t D p . . l n l r r u r p .I n c . d n r o n , O - . r 9 8 9 .
D65. M. Patrick anil D. Ise, "Comlosite Beam Web Penerration Desisn Methods-putrine
.. T h F u r i o o P % , ' ( F . ' S " p ' C . u t , a t . a n \ . 6 r . t t a ' .\ u ' 2 3 . n o .3 9 8 o ! p | | 2 8 .
D56. "Blildins Code Rcquirements for Reinforced Conoere and CoDnenra; ACI 818-89 &
A C Tr l S n 8 9 . -A C l . D e t r o n .1 9 8 9 .
D6?. "SpecificatioD for Sbuctu.al Steei BuililiDgs, Allosable Sttess Desien anrl plastic Desien,"
A]SC. ChicaEo.I939
D68. D. teNin, iDesign-ofsteel anil Composite Beam6 rvth W€b Opcning6,,,Steel Design
Guid. Eeies 2, AISC, Chicaso,1990.
D69. D. I)aryin ud W C. L!ca6, "LRFD for Sieel and Composite Beams with Web Openings,'
Journal af St/u.turaL Eneituc.tze, ASCE, vot. 116, 1990, p!. 15?9 1598.
D?0. J. P Lebet, "Composit€Bfidge6,'S/mr Co&.se,IABSE, Biussets 1990,pp. 14?,164,
D?1. R T. Lsn, "Serviceabilit Crjteia for LRFD Comrosfte Floor6," prc;;edrzss, Narionsl
S r p F l c o n l p " - ne, , A l S . . a l ^ " s o . . 9 9 0 .o D b I - 8 . 2 t .
Uiz. R.tL"n1-"SprviFE!ij.]r"rte." i r i c o r p " - , " B e d 6 6 . T o u B u t t , t i " E s2 a 0 0o n d
Berozd, Lehigh University, B€thlehem, Pa., 1990, !p. 947 962.
Dt3. I. Alsamsam, "Sericeability Criteia for Compo;te Ftoor Sy6l,ens," ph.D. rhesi6, The
Uriversity of Mime6ots,Au$st 1991.
D74. L. G. Griflis, "Load and Resistance Factor De6jsn ofw Shapes Encased in Concrer€,"
s r - . D e - r g r C L d e S e n e -6 , A l S . , c n r . 5 s o . t 9 9 , ,
D / 5 A 1 4 . D r " p €h d D . A n d e \ " n . a o m p o d ; B e d a s C . 6 t . L a o n o t \ p a D a " E 1 . E t n p v . ,
t . n , p P r b l o t a r n ,N e R v n - k , t 9 9 2 . o o . a z I 4 4 2 .
D?6. K. Roikin.l R. Berghann, "Conposile Cohhrs,' Constrlctiondt Stect Design, F-16e\iet
S . i F n + P L b l i . h " r , \ F 4 Y o r " , t 9 9 2 ,o D .r 4 3 4 , O
D?7. R zand,il.i al d R T. L{r .o;;Fi," i o , r - r o n s . i o n . t , l . t i " 1 o , S t p p tD p e t l l
Elsevier SciencePublishers. 1992.D!.501 522
D?8. ASCE Task Cohmitt€e on Des*; criteri! for Comlosite Srructur€s in Steet anil 7.
c o _ ' r " r - . ' c o n r e h s - J o n P . o p " " e dS p e r i l r . s r , 1r ; r S t r u c . u f a S t r " " t B e a n su t h
y-1bq!"9-F.'J",r?a/.Ist.diu,o EiL.,ppine \o tr8. DerFrbpr r992 pp.

D?9. ASCE Task QommirLee on Desie! Cdteria for Compo6ite Structures in Steel and
Concrete, "Proposed Specification for Structural Sre;l Benms wifh Web ODeninss."
- J a u r n o to l c n t L t o t L r C t l p a a . e \ a . | 8 D a . p m b p rt 9 9 2 .! p J 1 t 5 J - 2 1 .
D 8 0 . 8 u i . d d s . o d " R p o u r r " o- n , 6 f o ' R e i do r p o c o n r ? r - A ( t t l 8 8 r q 2 , u d . o m m e n t a n
'
{ C I I 1 8 R . 8 99 2 r " A r l . D p r r o i l 1 9 9 2 .
Dal. LRFD Desien Mdnual for C.apasite Bedms and eird.ers uiLh Steet Dech, Steel Deck
Institute, Canton. Ohio. 1992.
D82- D. E. Allen abd T. M. Muhay, Vibration of Conposiie FtooN,' pmc€edings, Sfnctues
Congress,ASCE, 1993,pp. 1491,1.196.
D83. A. Azizinahini aDd B. Prakash, ,,A Tenrativa Desisn Guidelinc for Nee Steel Beam
conre on Ddoil lo conbos rc TLbe .otff". at:a E1L.."pd,,E ,t"L-rdl. Jo eu*r
1993,pp. 108 115.
D84. R. B- Heagler. L, D. Luttrell, and $l S. Easte.ling, C,mposite Dech Design Eandboah,
Steel Deck L6titute. Cdtor. Ohio.1993.
D85. F P Juhisn and D Arders.1, D nE?" Hu.Jbouh ta Eun.dp a. paF t.t: D,sten of
rlon p.r. t, \1p4 o nd Co t, rpla {a,.r,".,'fho n"q,Ie or.t. LoddoD. ggJ.
D 8 6 R . l \ 4 . L a $ . o h . ' S t " a - . o h n e . r i o i r i u m D o s i r cB r " m . . ' p ; o . " " d , , s F . C o n t F , " n r e
-
CompositeCon6tructionin Steel and Conc.eleiI, A]SCE,1993,p!. 81 9?.
D8?. M. L- Porter, Eisblishts of the New ASCE Srandards on co;;oste Deck Floor Slabs."
 Literature 7,11

P/oce€.it"gs,Dngine€ing Foundarion ContereDce.n Conposite Corstnction II, -{SCE

1993,pp.114-124.
D88. B. M. Shaluooz, M. E. Rcmmefrer, and F. ein, scisnic Desisn an{r pcfforhance or
Conlosite Coupled \t'alls, Jo u dt of Stru.toal Ensnzert€, ASIE. vol. 119. November
1 9 9 3 ,p ! . 3 2 9 1 3 3 0 9 .
D89. A Staegel lnd R T Leon, ,Desien of SemtRigi{l Conposfte Fmne6_,,D.sien Gui.jc tO,
AISC, Cnicago,1993.
D90. N. Wer].f, "Conrosite cirders wth Partiat Resl,fainrs: _{ Nci! r\ppfoach,,,,.USC
EnCineerineJouhal,2derarrer 1993.p!.68 ?5.
D91. "Load lnd Resistdc. Factd Design St;cificarion for Stnctud Silet Buildings,,,AISC,
Chicaso,1993.
D92. ASCE Task Cohnitree on Desisn Critefia lbr Cohlosii,e Sr.ucture6 in Sre€l and
Condei€_ "Guidelire6 for D€sign ot Joinrs borweenSteciBcahs and R€inaorcc.tConrete
Caltmns," IturnaL af Srrurtu rat Engir€enzs, A,SCE,Aucnsr 1994.pp.23BO t35t.
D 9 3 . " C o m p o s i t aS t e e t a n d C o n c . e t eS t r u c t u r e D c ! i s n R a , r t r n €m . ; t ; . r h a D . i . N E H R P
Reconmended Plovisions for 54smjc RFeularb; for N.\ tsuitdrrs, Bu;tdrne ScjsDic
Safety Council, t994.
D9,!. 'Eurocode
no. 4-De6ign ofC.mtosite Src.j add Condct. St.uctlues,' Conhjssiln ofrhc
Exfopean CodnDitic-q. British Stcct Insrirurc, Lordon. 1994.
D95. Load & R€sistanceFactor Design,"rvd,dot .l Sreeta\,1sh-uctian,AJSC). j 9g1.
D96. NEERP li€comnenaledproqouft for Sebmu Eegntairors fur Ne$ Burldmrjs, tsuildnrg
S €i s n i c S a f e t y C o u n . i t , 1 9 9 4 E d r h o n \ y a . h n r r r n n n C , 1 9 9 . 1 r I . . . u F i b j , F e d c r a l
Emeqcncy Managcnent As€nr! .b duemLn is FEjd\ 2,j2A a nd 22t.\. Mar r 9!;.l
D9?. "hoposed Revisions ro Euitdmg Cortr R.qnrFmente inr Rarnturred fnn:rere fAcl 318-
8 9 t ( R e v l 6 e d 1 9 9 2 j , a D d C o m n e n t a r y - A C I j 1 8 R - 8 9 ( R e , i s €d 7 9 9 2 ) , , ,C o r c r e t e
1zle/zartoadl ACi, Decenber 199,1,pp. ?6-128
D98. 'Standard Specificaiionfor Htghway Bridges LRFD Approach,.,Arneric!! Assocution ot
_-- State l{ighrayand Tlansportation Olliciats (d{SHTO), $rashineton,D.C., r 994.
D99. "SbucruMl Weldins Code Sre€l,ANSVAWS Dl.1 9,1,.c!a!. ?:Si,ud \\etdirg, ^hencan
Weldine Socioty,1994.
D100. Building CodcRequif€mc.ts for Srructural Conc.ete(ACI 318-95j,nd Commenrar, {ACI
316R 95),"ACI, Fahinston Filis, Mich._1995
D101. ASCE Task Comnirte€ on Dcsign Citeri! for Conlosit,e Stncrures in Steel a.d
Concrete,"Ptlpos€d Slecificarion and Conmentafy ibr Conlosite Jojsrs nnd Compostc
Trusses.,-lourrol ol Sr/,.rurdl ti€rrdi,s, A,SCE,lot 122. i996, rrp.i5O_358.

