o m

. c g
r t n
a a d i

y m Re

u d l n
i k
e s

s t r
n oo
O b
-
.e b
fo
d
E
we H
u an
w Th
w

1
 ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2018-2019)
M.P.A.-12
Administrative Theory
Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions given in the

m
Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance
of the student to get an idea of how he/she can answer the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100%

o
accuracy of these sample answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample
answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions given in the assignment.

c g
As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so the chances of error or mistake cannot be

.
denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care has been taken while preparing these Sample

t n
Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date

r
and exact information, data and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the
university.

a i
This assignment consists of Sections I and II. There are five questions in each section. You have to

d
answer a total of five questions in about 500 words each. It is necessary to attempt at least two questions

a
m
from each section. Each question carries 20 marks.

e
SECTION-I

R
y
Q. 1. Analyse the differences and similarities between Public Administration and Private Administration.

d e
Ans. Public And Private Administration Distinction between Public and Private Administration:

in ks
Distinction between public and private administration made by John Gaus, Ludivig Von Mises, Paul H. Appleby, Sir

u l
Josia Stamp, Herbert A. Simon, Peter Drucker.

t n oo
According to Felix A. Nigro, government is different from private organisation, because no private company
can be equal to it in size and diversity of activities.

s O b
Simon make distinction between public and private administration mainly to three points:

r -
.e
(i) Public administration is bureaucratic whereas private administration is business like;

o E
(ii) Public administration is political whereas private administration is non-political, and

f
(iii) Public administration is characterised by redtape whereas private administration is free from it.

b d
we
Sir Josiah Stamp make distinction between public and private administration mainly to four principles:

u a n
(i) Principle of Uniformity: In the public administration common and uniform laws and regulations mostly

H
regulate.

w Th
(ii) Principle of Ministerial Responsibility: Only in public administration political masters are responsible.
(iii) Principle of External Financial Control: The legislative body of the government control the revenues.

w
(iv) Principle of Marginal Return: The objectives of the public administration can neither be measured in
money terms nor checked by accountancy methods.
According to Paul H. Appleby, Public administration is different from private administration mainly to three
complementary aspects:
(i) Breadth of scope, impact and consideration;
(ii) Public accountability, and
(iii) Political character
The more important distinguished features of Public Administration may be described under the following heades:
(i) Prestige: Public administrators enjoy high status and prestige in comparison of private enterprises especially
in the developing societies.
(ii) Political Direction: Public administration is political whereas private administration is non-political.
(iii) Absence of Profit Motive: The primary aim of government’s organisation is to provide services to the
people, not profit motive.

2
 (iv) Public Gaze: All the actions of public administration are exposed to wide public gaze.
(v) Legal Framework: Public administration operate within a legal framework. It is ruleoriented. Government
officials are obliged to act within their legal powers and not outside the law.
(vi) Public Accountability: Public accountability is the hallmark of public administration in a democracy.
Public administration is responsible to the public through political executive, legislature, judiciary etc.
(vii) Officials remain Anonymous: In public administration the most senior officials remain anonymous and
then identity is not disclosed.
(viii) Lower Level of Efficiency: Efficiency is the corner stone of the organisation. When compared to private
administration, one can find that the degree of efficiency of public organisation is at a lower level.
(ix) Service and Cost: In the public administration government spend more money than their income or
revenues. But in case of private administration income often exceeds expenditure without which they

m
cannot survive.
(x) Consistency of Treatment: A government official maintain by law and the principle of equity of treatment

o
in serving the people.
(xi) Large-scale Administration: Public administration is large-scale administration in terms of size, complexity

. c g
and diversity of activities.
(xii) Financial Meticulousness: Public administration has to be very careful in financial matters because it is

t n
working as custodian of people’s money.

r
Similarities between Public and Private Administration
Thinkers like Henry Fayol, Mary P. Follet and L. Urwick do not make a distinction between public and private

a i
administration. According to Henry Fayol, there is only one administrative science, which can be applied equally in

d
public and private sectors. The following similarities between the two types of administration may be noted:

a
m
(i) Both public and private administration deals in common skills, techniques and procedures.

Re
(ii) Public and private administration serves the people and both have to maintain close contact with people to

y
inform about their services.

d
(iii) In modern times the principle of profit motive is not peculiar to private administration, because it is now

e s
accepted as an objective for public sector enterprises.

n
i k
u
(iv) In personnel management, the private organisation have been influenced greatly by the practices of public

l
t
organisations.

n oo
(v) There is a similar type of hierarchy and management systems both in public and private sectors. Both have

s O b
some kind of organisational structure, superior-subordinate relationships etc.

r -
(vi) Both public and private administration carries on continuous efforts to improve their internal working and

.e o
also for efficient delivery of services to people or customers.
Q. 4. Describe organization strucutre.
f E
b d
Ans. Organisational structure is a system of task in which work of the organisation is done. Structure define the

we u an
form and function of the organisation. It also defines how the parts of an organisation fit together. The purpose of an
organisation’s structure is to coordinate the action or activities of employees to achieve organisational goals. Important

H
w Th
function of the structure is to identify the various tasks for the organisation to achieve its specific goal. Combination
and coordination of the divided tasks, is another important function of the organisational structure to achieve a desired
level of output. The more interdependent the divided tasks, the more coordination is required. Every organisation’s

w
structure has these two fundamental requirements.
There are three ways by which organisational structure can be analysed. First, we can examine its configuration
or its size and shape which is described on the organisational chart. In the second stage we can examine the
operational aspects or characteristics. In which method an organisation take decision, what are its rules, regulation
and procedures are analysed in the second stage. In the third stage we can examine the distribution of responsibility
and authority of the organisation.
Structural Configuration
In the organisation chart, structure of an organisation is described in detail. A chart of the organisation shows its
position, reporting relationships, authority patterns and lines of formal communication in the organisation. A chart also
shows positions are grouped into small work groups. Positions are combined into department, which make up the
shape of the organisation.

3
Structural Centralisation and Decentralisation
There are some important aspects of organisation structure which are not appear on the organisation chart and
are also quite different from the configurational aspect, that are centralisation and decentralisation of decision-making,
rule and procedures. These structural policies effect the organisational operation and prescribe low employee behaviour
in their organisation as activities. Some organisations have followed the flat hierarchy and other have followed the
steep hierarchy. In the steep hierarchy, decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of the organisational
hierarchy, whereas in the flat hierarchy it is decentralised. Here decisions are made throughout the hierarchy. In the
decentralised organisation lower level employees participate in making-decision. There are some decisions in the
organisations which are called programmed decisions. In programmed decisions, decisions are relatively, routine in
nature and required only the application of top executive, where those decisions which are non-programmed decision.

m
The difference between programmed and non-programmed decisions are like the difference between the centralisation
and decentralisation. By and large, public organisation have steep hierarchy with a high degree of centralisation in

o
decision-making. This show that decision-making in an organisation is more complicated.

c g
Formalisation: Standard Operating Procedure

.
Formalisation is the degree in which rules and procedures shape employee’s jobs and activities. The purpose of
formalisation is to control how employees behave on the job. More formalised organisations have a higher proportion

t n
of rule bound jobs and less tolerance for rule violation. Increasing formalisation may affect the design of jobs throughout

r
the organisation and work group interactions. An organisation added more rules and procedures or the necessity for
control of operation. Rules and procedures are both explicit and implicit. Explicit rules and procedures are applied in

a i
office memos, office manuals, government order, civil senior codes, and job description. These rules and procedures

d
limits on the discretion of employee. Finance codes prescribe the procedures for the collection of money or incurring

a
m
expenditure. In the implicit rules employees become habituated to doing things in a certain way over a period of time.

e
Though it is unwritten, it established ways of getting things done. The test of a good officer in a formalised organisation

R
y
lies in making appropriate judgements about exceptions to rules.

d
Responsibility and Authority

e
Responsibility and authority belong to the manager in an organisational structure. These are related to both

in ks
u
configurational and operational aspects of organisa- tional structure.

l
t
Responsibility

n oo
Generally, responsibility is one type of authority delegated to the subordinate by his superior or manager. For

s O b
example, a manager delegated a task to his employee that is to write or present a proposal for a new programme by

r -
a certain date. Thus the employee is responsible for preparing the proposal.