7.4 Construction
C1.'ARdarkabieHouscir?oftChcsterN.ta,,'?/r,Anzri.drArchitectat.tBuiktinENeus.
Aug. 18. 1877is€ealsodclJoz/ndl, March 1975.D!. 10i lto.
.2 \v. E $.,d d" o i- ,. mor a'ro. a: ,o, ,; B u . | o .J, I 4 d . | . 1 | n o s , . . .
s E l t , r " " r - v o j.orr J u . . t 8 8 r p p r D d1 o o .
^^ lJ:r.r- " - 1v.!i,-
19. uu 'l 1s rldl"' al. ,'r d | | U-. Fi'. P., | .on" -u, ia-. BL
(Ne{ Yorl Citv), D€c€mber1887 et 5eo. I.

.i 1 ! , l d " a : : S f , I o o - i r g .t . c ' e " , s \ a . . . , r .pmn.,r88 r..rJ

r A l \ p r - c i + P t o F l ,o r . t , . j - " , , . . " A p . . . o t .2 . . a p . t { ) , 8 q l ] . l p .J 6 t 0 9
.6. .I J \\"o. , - f ,F P oo'.,n , E . n t 1 ] - .. 8 C . o p , 4 - . 8 8
C7. "ElTeclsofFic on€ Cht"ugoeuitU"g or ni..-r,ooi io""ti""ti".." ir"g",";,:,"nN",,r, D"".
1 . 1 8 9 1 r. D . 5 1 1 5 1 2 .
C8. W W Sabir,'lir€ Proot Constlucrior,' Joulzdl, AssociarionofEhs.in€edns S.cierjes.vot
12, Msrch 1893,!p. 132-151,
.9 "1nTlr ot"ro.r,f,,.\,10,^,irJ L.," ""..8v". Ao1tJ..'qr p.::6.
r'0 c u.vdr.d,.,L.si, o H-t. ^d,;d..,- .As, F vo !. ,89j.pp 1.j j09.
C1l C.1. Purdr dBcu*ion ofR€t cr2, ?)znsd.rjoas,ASCE, rol. j1, 18d4,;p. 4rs- 459.
c12. Fr von En!e4er, "The De'elopmen! and Rccent Impr.!.heDi of Con;;ct. rroa Hish$,a)''
B 1 d r e s . -D J - o . o ? . .A \ i F . \ o r ' r p l , S o a .p p . , t - S
cr. J v wl.o,. ti',L.,.10t n.,.27\..,a1,o.trrc..o,1 oudpp j;9 4Lo.
r'1 Alr.cnAr \Rail|a..B o F o .pB o?..-"t .28. a9-.p rr,-
q t "f:1,-'" a'. B-ioe r's -p -"" ^. . \o. ,. rsoi , e5.
.''i'Il"-anAl.rB1ot".-E g?,..j.e \,, .Lr,r 8.i.p.,, q
7.12 ChaplerSeven

C1?. "The Roebliacwire anil ConcrcteConstruciion for Floors ed Watls,,,rzsiru€rzs ffeus,

July 18,1895,pp. 496.
.18. "[,lplaC n o n . F r -a n dS t e e l A r c B
n n d g p . T o p " tK
s .f l r . . -E r y ] n " e i €N - , " A p t . 2 t A g 6 .
. 19. F B. cbDoLl. _f ircproo^ngoi waFI^o;ses.
'Steel-Concrete roL",o/. usE.;p.i 8-98.
C20, G. Hill, Construction,"ftdasadtors, ASCE, vol. 39, June 1898,pp.
6 1 7S 3 5 .
C21- Q. T, Pudr "Ca BuildingsBe MadeFire!.oofl" ?loa@rioan ASCE,voi. 39, 1898,pp.
121-t46.
. 2 2 f o n + r p a n q E s p a n d pVae r a H l i s h e a JB F d g ,' o o s r . r ' o n i r U t e g h p n J a o r . p\ .a -
rng.ne€nrg rYzu(, ldrb j p.iu.
c23. -l-om rucl'oh ulrhc TopekaMelsd Br'dg". Ens,a""rrc F"mrJ Apr .6, . 899.
c 2 4 ' n o R F . p . \ . ' e l a rA r c i B . i d g e . . 'f , e , ; * / i , t v ! s. Nc. to,t89b
.2". ^l Stpa a,iJ,j"E. wrt"\. NFr yo,k. tolr9 pp -t 40,
" K f . " i l r e . 7 h p F t , .p " a o i n e
5A-75.222 223.
C26, 'Ihree-Span Melsn Arch Briilge aooss Passaic River, pateNon, N.J.," ,zstu ertDg N€u6,
Me. 16, 1899.
r'27. J S iaorunni
-56*pl-. f o r B L i d r n g - . _t r g l , e ? 1 4 a v , , , . \ o . 4 8 . t \ 2J. tg\t. op.
334-33s
c a 8 " F o d h S ' r c e tB n d s c . l ^ r r e r . u u . , o { a E r A ' ? , ' / r , s p " . o - d F ^ n . u J n , i , t 9 0 4 .
c29. Shon SDa. B.ioees drp B" ro.eu;ot . F;,ro5d 'L,s;ff,,;ne h4.d.ou.p t6,
1906. "n
C30. W. H. Eut, "The Reinforced Conoeie Work of tho Mccrsv BuitdinE." ?)"@Dso.rtozs.
A S a E . r . l . 6 0 . 1 9 0 8p. p . 4 4 J 4 5 7
C31 J.A Jamie$n, dikussion ofRel C3O,Dorsocto^,ASCE, vot. 60, 1908,p!.46!-466,
432. J - MeIn, Plain and Eeinforced. Corcrcte A..hes, translated by D. B. Srei;an, New york.
1917.
C33- H. G. Balcom, Lew Yorks Tsll€si SkysdaFe!,' Ciutl En€ineat,e, ASCE, vot. 1, March
1931. DD.46? 4?l
_W-liNdo,
C!4. E "R@dways on Bridses,,' trgizeeriae tr'eus-fecdnl, Ma. 1?, 1938, !,p

C35. E. W Bowd€n, "RoailwaJs on Bddges," paft II, Ea€..'reeinE NeusRecoftt, Mat.24, tgBA,
pp,442't41.
c36. A B Cohen, "Major Bridge Rellacement uder ftltffc;' Eneiwefing Nebs Re@rd, !ot.
128, Seltember 1942,p!. 926 929.
.3? FLonitro. C p d a r n e . z J f b a u l c n p d D L r l n o i t d u n s\ o o D . r c l t a u i l - d g p a i . \ ^ r b d n d
Bz\*eise,' Der Bauineeniell (Berlin), vol. 25, 1950, pp. 305-306.
C38. C. M- Noble, "Standa.dizeil De6ign md Ca.eful Schedutins Speeil Consiruction," Ciut
EnEtvpl tnE. ASCE vo. 22, Juudy t952. oo. a6j,
( - g C . D . F s h . _ C J m p o s i r . . o h b r n , j o . V s i ; s s " n s e . r o , s " a r " g E r s t n p p f ,\ o t . t
Ma\
1956,pp.51-55.
C40. K R. Scu, "Welded-Stud Shear Connectors for Sourh DakotaBidce," Cirit Etsi@ein4_
ASCE, el.26, June 1956,!p.3u0.
C41. A W Coutrjs, "Euope'6 Iongesf SDspensionBndge,, Eryineerinc NeusEecont,May :r4-
1 9 5 9 ,p ! . 4 1 4 6 .
Cr2 'Tar.dv le Su6D"!qiaa B.idg1.- Ih" Lae,."pa AuE. 4. 9S9.p!.82ib.
c 4 1 L H o o p c ra n d J . C . H o r c h K $ . - q e o r d ; o f . o m p ; s i . e c o n s u ; d o n . E q j a p a i , s , N p , s .
Record,val 164,Mt.21,1960, pp. 84- 85.
( 4 4 . - D c r o i r s C o n \ p n L i oA-r ( a d M a a o b oH J i , 4 , u . / E 4 s i ? e p , r r 8 , A i r ^ t . \ o . i t . F e b . u 6 .
1961,pp.33-3?.
C45. PPfasp.Jr..odDo.i,pDesistrurBulone--Ptu"pedi"e<. AS.E .ohIe.-n, . on SLei
r-orrLe lof BdildinCa . nd BFdepsprrt.burgoo . d . .V " T h 2 , 2 8 . t q 6 2 . .0
_ , Md !p |
c46 "Woid Faoe {-anral. an lnno\sriod in Sl,aptConst-u, ion: r4o,trn cb" a;N ru.l@n.
AISC.tsrQLanpr tgbj. pp 3 5.
{ ' 1 7 I S F r l d . ' S J p e r s l n c r r F l o r L I 5 O - R W o r o T l e d a C - n r e - . ' a n j / F , €; , i . , / . €, A S a E .
June 1971,pp. 66-?0.
C4A. 'Buikling Design Reduces Ste.l with Conoer!-Ilrbe Wind Bmcing,,, trytn?etue lr'eas,
A€.or4 Jbe 3, 1971,p!. 18 19.
c 4 9 . " C o r p s S l a p e , P l s s i " D e 6 r e nJ o n l o r H r g l R i s F E . o d o r y - e 4 ! , r , q t n E , \ p u s - F a c o 4 .
N l q 4 , 1 9 ? 1 ,p p 2 6 2 7 .
C50. D. Belford, Conposite Steer-Conoete Buililine Ftutuq" Ciuit Ensiruetine, /,1CE, J1i,
19?2-DD.61-65.
 Literature 7,13