.e o
Authority

f E
Authority is the legitimate power. It is concentrated in the chief executive or manager of the organisational

b d
structure. In organisation it is a top-down process. It is originated at the top and is delegated to the lower level. It is a

we u a n
power to make decisions or to achieve specific goal of the organisation. It is a power to guide the action of other.
Exercise of authority means that a person successfully issues orders to group of subordinates who obey because

H
w Th
of their belief in the legitimacy of the others. To Chester Barnard authority as the nature of an order in an organisation
by virtue of which it is accepted, by a ‘member’ of the organisation, as governing his action.
Authority is linked to responsibility because the chief executive, who wield authority is also responsible for his

w
decision. But there is some difference between authority and responsibility. Authority is a delegated process. It is
delegated to his subordinate but responsibility can not be delegated to others.
Classical Views of Structure
The classical views of organisation embody the key elements of organisational structure. The classical thinkers
are Max Weber, Henry Fayol and Rensis Likert. Max Weber, emphasised on ideal bureaucracy, Henry Fayol on
organising principles, Rensis Likert’s view on human organisation. Although all these thinkers gave their view on
organisational structure in different ways, they are universally valid. These three classical views are typical of how
the early writers attempted to prescribe a universal approach to organisation’s structure that would be best in all
situations.

4
Contingency Approaches to Organisation Design
How to design an organisation is a great deal of organisational structure. There are two theories regarding the
organisation design, these are universal approach and contingency approach. A universal approach is one whose
prescriptions or propositions are designed to work in any situation. Otherwise, a contingency approach suggests that
organisational efficiency can be achieved in several ways. In a contingency design, specific conditions such as the
environment, organisations work force and technology determine the structure.
Although each of these approaches contributed to the organising process and the practice of management, it is
argued that none of them is universally applicable. Several contingency designs attempt to specify the conditions, or
contingency factors. The contingency factors include such thing as the strategy of the organisation, technology, the
environment, size of the organisation or the social system within which the organisation operates. There are a number
of factors upon which design of an organisation structure is based on. These factors are discussed below:

m
Size
Size is an important factor to design an organisational structure. The size of an organisation can be measured in

o
many ways. It is measured in term of its budget, total value of productivity or business, number of clients served, value
of the organisation’s assets. Larger organisation have more complex organisational structures than smaller organisation.

c g
Technology

.
Organisational technology refers to the information and communication technologies that transform inputs into

t n
outputs. In small organisations the structure depend primarily on the technology, whereas in large organisation

r
coordinative activities may be more important.
Strategy

a i
Strategy is the plans and actions necessary to achieve organisational goal. The structural necessities are environment,

d
technology and size. These are the three primary determinants of organisational structure.
Organisational Environment

a
m
The organisational structure depend upon the organisational environment. If the organisational environment is

Re
good, then the organisational structure is also good. The organisational environment refers to elements and process

y
outside an organisation. It includes people, political, economic, and social factors, processes especially political parties,

d e s
interest groups, union etc. that lie outside the boundaries of the organisation. The general environment includes the
broad set of dimensions and factors in which organisation operates. It includes political, legal, socio-cultural, economic,

n
i k
u
technological and international factors. The task environment includes specific organisations, groups and individuals

l
t
that influence the organisation. Environmental uncertainty exists when chief executive or manager have little information

n oo
about environmental events. When managers have not control over the organisational element such as price fluctuation

s O b
and new technology, uncertainty will also be seen in the organisational environment.

r
New Approaches

-
.e o
A mechanistic structure of organisation is primarily hierarchical. Here interaction and communication are vertical.

f E
In mechanistic structure knowledge and skill are concentrated at the top. Thus, instruction come from the top. Loyalty
and obedience are required to sustain the organisation. Whereas inorganic structure, interactions and communication

b d
we
are horizontal and knowledge resides whenever it is most useful to the organisation. It requires employees commitment

u an
to the organisation’s tasks. Regarding organisational structure Mintzberg’s emphasises the ways, activities are

H
coordinated. To him there are five major ways in which tasks are coordinated, these are by mutual adjustment, by

w Th
direct supervision, and by standardisation of worker skills, work proceses, and by outputs. These five methods are
used in an organisation side by side.

w
Matrix Organisation Design
Matrix in organisation structure combines two different designs to gain the benefit of each typically combined are
a project departmentalisation scheme and a functional structure. Matrix structure provide coordinated responses to
both internal and external pressures. To matrix, the virtual organisation is a temporary alliance between two or more
organisations that bound together to undertake a specific venture.
Decision on Contemporary Organisation Designs
The current organisation designs theories provides a wide order of choice. It is a duty of the organisation designer
to examine the task and situation of the organisation and then design a form of organisation to meet its needs. A partial
list of contemporary alternatives includes such approaches as downsizing, rightsizing, re-engineering the organisation,
team based organisation and the virtual organisation. These approaches make use of employee empowerment, employee
involvement, and participation, reduction in force, process innovation and networks of alliances.

5
 To achieve major gains in cost, time and provision of services, the re-engineering approach redesign the
organisational proceses. Rethinking the organisation means looking at organisation design in totally different ways
which is abandoning the classic view of organisation as a pyramid.
The current design strategies are based on understanding about effects of technological and environmental
changes. It also look at the importance of people and the necessity of staying in touch with the customers. Technology
and environment are changing so fast that no organisation structure will be appropriate for a time. Developments in
transmission, electronic information processing and retrieval alone is so vast that employee relationships, distribution,
and task coordination need to be reviewed more. Recourse to outsourcing of products and services by public agencies
also has impact on organisational designs.
Unfortunately, there is no one best way in the designing of organisational structures. One should may consider the

m
technical system, cost factor, global consideration, the structural imperative, strategy, changes in information and
communication technology and a concern for accountability to the citizen in delivery of services in the design of

o
organisational structure. A few of the approaches to organisational design may overlap and often supplement each

c g
other.

.
Q. 5. Write a note on major works of Fredrick Herzberg.

t n
Ans. Frederick Herzberg is one of the distinguished American psychologist, who had studied the problem of
human motivation at the work place. He was influenced by the writing of Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor and

r
Chris Argyris. During the Second World War, he realised that a society goes insane when the some are driven insane.

a i
He analyzed the relationship between meaningful experience at work and mental health. He also believed that all

d
individuals in the society have two sets of needs:

a
(a) To avoid pain

e m
(b) To grow psychologically

y
Frederick Herzberg’s major works are:
• Work and the Nature of Man (1966)
R
d
• The Motivation to Work (1959).

e
• The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient and to be Human (1976)

in ks
u l
Motivation–Hygiene Theory

t n oo
F. Herzberg’s theory of motivation is based on the work experience of which consists of two hundred engineers
and accountant from nine companies in the Pittsburgh area of U.S.A. The major objective of the research was to

s O b
identify the factor that lead to positive and negative attitudes towards the jobs and to study the effects of these

r -
.e
attitudes on job performance turnover, mental health, etc. So that there are different kind of factors which are

o E
responsible for bringing about job satisfy actions.

f
Therefore, his research purports to explain the factors behind motivation determinants for job satisfaction and job

b d
we
dissatisfaction. His theory identifies five strong determinates for both job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.

u a n
Job Satisfaction

H
There are five factors which are strong determinants of jobs dissatisfaction are: achievement recognition, the

w Th
attraction of the work itself, responsibility, and advancement.
Job Dissatisfaction

w
There are four factors which are strong determinants of job dissatisfaction are: Company policy and administration,
supervision, salary, interpersonal relation, and working conditions.
According to Herzberg, the first group of factors are “Motivators”, and the second group of factors, are
“Maintenance” or Hygiene factors. He makes a distinction between positive and negative dissatisfiers and attempts
to motivate employees via human relations training for supervisors and wage incentive systems. He also suggest the
ways in which motivation to work may be strengthened. The hygiene factors operated to remove health hazards not
a curative factor, it is rather a preventive factor.
The following table analysis the characteristics of hygiene and motivation seekers:
Hygiene Seeker
• Motivated by nature of environment.
• Chronic and heightened dissatisfaction with various aspects of his job context, e.g., salary, supervision,
working conditions, status, job security, company policy and administration, fellow employees.
• Over-reaction of satisfaction to improvement in hygiene factors.