C51. H. S. Itengar "Buldled Tubc Stfuctue for SearsToiver,,,Ciu tzeiaa.,rA, ASCE, vot,
.!2, Novehber 19?2,p!. ?1-?5.
C52. 'Stubs Atop Girder Flange Cut Building Cost 60 Cents per Sq Ft," rrei,eet,g lr'.rs
,Re.o/4Aug. 31, 19?2,p. 31.
.tl C . D r h a p r r a l q J r d R . F J . F r . B r d s p o \ p , . t " . t u n o " t a . d , - B L t , e t i nT . . h n n . . er p
t o S L : . s aR r t o d " , v , q 9 .A D . i 1 9 , J . D o .r : ] 8 t 4 0
r51 5 H lJc gar -ad J J Zi". r-ompi- e Ftm, S).r"m ror c"".s Tos"r, 4/jc
r n e . r p - . B . i v . r . o t 3 d q u 5 " r . 9 7 3 . D D1 4 8 t .
c 5 5 . J P . u l a . o t u o P V B M d e l k a r - D p - n r o ipt r e AN"i str rrSracr ra'Sy.rems,
ASCE-L{BSE R€eionalConferenceon Tall Buitdinss, Banskok, Thaitand. 197,1."
.-: 6 bo, ol Bu i o . h s q'.in
b - n a r i o . , o r o e o b j L " J ; L . R ; p ^ : o n c a s o , .r o r . h " . o r - l
or raI b ,rdrngF & U"bd Hob lE abolr 975
.r/ k.oul. -.ommd J \ , t " r . o dw! .i t e y , N e { \ o r { , ] a , /
/ - 5 8 "J . L . o , c oa d o . \ . B o h a v a( r r - R p . p
U . a - o r i e s r u b C i r d p -S y c . p h . p r F c r . p o d l
r'ej1q. \ um" L rpF-ir or1 "p! . ip,d ,n Dire.uryr ps., :e?9
.^-_: .-. q . F N o n E . o r . " r ' i oBo " l a dE ,U n , o h \ F di o l r i . o n D o - c - n o o , c , - p n 6 - M E . r r r . , !
U l i f p " " . \ o l d o p n d .E o l o r r J . A l t F I d . a t u d L a , 9 ? q .
-r1'
t. \,r \'".."1\a"-B,roepsh-M,dirsod!.. F j n a rF . , o . E t e J e h , ta o - e - . s 6 ,j A B s L .
1980,pp. 803 806.
C60A. "Pumped Conoere Ciimbs ?5 Flights,,' tzglaeertng Ne&s ,R€.,rd, Mar j, 1981,
28 29 !p.
c6l. P' v Ban€!-alhar, .T€ras pe.rod,.d,
cohmerce Tb$€r, Eousion (Texas. usA),' r;Bst
January 1982.pp. 16 1?.
C62. W J. LeMessuier, "Toward the Ulrimate in Cohposite Frames,,,Bu dtng Destgu &
Co,stru.r;oz, Novembo 1982. 18 21.
16r - J o . n d a n , ! . k . ( n r a . . . i , a e ; Dp.
. n o . . u s A I A B S Ep - . a d . o . . 9 8 . p p 7 1 ? : .
r-(is D.i_ Boqn. ,onDo. Tuie-.".. Bd- 8", a."e O"..g, &
1' I9o8\3. p
," ,p . U 0 1 1 3 .
a60. r o . c h A - e v B { . a - . L i 3 i 4 . . / r ' 8 \ i , ' . , R a , . r , . J .n F 6 , 9 o - p p . 2 . L 2 j
'1.\as
To\e". do-.tor . rAr, P-,. 4Ji,sc.
I , , d r , d r o r . . o n f " r , . c 4 , . 1 " t a r , d . e . . r n R a p , . .o c . o o p - . 9 8 a
r'68 L-M".s.fl:'. s - u rurd 0"..s oiDut.""Mui .ehrrr. cd rd,ohS,rr %l
Ir
t r n g D e e . r n s L o n r p F n c1 eq l j 4
C69. J. P Colaco, "?s-Sto.y Texas Comm.rce ptaza, Houston_the U6e of Eign-suenerh
.oF, r- \Dq.ot p,.o sp 8i-.. act. .9q! pp. | 8.
.^-_7-0 . K R o L d R ' 8 " , a 1 - n" o / , a , .D..,gi s. d C.ao p
"o to..on"ru,,r ,n.
1985,p!. 26?-r?8.
c?1 ' f " " r u n e, L\."pronJ,cf5n- r . s r " . t : . . 8-N1 , , 1 . . p " f . - t J t \ j . t 0 8 , . p p . - 6 _ - 1 r .
1"72, \ L r i d h ^ J - I r . $ r - s 5 u p " , t " s r " r u r " - . - , r , - s , g 1 3 . n " " , n g . .q , , - . . , . o ,
nc!,n/. beb'u8rj rq8i,pp.I49 157.
c7il. ^ u l l r f J . L " N l . J F " " S u b a + t a| 5 r , r , u r e o A q p t u , , t o r , r " t d p " . . c , 1 . . " r r .
i r e . o . d J J . u a r r r 1 9 8 5 ,p D 1 1 5 1 ; r .
c14. D : A . P I J ' F . - f o . m m , r E . C i n " " . . E . C , t b e t u , 4 ! , \ S . E . . u p 1 9 . 6 . p p . 8 r , €6 .
C/-5. , " M ' . B r ' n d , nt o v ' . t 1 t , " " 1 E N e j . P p" r N o \ .1 3 .
9 s 1; r * r f l : ""'
C?6. C J. Baro, 'Nes Standads f.. Innovatile Comp.site Consrrucrion,,,?/,e Cozsrrz.r,,u
stlrfa. \n] 1988 pp 84 89.
r"7 r I s . I \ F . e o r '.. o n o o . . " I v y F o
1 " . . . . I L . d os \ o F h " . t t l . F a l . p a i - e p , o . " ,
s l r i n s 1 9 8 8 !, p . 3 1 , 3 3 .
C?8. D. A Platten, "llomcniun ptace, St€el Sotves Comptex c€ometie6,- Madem Staet
LbDsr.ucri.,, no, 2, 1988.DD.9 15.
' :q X. c | o . . . l ! . n " p . . . o n p o s ' e B , o A p sr o r r l E c p c p o T - a : n " p . o a i n . e .
"r
Lr- | pp.,ntf, undrr .onno.r".on;,...1 .- dc.c !J88,pl
207-2LA.
C80. J, L Tlrchnan and R. cibb, ,Architect,s
Vision, Bdk6 Visibitity,,,tngtree.izs N..!s
Ee..f.l Oct. 13, 1988,l]p. i]6-46.
. -. '" t" .. qp";rd ru | . r . - . 1 e " - : E \ . l . F e . . - . . F " b 1 6 .r e o g j1ji].
'1!l - r! "o' n o p j p d n d q " , I U " r 1 L" a p . i r e N , u s . R a , , . , t . J .t 'qJ r q g o . p p . . O .! tp,
r'83. !V h. J.rd\'tsal* o .hra,ow;r"Ar : E t t o r . t r o a " B a .$ . . a 9 . J r e
t90. a, .:a
7,14 ChapterSeven

C84. M. R Smith, "Supo Colm6 Speed C&S plaza Bnildi\E," Atlafid Bdinns Chronick,
O c i .? , 1 9 9 1 .
C85. "Cohpositc Design Creates Slender Sincture,,, Mo&.z Sr?.t Coror/ucrio,, AISC, Auglsl
1991p , p.32 u5.
CS6. Configu.ation po6esChalehges,-Eagrft.,,gNe&s ieco.d, Juh 29, t99l. DD.24_25.
c 8 7 . " S o i r p ' b ! " o T . a , i 1 0 R . " . \ r \ , ; p , , . E i " u s - R , a d . N o , . r 8 , 1 9 9 t ,p . d 4
c88. J. n Cohco, P' V BandvatLar, J. MatrL, ;nd A. wahidr, ,Criss_CrcssC;mlosite Super-
Colll]D F.ahes for 5? Sto{ Natons Ban} ptaza, Ailanta,,,p/oceeJrzgs,'Thi.il pacinc
srlir r € \ r d e . r i o , r r r c - . . F o, d a 6 1 8 , t q 9 " . M \ o . J d D a n
( 89 R. A Hpn.sc. D+oanrdhn
o t r h " o e s r s no f r h e , 1 s r ; r ) t F , F r f i " s r p t a z a B " i d i . g , n
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1992.
C90. L. Criffis dndY. Maeda,.Summ€ry nFpu]1,Case Hisrori€s Sessron,,. p&eedrzgs, Seconil
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571 516.

7.5 MiscellaneousComposite
M 1 . R A qqlchen "Comlcne Bems of Conoere and sbuciurat Steet,', ptuceedr,4.s, 41st
A m J d l M F a r n e .l o \ a E d g n e F r u r S o ! r F r j .t g n q .! p q 6 - n . .
M2, R . N c a u s h F t -P " i 4 l t , p d t . " . - , ; V"l Nosk,rd i{." vo-{,lqi6
M3. ( s - l r . ' " s u m - F F m a r L so n P r o b L h " R p a . r g r " . o m ! o s srrucrura! LCipva,ed
6,o8d4.a\!)
- t h t t d t r ^ P u , / i , / o , . t A B S f . s p v e - . h c o o 6 r e " s .t"9 b 4 .p p 6 5 ? 6 6 ? .
M4. t' t. \8. ( .npasita t'1rnsru.1,!n ir sh ono r ar, "pt". Ot en\ Lo;gDan., , Et, Jtu,
1965.
M5. b - . h p \ , €r e - o I - A a S b e ) corposir" Sree..r'olr-e!e cotumrr'on,-
.! t u , t _o,1 h tl : ."tsl l t . , t a D i r i , o 4 .A n r E . v o t . . u o . M " J 9 ? . p p . 0 8 5 _ t r 3 9
M6. \41. ttrcs al St41 ond aja|ap. ht t: B"anF cotunns,
rat. . ard App; aia , t t s , t . / , a J . . . . o s h y L o , k x o n ds l a D p s . L n . d o h ,t 9 7 i .
M?, h . 5 . r v p l e a r 1 o h o o s i / eo r M i \ e d S r e p- . o h , F r e C o n . r r u . r , o o b r B u d j n g B . A - 5CE.
1977.
M8. rlanobo"h 4roapr ,t" t a6ttr.ii4 E.Eippile, etlnerlby C M. 56bnis, Ve No"ndd,
NewYork. re?g
M9. Comhittee A41, "Mi{ed Construction,, Sr.zcrrrdl DesEn of ?dU Steel Bui.t(linEs, dtap.
SB-9.ASCE, 1979,pp. 61+804.
M 1 0 . H . B o d " . " D p r ' co D m " dn I n a o o a e - l . ' h d T u b L a r ( o u m s , " p . p d , @ . . U s J a D a
S e m i n J "0 1 . o d p o r r e a o V r e a S ' r L 1 r " S y { p n . C i h o d oS t - u p p a n. " o , L L d , T o f ;
1980.DD.260 2llC
M11. \d Dplig. at CMM;L stpt..vtu Fb.tutues Suts\ I ni,eEtrl prp"s. Lando4 .98t.
M19- uet4rup- ,. ( nlr 'n I onDo-ilp and Mil"o .orq rur'io1.- fto. eedtrJs, U.S._Japah
Spmi@
oa .umpo" p Srr.ruF' and rtued S rd .rst Sy6tph!. Fdi pd by B. heLo a;o LF-$, Lu,
Gihodo Shuppan Co..Ltd . Tok\o. 1980.
M 1 3 . H , l \ " n c a r . _ 8 e , p d r D - p \ . l o pn p h ! i . M i r F d S r p €t - C o r . - p . eS ) b r e m ! . - . . m p o ! , F t u d
Mr\ed construction, ASCE. 1984. bD. 173 I Ea
Mt4. "Comrsitc and Mired ConstrucG;,,, pro.eedr,es, U.S.Japan Joibi Semin&, ediied b,
C. W: Roeder.ASCE. 1985.
M15. !..Pr Joh::gn dnd R. J. Buctrey, Conpolite Sttuctutes of Steerdnd Concrcte, vot.2:
BridAa, Collin6. London. 1986.
M t 6 . t B s.hlHcn. foboJLFr q-bistFd tu-hl\s- ot Lh. F rc Re6io,tu.p o-S.eet sod {,omposre
( n r c F i e . S l p , S l " u , r J r e o- n r o l 4
r o r , E L I R . L r p m o o u " g .. 9 8 7 .
M17. f " - F 6 i l p s eFl r-o rr.d- S,,u.r+s' p.a""pd.rc6: tntptdat
onat Svapo6ruD.
, , " . t 0 o l J \ a k e c i p ' l i l i r iTh t u . a J 5 0 ( r p rBJ-.a l . o o \ d r, 9 8 ? .
M16. r o l p n . r . p . o r $ r u . r o d i n 5 r " - d d a o r " - , . - p r o * " d r a a s . D l c . n e p r i n gF o u d a r i o D
i.oojc+nF ad pdlvl- Ir Bu!Merd d L [4.!re6..AS.E, 988.
Ml9. jtr-a g= 'cludin8 N"q f.'a c-idls. s,?pos r'r. IABSF. BRsce s. rqso
M20. r . o n a o l'.'n A \ . t d S r a p l . c u r " " r r . r - o m p o sr . S , . u ( l u c s .
A s . ( o l i o r o - T n " m a r o n a l c n o p " . a r i o na n d R p s " e c t r n S , " . - C ; n f i a " . o m p o s r k
se!tember 1991.
M 2 1 .L . C , , n n l , . ' . m D o " i ; ". ! ; . r ' - . , " . n\- cnslnt.tn101 \ta.t De.en. tlscsiQl
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c 4 4 4 - " I S O S , d d d r d 6 8 9 z t n @ a a r i o n r tO . s t r . z a u o o " S r o q a r d j z r i ; o . , | 9 8 a
Ct5 R. torCuto. au4.cnrd. a"d Ep?ntu Urtpinkffcd qeb p.n"tmtior., in t..! Bpoa"_ A
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C 4 6 . A c l - A S a E C o h m i l c e J 5 2 . q e ! o b ; p d o a L r o h " t o r D p s i g ho t B e a m . o u m n J o i n t s b
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c49. R-'.o.sttar Caafalrr. ond bpat.ic Rq.lo..pd w.b pplarctia8 n stp4 apoa, A
up<tC1tud, r.n s|eet LorD. PitsbuEh_ 1986
C 5 0 . r M .F n r F . S . K . C h o s b . ; n d H . t y ; r g a r . - c o L n n S h o d " . , ,
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G5rX.TareandS.c.coei,-SeismrcAna,JsisandD""iC-co;rd".u',ion".,Bra"-dsr."l
t (-iFrEnsi.pp.irs.
un.vdsi'rorMrosd. Fe?d-,"napo'
il,Jr1;:" H,1flT#,
9?? tbl qqt t1iii,,h DtdDhtltsnDFiEn M,,,d/. s eetDe.k bs.i,u,e, re8?.
C53. I V Cdiambos.c&rd",o S,ob tn D"steaCr;t io t r Mp,o! qtru,lur.s 4rt- ed.. $ iler,
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G54. "U_
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 Lileralure 7.17

G55. A. Astdeh, S. M. Cdlt, mdK. M. McMullin, .Desie.not Single ptate Sh€af Connections,"
Atst L18t4aer. .E Jo. . ot Jo. Q rM", tq89, pp. I _-2.
^",a el'and ll. \ \ao"-. D".ig- of l.. c.a-ins 5n!s-.onnp..inn6
4. A/5'
EnEtneetinCJalrnol,Ist qnarter 1989. pr 9 20
G57. S. H. Hsieh, G. c. Deiertein, W. Mccui;, and J. n Abet, .Technicat MaDuat for CU-
STAND," Sr/u.rerdl tugineering Report 89-12, School of Civil & Envlronmental
Ersineering, Co ell Universtr Ithaca, N.y., 1989.
G58. G-_S,Miazgz-and D, J. L. Kenn€dy,.Behavior ofFitlet Wetds as a Fulciion oftheAngje
-,- ol Laad\- (o"odia E1e, "a' .E.rol ib. o r. to89 pp 58't i99.-
C s S A .E N o e m d , d C B o o p oar . s e . h i , D " " g o t l l o o : D d p o , " C - " . , 1 a p . . n r , " J , , . . .
D " l e n H o l d b a a . V a nN o s r m n . \ e q \ o r . , t q . 9
G59. B. J. walla@ dd H. Kra{inklea ,Snall ScateModet Tb6Nsof Srncrual steel Assenbli€s.',
- J:lrmd of Atu.tuml t,gi@erizg, ASCE, vol. 115,Aue!6t 1989, pp. 1999-201F.
c60 c s A . r / d \ - . : l - s / A7 , 1 / 8 1 - 5 . " 4 S l r L e t. p t a , B t , , . t pd .
c d r a d r a r s M o a . . o A n . . ca . o n R " r d a p . O . "-s Lt,t,j S.a . Dp.: . . t,h
to;9.
Gt;04. Reif.rced Canoete Pereatal Camruter Desisn "Eetper flo, pince, Davidson and Wiison c..,
Austin, Tbx..1989.
G6r. A. Astanch and M. N. Nader, Exle.imentat Studie6 and Desisn of Steel Tee Shear
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Cd2 D.F|.aornddD"Lhpdn".f.-U m rrrr.slrot cte W"tdlo.on.^ oro
L o a o , o i n P l" e . t 1 1 , . a . | a r . 1 o t . . C l E , g . , . " , , a . , o . r - n o t . 9 4 0 . p p . j j ?
G61 L. E. RoL"rr'o o r r n , L , " s i C -o f L p s l i g H r d h X 6u ', ,n".
t ' , + t " u r t . o t q r a . R pr , - h . L l s p v i p , c . r ,. . p p o t h " . . \ e" "! . o r . u u u p"pr ' .t 6..-6 1
,t_ro.
G61.. Mitimu, Daien Laa.ts for BuiAines and.Othet Ar,,.r&;s (,{SC, 7:SS),ASaE, 1990.
'
G6.1A."Nalional BlildiDs Codeof Canada, Canadjm comnissioD on Buit.lirs and Fi;e Codes.
N s , r o a l R . 6 p u - . t c- o . l c i . o . . d r a d . O . r s q a , 9 q 0 .
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Cna]nLtee 2Og Eepart, ACI Manldt of Conoete pradice, parr 1, ACI, Det.ot. i{ich.,
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G66. T. M.Muray, 'Buildinc Floor \,lbrarions,,,.4ISCEngimetuts Jaumat, Bd eEttet, 1991,
pp. 102 109.
aol A FSldl-ranoD J.L h"nred -f\p,Fpcr...t4oo u",fErdrr.,rr
-
T"n. o^ S._L trm Ehen pr. / ? " , , . / 7 2 D p b a r ' m " n o : . i . I F n g . n. F r| r.e
u nrv€rsrtyor lUbt.ta. rdmonr!n. 1991. "
G68. "CEB l'IP Model Code 1990," CEB Bdternis 203-205, Comii€ Euro,Intenationat du
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G69- DesiEnHandboah,\ot.2, cot;B, Acr3.!0.2R 90.ACI. D€tDit. t990.
'L lop
Cir 5 d r ' - B : l d i - g H . e h . S o . d .T l rarr T-". ko ., L \ v. io. .r, e L , E 1 p d . ,e
\!d*3€..r,l.Apf 1l 19qt pp 22-24
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C 7 r . J O v a l c y 5 l j p . n l o r . L " oB , a , g . o n n p . r o n r a . S d . \ r , 6 L u d d ps r , . e " , t : L . 1 p a . t l
S r ' u , I u e sc , l e r a r . A s . E \ " v \ o - k 99- p!.,1 11
C ? 4 . \ 4 . I l . C i . e . . o ' o u . a , A j o p dc r s J s r s n,....,. I, o J
D N i r g J E . H d " d e . a d F . B r o r r , \ d " I. s . v . . A o o t i F dS . i ! 1 , " ] V " * "1d, - r" ,o. o n .
O,
915 932.
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PL- tr crdenrLdr*. Jo.t at ois,1 !,,, 844i,.ea,..r8..\S.E 99r.p! :i 2 2it".
^__
G?7. PCI D€sicn Eandbook,Prc.ast and ppstresse.t Caz./e/e,inaF. 6, Desisn ;f Connections,
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t 9 ) a . D D . 2 1r-a
7,14 ChapterSeven