6
 • Short duration of satisfaction when the hygiene factors are improved.
• Over reaction of dissatisfaction when the hygiene factors are not improved.
• Realises little satisfaction from accomplishments.
• Shows little interest in the kind and quality of work that he does.
• Cynical views of positive virtues of work and life in general.
• Does not profit professionally from experience.
Prove to making cultural noises:
(a) May be ultra-liberal or ultra-conservative.
(b) Supports managements philosophy.
(c) Acts more like top managements than top managements itself.
• May be successful on the job because of talent.

m
Motivation Seeker
• Motivated by nature of the task.

o
• Higher tolerance for poor hygiene factors.
• Loss reaction to improvement in hygiene factors.

c g
• Milder discontent when hygiene factors need improvement.

.
• Realises great satisfaction from achievement.

t n
• Shows capacity to enjoy the kind of work that he does.

r
• Have positive feelings towards work and life in general.
• Profit professionally from experience.

a i
• Belief systems sincere and considered.
• May be an overachiever.

a d
m
Propositions in the Theory

Re
There are mainly three propositions at the heart of motivator-hygiene theory:

y
(a) Both job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not the opposite of one another, rather they are concerned

d
with two different sets of man’s needs.

e s
(b) Job satisfaction is of a different kind from job dissatisfaction.

n
i k
u
(c) The motivators concerned with job satisfaction have a much long lasting effect than the hygiene factors

l
t
concerned with removing dissatisfaction.

n oo
The study on job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction were distinctly separate from each other. In a study involving

s O b
over 1600 employees belonging to a variety of jobs in business and industry and in a number of countries. Herzberg’s

r -
findings shows that as much as 81% of the factors contributing to job satisfaction are motivators concerned with

.e o
growth and development, and 69% of the factors contributing to job dissatisfaction are factors concerned with

f E
hygiene or environmental maintenance. Therefore it is desirable to place emphasis on motivating the people. He

b d
advocates on industrial engineering approach which is based on the design of jobs. He suggests job enrichment,

we u an
vertical job loading as the important means to motivate employees.
Job Enrichment

H
w Th
The term job enrichment designates a technique used by managers to maximise in individual workers to internal
motivation to work, which is the true source of job satisfaction.
This concept designates a production and profit-oriented way of managing. It is based on the promise that people

w
are not motivated by management with reward, privileges, or punishment. People develop lasting motivation only
through their experience with the content of their jobs.
Vertical Job Loading
Management often merely succeeds in reducing the man’s personal contribution rather than giving him an opportunity
for growth in his existing job. Herzberg calls this “horizontal job loading” as opposed to “vertical loading”. There are
some ways, which increasing an individual’s responsibility:
(a) Making the individual accountable for his own work.
(b) Assigning a person a complete natural module of works.
(c) Granting freedom and authority to an employee in his jobs.
(d) Making reports directly available to the man himself rather than to the supervisor.
(e) Introducing new and more difficult tasks, etc.

7
 An effective feedback has the following characteristics:
(a) It is related to job performance.
(b) It is given on an individual rather than group basis.
(c) It occurs at short intervals.
(d) It is provided directly to the employee rather than through his supervisor.
Thus, Herzberg’s theory deals with the management to provide adequate hygiene through company policy,
interpersonal relations, working condition, etc. for satisfaction in man’s work.
A Critical Evaluation
Herzberg’s ideas have been criticised on several grounds and also by several thinkes.
• On Motivation–Hygiene Concept: It is the main criticism that interpreted job and company employment

m
factors to be totally distinct and separate sets of entities. Today it is recognised that these factors at times can
be both motivators and hygienic in nature. His hygiene approach to motivation has raised question about the

o
accuracy of motivation hygiene theory. Some critics find that the hygiene factors as postulated by Herzberg

c g
had the potential of yielding a sense of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
• On Methodology: One criticism against Herzberg’s theory is about the methodology adopted. Schwab and

.
others have the same mythology as that of Herzberg but they have obtained results different from what the

t n
two-factors theory could predict.

r
• On Growth Seekers: Mayers discovers that those persons who seek opportunities for advancement and
responsibility, whom he characterize as “growth seeker”. Maintenance seekers are greatly concerned with

a i
environmental factor in the other words, Mayers observes that what motivates people is largely a matter of
personality.

a d
m
• Moreover, motivational factors are normally environmental and it is widely recognised that these factors can

e
be both motivators and hyginenic in nature. Herzberg calls money and fringe benefits “negative motivators”.