C81 K. M. -McMullin, A. Ar.aneh-dsl, c. L. l'eDves,dd E. Fukuzdwa, lzzouarire Seh;,B€td

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\: -..p. G: r' d r | . " s " " r . t r t " s o B . - o v . a , i a s . D h a o .t p l i . t q q , l
L , 8 a A \ l , r - C i . p i ' c a d r a l . d . ' i , r1 r " , . 1 . . b , i r g N d l o n d . ; " . . . t , o . B u r t d i . s
Scicnccs,\t shiretor, D.C.- 1993.
G84. ACI Co r-ittce 209, Pr€diction !f Cree!, Strinkdge. and Temporature Etf€cts in
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ConcrcteInslilute, Dctroit, 1994.
C86. .ASTME1t9-8i1,"Fre Testing ofBuildins Constfuction and Matcriat6,',Aheica Societ!,
for Testins and Matefials, Philadelphia, 1994.
G86. CSA, 'CAll3 S16.1-M94 Linit Strte6 Desisn of Stcet Shuctu.€s,' Cdadian Sldndards
Associatioh,Rerdale, Onrario. 199,1.
G87. 'Load ard ReaislanceFactof D€sisr, !o1.II Connections,, M@aml o/Sreet Con|tL.tion.
AISC, Chicaso,199,1
GAa. Minnnutn D.tien Lalns f.r Buildings and Other S'z.l,res, ASCE, New].ork, t99.1.
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C90. C. WandEacher andA. L Joln6on, tUerltc Uals iz t,gtze;t€ coizg Sl re{ ed.,ASCE.
NevYork,1995.
G91. SAC Joint V.rtule, "lntelim cuidelines: Evaiudtion, Ite]]air, Modificaiion od Dcsign of
Steel Mdn€nt Ffades,' FEtrlA 26?, !'ederat EhergencJ Management Agenc, Au-glsr
1995.

-A-{SHO specificafion, 1.?, l.1t
AASHTQ 6!€cification, 9.3
ACI AISC-AISI liaison comninee, rt.2.!
ACI Comitle€ 209,3,35
Al€n, D. E.,3.38
ArkinBon,A.Il.. 1.10
Ailatic Cente.. 2.23
AWS Felding code.3.3
Azizinanini, A., 2.30
Balcon, H. A., 1.19
Bank of China, 1.1, 1,28,2.32,2,88, 6.90
Bsiant, Z. P,3.36
BeaD-to-colmn homcnt comeclions,6.29
ehcasedcompositeor conc.etecoiumnsJ
6.29
additional tie &quiremenrs, 6.42
concrereencasehenrstrensth,6,39
desrgnapploach,6.31
er1€rded lace bearing plates. 6,4b
tace bearing llates, 6.43
senerll detailinc requnements, 6.90
horizonial 6hear stlength, 6.37
horizontal ties, 6.40
paDel shesr sbongth, 6.33
steel pmel sbeneth, 6.39
rertical beding 6ireneth, 6.Bb
vedical colmn bes,6.42
fi lled composit€columns,6.51
des€n alprcach,6.58
lossible comection deraits,6.51
sugsesteddesignp.oc€dure,6.54
B€am-to colunh shea. comeciion, 6.12
Index
Beam-to-qallcoDections,6.81
computerhod€lingof coupledsh€arFaIs,
6.8?
coullinsbees, 6,82to 6,85,6,8?
detailingcouiilerarions,
6.87
enbedhent length ofcoupling beams,6.8rt
Mattock ard Gaafar model,6.85
Bean6with incomplete inreracrion,
reslorse
characieristics,.d 1O
Brunl&d, A., 3.5?,3.53,3.55,3.59
Bridg€s,r.2, 1.4,r.6, 1.?,1.11,1.16
Buildins SeismicSafety Councit.4.2, 5.4
Buildings:
develolm€trts alter 1960,1.11
systems,composite, 2.20
Bun, W:H., 1.3
Camber,2,16,3.3?,3,.14
Caadian SiardadsAssociaiioh, 8.86
CaseInstituije of Tecbnolosy,t,t2
Castellatedbeams,codposite, 2.8
Cellule flooring,1.9,2,4
Chien,E.L L.,3.52
chin, J., r.1t
Colaco,J. P, S.70,3.??,3.85
Columbia Universitr 1.6
bae design for hish seismic loail, 6.9
bse de6ign for wind and low seishic load,
6,4
Cohit6 tuo-Intenationale du BEton, 9.35
Composite action, nrddentals of, 3.4
Compo6itebeams,1.3,3.1
bri&ins adoss openings, 3.49
design for flerue, 3.13
forces on crcBs section, 3.14, 3.16
negative hohent shength, 9,29
positive mohent strength, 9.18
span-to-rlelth ratios, 432
verlical interface force6, 3.1?
Cohposite coltlrD seisaic resbtdce, 4.35
bond interaction, 4.38
reinforcing details, 4.36
tr&sverce sheu behavior, 4.38
Cohposit€colmns, 4.1
AISC-LRFD slecifi @tion. 4.23
anal compression, 11.17,4.24
dial load and lending, 4.27
anEl load and biuial bending, 4.28
uial sbength, 4.24
beab colms,4.20, 4.27
biuial bendins, 4.22
bidially e@entric loading, 4.30
hodified proleftie6, 4,25
homent capacity without aial loail, 4.2?
piastic analysis of doss-section streneth,
8.5
shear stlength, 4.14
slendemess,4.18, 4.19, 4.26
slendeme6s ratio ed dial comFrcssion
time delenrlent pmperties, 4.31
CompoBite ehpression members, tjTes of,
4.2
Comlosite construction, alptications, 2.1,
2.2
Composite fioor 61abcomection, 6.98
Compositejoisis. 3.1, 3,50
comEuannnsj d.rz
conposite joistE and iruses:
de6cription md u6e, 3.50
flm.l resistance, 3.54
member seiection, 3.52
slrce resist&ce, 3.56
E?ical spans,3.50
dtiMte load resist€nce, 3.54
web io-chord comectioN, 3.58
Comlosite sy6tems, 2,1
Comlosite trus6e6,3,1, 3.50
Composite waIB, 4.2, 4.6
Compredsion stress block, 8.18
Concentrated loads, s.12
Con@niraterl piasticity malyeq 2.43
Concentrically braced Fmes, 5.15, 5.16
comection design,5.1?
eleme.t de6ign.6.16
Conoete, time-dependent properties, 4.31
Conoete-encasedsteel, 1.1
Conoete Blab,3.14, 3.82
Comection nodeling, 2.36
Connections ad joi.ts, om!o6ii€, 1,13
Conneciions to coDposit€ floor slab6,
6.98
building, recent, 1.15
compo6ile joisis ud t'asses, 9.58
coNiderations, 2.48
sequen@, 2.34, 2.46
stub girder 6ystems, 3.85
Teras Comerce Tower, 2.54
'l\o Union Squde, s.57
ContiDuity, compGite beans, 2.11
CoDtrol Data Corporaiion Buildins, 1.15,
1,22,2,27
Coupl€il shed wal desisn, C.87
comection between coupling beam dd
wall,6.88
Crce! agins coe6cieni. 3.36
crce! of conoete, 2.25. 2.35, 3.2, 3.33,
4.34
Dapled girde*, composite, 2.8
D&$in, D., S.50
 composrrebems! 3.32