R
y
• Inspite of criticism, Herzberg’s contribution to human motivation theory is substantial. The concept of job

d
enrichment developed by him is certainly a better-known contribution. He mainly focuses on the significance

e
of job content in motivation and the role of modern managers in organisation.

in ks
u
SECTION-II

l
t
Q. 8. What is meant by Organisation Culture? Analyse its components and types.

n oo
Ans. Meaning and Definition of Organisational Culture: Each organisation is unique in its own way.

s O b
Employees create the culture of organisation, which enables one to predict attitudes and behaviour of the people of

r -
organisation. Organisations have cultures that influence employees action toward clients, competitors, superiors and

.e o
subordinates.

f E
According to Pacanowsky and O’Donnell, organisation culture is described as

b d
(i) A submerged part of organisational iceberg.

we u a n
(ii) A concept created and resides in the minds of people.
(iii) Pervasive, yet somewhat intangible.

H
w Th
(iv) The personality of organisation–its overall orientation, values, its unwritten codes and norms.
(v) Can not be discovered and verified, rather only inferred, conjured and interpreted and defined.
Sergiovanni and Corbally define organisational culture in the following words: “Culture governs what is worth

w
for a particular group and low group members should think, feel and behave. The staff of culture includes customs
and traditions, historical accounts be they mythical or actual, tacit under standings, habits, norms and expectations,
common meanings associated with fixed objects and established rites, shared assumptions and inter-subjective
meanings.”
Schein analysis six meanings of organisation culture. They are noted below:
(i) The dominant values which are espoused by the organisations.
(ii) Observed behavioural regularities in the interactions, language and rituals of the organisational members.
(iii) The rules of the game one must learn in order to survive and be accepted in the organisation.
(iv) The philosophy that guides the decisions and policies of an organisation.
(v) The norms that evolve over a period of time in working groups.
(vi) The feeling and climate that pervades and gets conveyed in the day to day functioning of the organisation.

8
Components of Organisational Culture
Organisational culture can be manifested and studied at different levels. The following are some of the common
expressions of organisational culture:
Physical Artifacts: There are the most tangible and visible manifestations of organisational culture. Physical
layout and decor, nature, availability and use of facilities; centralisation or dispersion of common utilities. They represent
symbolic expression of an underlying meaning, value or belief, which is shared by the people in the organisation.
Cultural Artifacts: Cultural artifacts are symbolic in nature. Their values lie not in what they are, but in what
they mean to people.
Examples
(a) Work in Maruti Udyog starts every morning with all employees assembling and doing yoga.
(b) TISCO encourages its employees to go for mountain trekking in groups.

m
Language, Jargon and Metophors: Most organisations use unique terminologies, phrases, acronyms as a
means of universal communication. Such linguistic symbols distinguish between members and non-members and

o
reinforce cultural identity.
Examples

. c g
(a) In one organisation, members of the corporate office are referred to as Nawabs.
(b) In another organisation, the acronym J.I.T. (Just-In-Time) was jokingly used to describe all badly planned

t n
fire-fighting jobs.

r
Stories, Myths and Legends: Important culture assumptions, beliefs, values and norms are communicated
through stories, myths and legends to the new members.

a i
Ceremonies and Celebrations: These are consciously enacted collective behaviours that helps in reinforcing
an organisation cultural values and assumptions.

a d
m
Examples

Re
(a) Every year the Indian Institute of Public Administration celebrates Foundation Day.

y
(b) Every year several universities have an Alumnus Day intended to reinforce the identity and collective pride of

d
the old boys with the institution.

e s
Routines, Rites and Rituals: Organisations carry out repetitively many routine activities, without giving them

n
i k
u
a second thought, such as: staff meetings, training programmes; rituals of fillings out performance appraisal forms,

l
t
superiors annual visits etc., which often acquire a life of their own. Such rituals serve the purpose of providing a sense

n oo
of security and personal identity, giving meaning to members’ actions and serving as mechanisms of control.

s O b
Behavioural Norms: It evolved the nature of the individual in the organisation. Organisation behaviour transmitted

r -
to new members through a process of socialisation.