ilstantaneous,3,33 joists and bu56es,3.E2

live ]oad,2,10,9,59
6trd connecto.s,3.10
long r€rn,2.9, t.3B

stnb gifder sJstehs, 9.84
Degre€of shear connection,8.4
Desic! criieda for joinis, 6.2
beah{oluhn jojnr, 6.4b
beam in negativebendjng,g.go
b€an vith coverptare,g.25
conn€.tionof steel braceto comlosite
coluhnEj 6.90
coull€d 6hea watl,6.87
€ncas€dcolunn desig!, 4.42
elcased coi@n strength, .1.41
fi]]ed conposit€colunD jojni, 6.60
fiUed pile cotuhr de6ien,4.i!6
filled lipe coluhn desjgnqjthout tabtes.
4-47
filled lipe column srreneth, 4,49
filled tub€beam-colhn desisn,4.48
filted tube beah4olumn 6tr€ngth,
4.50
toor diaplragh,5.3O
iloor dialhmgm r*h an oDeninE. 5.BI
floo.ioisi,3,59
full int€raction, B.20
pamar rnte.acrron:
app.onmaNe,3.22
PA{ diasrahs for encased colum, 4.45
required nuhbe. of sruds, 8.27
semirigid connectior for eEvily toads,
E a d s ,J . , 1 . 2
Eccentically bnced frahes, 8.1?
connectiondesign,5.20
elesent de6jgn,5,17
EJlectire Blabs,idrh, 3,15, i.?8
Elastic properti€Bof lariially cohposite
Empire State Building, 1,4,1.lb, 1.19
Encasedcompositecolumns.t.i, 1.13,2,30,
4.I, 1.3, 1,10, 1.35, 4.42
bar reinlbrceh€.t, 4.28, 4.30
Eufocodes,4.1?,4.19
Exterior tube, compoAite,Z.5l]
l'atigue, l.11
Filled cohposite columns,1,3,2.2a, L2, 4,4,
1.5, 4.t2, 1,35, 1.41, A.5r
connectiondetails, 6.51
deslen approach,rhrough beah connec,
iion,6.58
design procedure,lhrough bean .onnec
6.e r*istance,4.16
shed sbergth, il.t.t
Finite-elehent models,2.45
Fiie r€si6tance,fiiled composjre.olumns,
4.16
Fi.eprcofing steel, 1.2, 1,13,2,s
First Babkplace, i.32, 2.32

sirgle-llaie connecrjoD,6.19
diaphraeh, chord force desisn, 5.i1
i€e coDrectronj6,26
D€sign hod€ls, 3.19. 3.55, B,i?

Desie! procedue for joihrs, 6.8

sysiemsj cohposiie, 2.5
D€srgnruies lo. composriecntumn6 .t,16
vibratior6, 2.9, 3.32, 3.38
uragohst lrlacne,2,28 Forceredistribulion, iime-dependent,
Diaplragm chords,d.28, 5.31 to5.38
2.16
Dialhhem collecio$, i.28, E.g1
€xt€riof compo6ite,2.21
conoele-fi]]edsteel deck,6.28 ilierior compo6iie,2.22
DonaIeX,R. C.,3.50
Drucker Warehouses,1.2
Full 6hed come.iion. 3.5
Gateway Tower, 1.30, 2,31
Gillespie,P, 1.3 Ibad dd resistme factor &sien (LRFD), 1.13
Load facior desiEn for bridses, 1.11

GuiJTower,1.25 Load-slip cheadendiN, A-1

Inading,2.4

Henilerson,W- D.,3.11
Hogan, W T., 1.1
Home Insu.ance Building, 1.2
Ilorizontal diaphmgmq 5.2?
H6ieh, S. H.,2.43 Lord, A. 8., 1.3
Hybrid beatus, composite, 2.8

IDS Buildins, r.23, 2.23 MacKay, H. M., 1.3

Idperial College,r.?, 1.12 Martin€z-Romero, E., 3.85
Incohplete interaction, 3.5 Massachusetts institute of lbchnology, 1.4
Matedal prclefties, 2.35
Inelstic analysis, 2.41 Materials for ohposite beds,3.1
hinge lormation, 2.42 Maieials forcomlosite syst€ms,2.1
Infillwalls, precasl concrcte, 2.25 Maurer, M. B-, 3,53
Intemction, cohplete, 3.5 McMaster Univercity, 1.10
InterFiEt Plaza Tower 1.16, 1.26. 2.45 Mechdical comectorE, 1.4
Intemational Organization for Meld, J., 1.2
Stmdadization, 3,38 Me]loD Banh Center, 1.16, 1.30
Inlerstate Ban!,2.21 Methodist Building, 1.2
Iova State UniversitJ', 1.4, 1.8, 1.9 Methods of mElysiB, 2.34
Mencm An[.es naintendce lacilitr 3.74
Mirza, S.A.,2.43
Modeling of stub sirdeE, 8.?7
John Iiancack Cent€r 1.15, 1.19 Moheni comections (se€Beam-to-colum
JoiDi ASCE'ACI Commiltee on Comlosite homent comections)
Coqtruction, 1.8 Moment resistiDs 6:ees, 5.3
Moment shesr interaction, 3.46
basiccoDsiderations,
6.1 Momentum Ph@, 1.16, 1.28
Modta, K., 2.30
geDerai desisn oiieria, 6.9 Muray, T. M.,3.38
gene@l ile6ign Focedue, 6.3 Naiional Earthquale Hazdil neduction
Proeram (NXII&P), 5.4
Joists and trusses, advantage6, 2.12, 3.50 Nation6Banl Tower, 1.33, 2.30
Newak, N. M., 1.6
No.tineD bebavioa 2,36
Kemedy, D. J. L., 9.34, 9,52, 3.53, 3.55, 9.59
Xhan, n R., 1.15, 1.22,2.21
Kh&,J.,1.4
Klyce, D. C.,3.11 NoMe6t Center BuildiDg, 2,80, 2.46
Ihocking, stecl @nneclions, 3.39

olsaad, J. G.,3.7,3.9, S,10

LaterEl resisting sy6t€ms, 6.1 One shell Squde, 2.21
I4high Univdsit', 1.6 b r.8, 1.10 to 1.12, 1.14 1000 Tom Cents Prcject, 2.28
Ialuau, C., 1.3 Openings in bee web, 3.45
Icon,R.T.,3.39
Link beams, 2.22, 2.27
 Ordinarr fr@e6, 6.tO
couection d€6jg!, 5.12
elemeni dasisn,5.10
Ouldgger beahs, 2,22
Pacific FiGt Centef, 1.BO
Parnel€e, R.A., B.!8
Pa.tial cohlosfte actio., j.t9
Pat€1 rtrterucfDnprope.ties,8.28
rEmdi! rc6trainedfraDe6, 5,8
connecriondesien j 5.9
eteDenr de6ier, 5.9
Pe.dikads, p C.,2.i6
Plastrcstrehetn fo} posrtne DoDenrs
Plate-reinforcedwals, 4.?
Pohdins of cohoere, 8.41
PoFell, c. H.,2.4i
Purdue Unive4itn t.4
Rlndal, F.A., 1.8
Redisrnbutioh ntsup!.ft momenrs,
2,11
consiruchon,7.11
miscellan€ouscohposit€,7.1.1
vertical toads,5.3?
RerroittinL- compo$te iru"6es,
2.r6
iitchie, J, K.,8.52
Robe.tson,L. E.,2.40
Robilson, II., 3.3.!,g.5E
Roi!, r.,2.45
nd, M., t.6
Russiab Embassx 2.24
Scnl€ich,J. 8.,2.4i
SchneideaC. C., 1.2
SearsTower,t.t5,1.2t
Secohd-gene.ation connectom, 1.5
DedronproFedies,8.28. 8.J6, 8.59
setsmc rbreresistahce, 5.1
letsmic w€td failues, 5.8
semjrierd connectjons,composite,2.10.6.6s
cumpatjbitirx 6.69
gravitJ load desig4, 6.66
homent capacib tornul4, 6.68
mometrt rcration c!re, 6.69
sear angte setection,6.67
slab reinforc.h€nr, 6.68
ubraced &ues, 6.?8
-
seMce ofjoinis, 6.2
serjceabrLit!, 2.10, A.2,8.3?
Shea capacjtyat ite intedace,
B.t6
Drear cobrectiob,3.6, 3.55
beam ro-coluhn,6.12
desien c.iteia jbr, 8.1,
double ugle connecrions.6.14
sDgle-llaNe coMections, 6.15
ree connecti.G.6.2t
She0 connectorptacemetrr,A.44
Dnear conn€ctoN,1.4,2.2
cnener, r.6, 1.8,2.2
sp'.€1,1.5, 1.8,2.2
stitf, r.6
siud, 1.?, 1.8,2.2
Sheu defohatioDs, 2.36
Shear srreheth, g.ito, 8.45, 8.56
detailing, g.t3
draheterno-basethickn€ss,3.13
iD fo@ed st€ei deck,il.1o
lengthio-diamete.. a.tO
road slip characte.istics,g.t6
reductionfacio4, 8.11, g.13
 Steel bace to composite column comection,
6.90
adrlitional asp€cfs, 6.9?
adv iages of bracedm€gasystem,6.91
stroDg position, 3.12 Bar* of China, 6.90
designforces,6.92, 6.95, 6.96
d€tai]s,6.93,6.94

erection column, 6.93

enca6edsteel !late6, 6.26 Sieel colbn hoheni codection, 6.62
steel column boundaries,2.22, 6.23 acce65holes fo! wetding, 6.63
Sheikh,T.M.,2.21,2.38
Shoredconstnction, 2.10, 3.37, 3.42 .egative fldural str€neth, 6.6.1
Shortenlng,column, 2.25, 2,a4, 2,35, 2,45, Nortbidse earthquale, 6.63, 6.64
4.30
Shrinkage of concret€,2.25, 2.35, 9.2, 9,33, $€b comeciio., 6.64
3.59.4.31 Steel-concrete interaction, ealysG of, A,1
Steeldeck, 1.8,2.2, 2,?, 3.41
d.ying, 3,3.!, 3,35
Steel lime wiih compositeshearwalls,2.25
Steel ftame with condete core,2,22.2.48
Steel Joi6i Insiiiute, 3.38
S i €s sC
, .P,1.6 Stiffness of comloslte rembe$, 2.36
Singalor€ l'reasury Building, 1,2? Stiflnessof concrete,4,8, 4,10, 4.11, 4.31
Single llate connecfion,6.15 Silain distdbution, 9,4, 3.59
desisn ofbeanweb,6.19 Sbengtn of concrete, 4.31
desien ofbolts, 6.1?
desier of!]ate,6.16 Stress-strainl€havior idealized,2.35
desien ofwelds,6.tg StructurEl concrete for comlosite cor6truc-
desier procedure,6.15
Struclural steel for comloslte constnction,
2,7,3.42
concreie llacemcnt 6ystem, 2,53 Stub sirder 6ysten, 2.8, 3.?0
equipmenrselection,2.53
erection schednles, 2.53 bottom choril, S.81,3.83, 9.84
labor and riaf,2.54 choice of component siz$, 9.76
quality conflol, 2.54 comPonents,9.71, 3.?4
Shabek, B. W,2.43 critical sections,3.81
Slab crackins, 3.32, 9.38, 9.41 desoiption of fl oor Bystem. 9.?1
Slab reinforcement llacing, 3.43 Unal desisb,9.81
Slub slip,3.5 fl oor beam conreciions,3.83
Southeast Financial Center, 2.21 Siub sirdel sysfed (Cozr.):
Special mohent resisting frues, inlluence of coNfnction method, 3.85
for lateral loads, 3.85

connectiondesisn,5.13 preliminary desigr, 3,?5

€lement desig!,5.12 shed comectoN, 3,83
Spreadof pla6ticjly analyses,2.43
sizing cotuponeni6, 3.?6
Stabfity of lartially cohpleied structue, slab design,3.?3,3.82
2.34
Stanford University, 1.14 Vierendeelmodel,3.78
Stub gider to colum conn€ction, 6.79
Ettemative co.nection, 6.80
wind resisting sy8teD, 6,89
 Supe.colrlrD ftaniDg, 2.28
Supercolbn ties, 2.30
advantaaes aDd dGadvanrages, 2.30
fill€d cohposite,2.i!9
fomed composite,2.49
Supe+osed*treDeth method, i1.35
Suprort for slab reiDforcemenr, 3.43
Sway guidelines, 5.39
Universitj' of Mi6soui, t.11
Univebity of Neb.aska, 1.4
UniveNity of Texas,1.10,2.21
University of WaNicl. 1.12
Unsbored constfuction,2.10, 2.75. 3,27, S.t2
Vatue eneineariDg,eramples,2.1?, 2.tB
Vi€rendeel frme6, 2.28

Vie6t, l- M.,3.35

Tape&d girders, comlosfte, 2.8

von Empeqer, !,, 1,5
Teecohections, 6.21
b€arina failure of tee stem o. bem {eb,
6,23
desisn procedure, 6.25 Washinetor Univ€mitr 1.12
shee failure ofbolrs, 6.24
shear ilacfue ofhet eea oftee 6t€n,6.28
shearyielding ofsyoss areaoftee stem, €lfect on Birength, 3.45
6,28 Weidlinger, P, 2.25
\lest CoastTransnission luilding, 2.24
yielding of ree Aange, 6.23
Texa6CommerceTorver,1,21,2,21,2.50,2.54 w}lite, R. N.,2.36
I\ansition comlosite column, 6.89
Tru6ses,composil€,2,12, 3.50 wiss, J. F.,3.38
T\{o Union Square, 1.16, 1,30,2,31,2.8? Wold€eiorgis,B. F., 3.53
World l'.ade Center, 1.15, 1.21

lltimate st elgiih, 3.16, 3,54

Union Bant CeDter, 2.21
Univ€rsity Hall at Berkelen 5.35 YasudaFire and Marihe lnsuance Buitdjng,
Univemrty ofCalifohia at Berkeley, r.13, 2.27
1.14,5,35
Universiiiy of CalifoDia at San Dieeo. 1,14
Univcr6ity of Illinois, 1.3, 1.6. 1,? Zieni&, R- D.,2,43
UDiver6itJ of Mimesota, 1.14 Zipprodt, R. R., 1.3
 ABOUTTHEEDITORS

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f::::fr,t:l".:Il; I
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 Appendix

B
Analysesof
Composite
Columns

8,1 Stenderness
RatioandAxiat
Compression
Strength
The conshuctior ofg?aphs for concentri(

::HrJir:,
ili""l*:'",.l;l:;i*i##i"[it*::r"lil::;r,,ffi
:;r:HJ:#::*t::;g::::
fiT:tiJ:
are included. Th€ calculation procedure

;n*:sji:,1;fuIi::
'
3:|;f::"rit*:3f$#XTt*" %,'-, andr_orrhe
composite
cross
' parameter
4 : ).1for severalvaruesof 1lr using
ff];i11x:;.0*nttg
3. Determine critical shesses from Eq. (4.10a) (4.106)
4" or as applicable.
4 CompulF*re designsrrenglh 6 p. for
each\ utre ot ft,sing eq. +.0,.
Encas€dcompositecolumn, The encased

;::*,,*-li*r-:im:4":iilJ,'-51ilH,'r11,"i
zs+
mn, ronsir.r
Ji,r.ai Ir"ilT"]ilj
-, ;;;H; tii]liXf
;,*i1",,1.
jf
i :; :jfi*, fl ;".Ti"1i.,., *, *, N",
" u,,i
r "fu
J4,,i"
ri".'
Sectiongeometricpmperties:
f,
;li ""
8.2

4+% Pn
l
<+ P* Pe
JT
<=jsc p-
l

FisareB.: Cros6sectionofan encasedcompositecolum!,

h = b :16in r: 0.3t : 0.3x 16 = 4.80in

A, = 11.7in'? I
= 3.53in
Ar - 8A, = 8 x 0.44= 3.E2in,
A,=htb A"-A":162-I1.7 B . b 2= 2 4 0 . n
8p
Z":39.alJrr

1. Modified.mcLterialprcperties. From Table 4.1, for concrete-encaseit

shapesc1- 0.?,c, = 0.6, and cr:0.2. The modifiedyi€ld shesslEq. (4.11a11

AA
F =ll +.F :L!" r::!:

'1 <9
- 36 0.7160."l '-": e
tln
lI t . t - o.e,r.s,I L I _ 91.9k.r

For nomal-weight concrete,t, is taken as 14b lb/ft3. The modulus of etas-

ticity of concretetEq. (4.1)l is

E . u s v t . . 1 4 5 ,\ , 5 5 - 3 2 7 0 k s i
,
andthemodifi€dmodulusof elasticiwlEq.(4.116)l
is 1t

= 2s,000 1!
E^: E"+ + 0.213276y?498:
42,b00
ksi
+: 24
The radius of ggation of the compositecolumn cross Bectionis the greater
ofr and /". Thus r- : 4.8 in. 36
2. Buchling paraneter A : I:. Using Eq. (4.10c)for I, 42
 Analysesof ComposileColumns

o:
'- ," = (sL\'!,, = | rn \' gr.g : 6tY
" \",) E. \4.81t/ 42.500 105,200
3. Critical stess4,. ForA < 2.25,the criticalstressis sivenby Eq. (4.10a):
:4,r(0.658r): e1.ex 0.685-4
4.
and forA > 2.25,the critical stressis givenby Eq. (4.10b):

0.877 80.6

4. Design strenqth dP". With the capacity reduction factor O. : 0.85, the
design shength ofthe column is computedftom Eq. (4.9) as

d"P,- d.4"4. = 0.85x 11.74"=9.954,

Values ofA and d"P,, computed for nine Belectedvalues ofr\?, are listed in
Table B.1, and the effect of slendemess on the strength of the encasedcom-
posite colurrrnis shown in Fig. 4.9 by the upper curve.