.e o
Shared Beliefs and Values: Beliefs and values are mental pictures about organisational reality and are fundamental

f E
for justifying a member’s behaviour as right or wrong.

b d
Basic Assumptions: Competent professional do not remain for a long time in the organisation. These are

we u an
conscious values and beliefs held by the members of the organisations.

H
Types Of Organisational Culture

w Th
There are four types of organisational cultures which are presented below:
(1) Rational Culture: Organisations which face competitive environment such as those dealing with consumer

w
products, banking and financial services etc. called rational culture. It mainly focus on tasks and strategically planned
organisation objectives or performance, productivity and efficiency.
(2) Developmental Culture: Organisation also encourage the people to be creative and to take risks in all job
situations. Software organisations and research and development departments are developmental cultures.
(3) Consensual Culture: In this culture, members are open spontaneous and informal and build and maintain
effective relationship. These are highly team-oriented cultures.
(4) Hierarchical Culture: This culture is not encouraged for risk-taking. This culture has a static and non-
changing environment, where tasks are achieved through rules, procedures and techniques.
Q. 10. Explain the origin and characteristics of Critical Theory and bring out its relevance to Public
Administration.
Ans. Public administration is a field of knowledge which was first adopted by business mangement. In the post-
modern public administration theorists have given importance in the formal structures of organisations. They also

9
given importance to the subjective and also inter-subjective aspects of organisation and their structure and functions.
In the public administration various theorists has been developed from various discipline just like the theoristics of
organisations and bureaucracy come from sociology, theories of leadership and employee motivation come from
social psychologists and specially the theory of public choice come from the work of economists. The basic aim and
objectives of critical theory is to reduce the systems of administration or dependence and strongly established complete
human freedom in the society. It provides a vision of a better future, this is only possible in welfare state. So that,
critical theory taking action to create social change, it works to change the structure and system of organisation, it
works to create consciousness among the individual and it establish a welfare state, which provide equality and
parliamentary form of government, where people are all in all.
Therefore, critical theory bring certain change in the social and political situations. It change the system of

m
government from authoritarian to democracy. It improving the quality of organisational life by advocating self-reflection
and self-criticism on the part of administrators. It has a strong individualistic, subjectivist and anti-bureaucratic thrust.

o
Origin and Development of Critical Theory: Critical theory born out of renaissance in the 18th century,

c g
specially in the Europe and America. The term critical theory was first defined by Max Horkheimer of the Frankfurt

.
School of Social Sciences in his essay “Traditional Theory and Critical Theory”.
Critical theory originated and developed by Frankfurt School and Frankfurt School beginning in the 1920s and its

t n
principal members are—Max Horkheimer, Theoder Adorno and Herbert Marcuse. Critical theory also derives from

r
Kants in 18th century, in his work “Critique of Pure Reason” and from Marx’s in 19th century in his greatest work
Das Kapital (capital). Critical theory also introduced by Jurgen Habermas in 1968 in his work Erukenntnis and

a i
Interesse (Knowledge and Human Interests). Some other recent social scientists also contributed, such as—Pierre

d
Bourdien, Louis Althusser, Michel Foucault and Bryan Reynolds. The critical theory began in early part of 20th

a
m
century by some prominent writers like—George Lukas and Automio Gramaci and later 20th century writers like—

e
Jurgen Habermos.

R
y
Characteristics of Critical Theory

d e
Some of the basic characteristics of critical theory has been discussed in the following points:

in ks
1. Contradiction: A primary characteristics of critical theory is contradiction. Contradiction or tensions happen

u l
when the ideas of social systems change over time. It change between how they are and how they could be. The

t n oo
concept of critical theory works to show the relationship between ideas and theoretical positions and also their social
environment in the society. Thus, due to the tensions or contradiction the social system has been changed and this

s O b
change bring new ideas and process in the mind of the individual.

r -
.e
2. Dialectic: Dialectics was the key ideas in Hegelian philosophy, it applied to the process, evolution and development

o E
of history. Hegel viewed history as the progressive manifestation of human reason, and the development of a historical

f
spirit. History recorded increasing awareness and greater rationality as exhibited on human affairs, human consciousness

b d
we
and human freedom expanded as a result of conflicting intellectual forces, which were consation—(a) the individual

u a n
spirit (b) the world spirit. The individual spirit which desired happiness and provided energy, and the world spirit which

H
strived for higher freedom, that come with the knowledge of the self. For Marx, the key idea was not the history of

w Th
philosophy, but the history of economic production. Thus Marx, like Hegel, believe that dialectics was a powerful tool
and it offered a low of social development.

w
3. Change: Change is a universal phenomena and it is a law of the nature. Critical theory playing a significant
role for taking action to create social system change, which provides for greater human freedom and self-determination
to human beings. The critical theory also gives importance to the subjects as well as inter-subjective aspects of the
organisation. Therefore, no change is permanent, it is necessary to understand the changeable nature of society.
Conclusion: The basic purpose of critical theory is improving the quality of organisation by advocating self-
reflection and self-criticism on the part of administrators. It also analysis systematic of social conditions and action
which is guided by normative purpose. Critical theory provides an opening for conceptualisation and it also as a guide
for taking action to create social change. Therefore, changes and reforms in public administration may be analysed
from the perspective of critical theory, and critical theory provides a critique of the status quo in public administration.
It attempts to offer critique of public institutions and provide a vision for a better future.
Relevance of Critical Theory to Public Administration
Public administration is a specialised academic field and it essentialy deals with the machinery and procedures of
governmental activities. Generally, administration has been defined as a co-operative human effort towards achieving

10
some common goals. Administration can be found in various institutions such as a business firm, a hospital, an
university, a government department and so on. Thus public administration is concerned with the whole range of
governmental activity under all the three branches—legislature, executive and judicialry. Critical theory was born in
the year of 18th century by the contribution of various social scientists such as—Max Horkheimer, Theoder Adorno,
Herbert Marcuse, Georgr Luckacs, Antonio Gramsci, Jurgen Habermas, Karl Marx, Kant and so on. The basic
characteristics of the critical theory are—contradiction or tensions, dialectic and change. The aim of the critical
theory to change the political system of the state. It works to create consciousness among the individual and work to
establish a welfare state. Welfare state must provide equality to each and every individual in the society.
The concept critical theory is strongly based on individualistic, subjectivist and anti-bureaucratic thrust. Critical
theory relevance mostly to the public administration on certain activities, which is discussed in the following points:
1. Critical theory had greatly developed by some social thinkers of Frankfurt School. Frankfurt School beginning

m
in 1920s and its principal members are—Max Horkheimer, Theoder Adorno and Herbert Marcuse.
2. Critical theory specially come from the work of philosophists and sociologists, and also all the post- modern

o
public administration theories have given importance to people in the organisation. Thus people are the key of
the organisation.

. c g
3. Critical theory helps for taking action to create social change. Change is the law of nature. Change bring new
process in the political and social system in the society. So change come through revolution. It change the

t n
system and the structure of the political process. So it is necessary for each and every society. Change

r
establish democratic form of government and give equality to the individual. It change the laws and order to
state. Thus it established a welfare state.

a i
4. Critical theory create consciousness between the individual and it deals with equality and democracy principles.

d
5. It is also replacement of techno-administrative administration of bureaucracy through debureaucr- atisation

a
m
and democratisation of administration.

Re
6. The primary objective of a critical theory of public administration is improving the quality of organisational life

y
by advocating self-reflection and self-criticism.

d
7. The approach of critical theory involves a systematic analysis of social condition which is guided by normative

e s
purpose. But critical theory is based on dialectical change.

n
i k
u
8. Recently the concept of critical theory has been changed due to process of globalisation and technological

l
t
revolution. Globalisation bring competition between the individual.

n oo
On the whole, the basic aim of critical theory is to reduce the system of domination or dependence and strongly

s O b
established human freedom in all the spheres and it provide a better future. Therefore, changes and reforms in public

r -
administration may be explained from the perspective of critical theory. Critical theory provides the objectives and

.e o
normative bases for social inquirey and also it has a narrow and broad meaning in philosophy and the history of the

f E
social sciences. Thus, the aim of the critical theory is to explain and transform all the circumstances that enslaves

b d
human beings.

we u an
n n

H
w Th
w

11