Filled compositecolurnn. The filled compositecoiumn shown in Fig. B.2 is a

10 x 10 x 7a-ia (254 ,.254 X 6.4-mm) steel tube fiUed with concrete.The
sleel I ube has a yield sFes6F - 46 ksi'317 MPa, and rhe concretebtrenglh
is/:8ksi(55MPat.
Sectiongeom€tdc properties:

t=6-10in /=0.3 10:3in

A.:(10'?-95')-975in'z

r-
l," :
104 _
: 1 2 : 9.54
:::155in1 =Jffi:'nn'"
TABLE
8.1 Encased
Composite
Column
Slendernessvs.
Strength
Kl, in A < 2.25 I<1,iL A> 2.25
60 0.034 902 500 2.376 337
120 0.137 868 600 3.422 234
180 0.308 813
240 0.548 743
300 0.856 661
360 t.232 5?3
420 L,67',1 485
8,4

F i g u r e8 , 2 . - ' o s s r . n o f a l i l l . d , o m p o s a c o l u h r . .
"c

A. = 10' - 9.75 : 90.25 in'

General equations used for evaluating the strength of frlied composite

columns are the same as those given abovefor encasedcolumns. They are not
rcpeated below.
1. Modifi.ed.material propedies. From Table 4.1, for concrcte-frlledtube c,
= 1.0, c]z: 0.85, and ca = 0.4- Thus

x q qlx 9025 -
F-,.,: 46+ 1.0(o)+ 0 85 108.9ksi
9.75

I]. = r14sr's\6.0 = 4940ksi

0.4x4940x90.25
,a,,: 29,000+ = 47,300ki
9.75

/-=399in
2. BuchlineparcmeterA: )t2

. / ar \, ros.s tKt)z
\ 3.se?/ 47.300 68,200
3. Critical stressF",. WhenA = 2.25

4.:108.9x0.658,{
and whenA > 2.25

- 108.9x 0.877 95.5

 analysesol comDositecolumns

TABLE
8.2 FittedComposiieCotumnStenderness
vs. Sirenoth
Kl,1t A < 2.25 L1,1a A > 2.25
60 0.053 883 420 2.581 306
120 0.211 826 500 3.666 2\6
r80 a_415 740 600 5.279 150
240 0.445 634
300 1.320 519
360 1.900 107

4. DesigrLstrength icptl

d"P,= 0.8bx 9.75x4.:8.294"

ValuesofA and 4,"P,,computed
for nine valuesol AZ,are listedin thble
B.2, and the effect of slendernesson the shength of the frlled compositecol_
unln is shown in Fig. 4.9 by the lower curve.

B.2 Plastic Analysis ot Cross-Section Strength

The combined atial load and bending strength of compositecross sections of
normal proportions can be det€rmined accurately ftom an analysis that
assumes plastic shess conditions at the limit state ol strensth. Four sets of
.oo"d narFs for P and M are compured.one for zero a_rial torce, one
for z"ro
bending moment, and two for forces associatedwith two conve;ent locations
ofthe neutral a-xis.
Plastic stress on steel is taken as equal to the compressionyield on the
compressionside and to the tension yield on the tension side of the neutral
axis. The magnitude of plastic shess in compressealconcrete is talien as Ts
oerceniol the c)lindef slrenglh /. Corcretc is ab.Lrmedro resist ro rensile
slress.The limir ofF -- 60 kqi is obser-veo

Encasedcomposlte column. Cross-section dimensions and components of

limit forces for the encasedcolumn section of Sec. B.1 are shown in FiE. B.1.
Tl^eforce componentsare defiDedas:
P I = force on concrete above the distance + z from middepth
P"2 : force on concretefrom 1 z to middepth
P", = lorce on reinforcement at top or bottom ofsection
P.2 : force on reinforcement at middepth
{, = lorce on steel flange outside z from middepth
P", : force on steel flange inside z ftom middepth
P", : force on half of steet web
8.6

When there is no bending moment, i.e., when O6M" : 0, the shength of the
column is computedfrom Eq. (4.5):

P": 4F! + A,L, + 0.85A"f'

I
= 11.7x 36 + 8 x 0.44x 60 + 0.8Sx 240.8x S.5= 1349kips

dr4 : 0.85x 1349:1147kips

When therc is no axiai force, the sum of comprcssionforces must equal the
sum of tension forces on the section. Generally,tension forces on the bottom
flange steel a]}d the bottom rcinlorcement are th€ sameas compressionforces P
on the top flange and th€ top reinforcement. If the neutlal axis is located i! P
the web at a distance z abovemiddepth, the forces in the v/eb outside the z
distanceare in equilibrium, and the position ofthe neutral &.is is determinec P
as follows:

0.75f:b(o.5h z) = P,2 + 2F!t.z

where r_ : web thickness. Thus,

0.?5(3.5)16(0.5x 16 z) = 2(0.44)60+ 2(36)0.86z It

which yields z : 4.17 in, placing the neutral ar.is above the top flange of the
steel shape rather than in the web as assumed_
Assuming next that the neutml axis is located ia the top flange, the dis-
tanc€z is determined as follows:

o.75f:b(0.5h z): p,2 + 2p$ + zF!b"(z o.bh")

where 6" and t are the flange width and web height of the eteel shape.
Therefore,

0.75(3.5)16(0.5
x \6 2):
- 2 x 0.56)l + (2)36(8.07)(2 0.5 x 7.\2)
2(0.44)60+ 2(36)0.3610.5(8.25

which yields z : 3.63 in. The neutml axis is in the top flange ol the steet
shape as assumed,
With the known position of the neutml axis, the force components acting oII
Lhecomposircsectionare cajcularedbeloq.

P.r : 3(0.44)60: 79.2kips

P., = 2(0.44)60= 52.8kips
P"r : 36(8.07X3.56
+ 0.56 3.63)= 142.4kips
P", : 36(8.07)(3.63
- 3.56): 20.3kips
 Analysesof ComposlteColumns

IABLE8.3 InteractionDiagramDataEncasedCompositeSection
Distance : = 3.63in z= 3.63in
to mid Moment,
height, in Force, kips in-hils Force, kip6
P"1 5'a!5 183.5 1067 183.5 106? 18r,5 106?
Pi 5,75 79.2 .155 79.2 't9.2 455
Pi 3.475 '\42.4
552 L42.4 552 142.1 552
P"" 3.665 20.3 -74 20.4 71 20.3 71
P"" 1.815 152.5 277 152.5 277
P," 1.78 4(i,1 a2 46.1 82 46.1 82
52.8 0 0 0 52.4
46.1 82 46,1 a2 46.1 82
P"2 1,A15 t52.5 277
P"" 3.665 20.3 74 -20.3 20.3
P"r 3.875 L12.4 552 -142_4 L42.4 552
Pi 5.75 79.2 455 -79_2 79.2 455
2.7 3081 336.0 3670 674.1 3081
257 306 251

P.- - 36'3.b6,0.86
- 46.I kips

P"1= 0.75(3.5)16(0.5
x 16 3.63)= 183.5kips

P", = 0.75(3.5)16(3.63): 152.5 kips

The distances ftom the middepth to each force component, th€ force compo-
nents, and the corresponding moments are listed in Table 8.3 for the neutml
a-xisat, : 3.63, 0, and 3.63 in. The resulting interaction curve is shown as
the solid line in Fig. B.3.

Filled compositecolumn. Cross-sectiondimensions and componentsol limit

forces for the filled composite column section of Sec. B.1 arc shown in Fig.
8.2. The force components are alefined as

P"1 - lorce on concrete above the distance + z from middepth

P", = force on condete from a z to middepth
P,r : force on the top wall ofthe steel tube
P,, - force on sidewalls outside the distance z from rniddepth
P€ : force on sidewalls inside the distance , from middepth

When there is no moment, i.e., when OM, = 0, the shength of the colunrn is
computedftom Eq. (4.5):
B.8

:iz 800

t-\-

100 2aa 300

L4n,
tt-kips
Fiqure 8,3 Interactio! diaerams for cohposite bee cotumns.

p": A"F! + A.F!, + 0.8sf"A"

: 9.75(46)+ 0 + 0.8b(8.0)90.28- 1062 kips

6.!, = (0.85)1062= 903 kips

$ihen there is no axial force, the sum of compressionforces must equal the
sum of tension forces on the section. The compressionforces on the top walt
and th€ top portion of each sidewail ol the steet tube are equal and opposite
the tension forces on the bottom wall and the bottom portion ofeach sidewall.
The tension forces on the portion of each sidewall within distance z from the
middepth are in equilibrium with the compressionforce rcsisted by concrcte.
The position ofthe neutral axis is determined as

o.75f:(h,- 2t)(0.5\ - t - z) - 2z2tF,

\ bpre /qr is the widrh. &r the depth.snd I rhe wall rhicknessof the sl pel I ube.

-2 x 0.25X0.5x 10
0.75(8.0)(10 O.2S- z):42(0.25)46
which yields z = 2.63 in.
With the kl1own position ofthe neutral axis, the force components acting on
the composire becliona"e calculdledoelo\ .

P"r= 0.75(8.0)9.5(4.75
2.63): 120.8kips
P., : 0.75(8.0)9.5{2.63)
: 149.9kips
 Analys€sot ComposlteCol0mns 8,9

TAaLE8.4 IntehcrionDlagramDat. FitledCompGiteSection

z=2.63jI z= 2.63in
Momert,
Force, kips in-kips in'ki!s
4.415 115.0 561 115.0 561 115.0 561
3.69 48.8 180 48.8 180 48.8 180
3.69 120.8 446 720.4 446 120.8 446
1.315 -60.5 80 60.5 80 60.5 80
1,315 149.9 0 149,9 797
60.5 80 -60.5 a0 60.5 -80
1.315 149_9 197
3.69 -48.4 180 48.8 180 -48_a 180
4,875 115.0 561 -115.0 561 115.0 561
o.2 1928 270.7 2088 541.6 792a
161 774 161

P"r = 10(0.25)46
= 115.0kips
: 48.8kips
P"2: 2(4.75 2.63)0.25(46)
P": = 2(2.63)0.25(46)
= 60.5kips
T'hedistanceBfrom the middepth to eachforce component,the force compo-
nents, and the conespondingmoments are listed in Table 8.4 for the neutml
axis at z - 2.63, 0, and 2.63 in. The resulting interactior cul-veis shown as
the dashedtille in Fie. B.3.