Spatial Form Analysis and Sustainable Development Research of Traditional Residential Buildings

sustainability
Article
Spatial Form Analysis and Sustainable Development
Research of Traditional Residential Buildings
Hai-fan Wang 1,2, * and Shang-chia Chiou 2
1 School of Art and Design, Taizhou University, Taizhou 318000, China
2 Graduate School of Design, National Yunlin University of Science &Technology, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan;
chiousc@yuntech.edu.tw
* Correspondence: whf@tzc.edu.cn

Received: 2 December 2019; Accepted: 9 January 2020; Published: 15 January 2020
Abstract: Three courtyards nine halls is an important cultural asset in eastern Zhejiang. This paper
takes Three courtyards nine halls dwellings in the eastern part of Zhejiang province of China as
the research object, collecting data with field research, measurement, interviews and other research
methods, to analyze the spatial characteristics and construction culture of traditional dwellings.
Research findings: First, influenced by the natural environment, artificial environment and social
environment, three courtyards nine halls is a complex of residential buildings with san-ho-yuan as
a unit, extending vertically and horizontally. Second, with the influences of the Confucian culture,
the architectural layout is symmetrically distributed along the central axis, and the architectural
space presents a high degree of consistency. Third, the architectural complex was formed by
the same clan. The last one is that the architectural form and culture show consistency, which
implies the idea of harmony between man and nature, the farming and studying hand down from
generation to generation. On the one hand, with the acceleration of the urbanization process, living
conditions have been greatly improved. On the other hand, due to the weak awareness of residents’
protection of traditional residential cultural assets, lack of systematic study on traditional residential
construction methods, construction techniques and space culture, new buildings are not in harmony
with traditional dwellings, therefore, traditional dwellings are seriously damaged. This paper
discusses the sustainable development of traditional residential culture by studying the construction
and environmental elements of Three courtyards nine halls, taking the residential space as a principal
part to analyze the characteristics, functional attributes, organizational principles, order, and sense
of place.
Keywords: traditional dwelling; cultural asset; spatial characteristics; residence culture
1. Introduction
1.1. Traditional Dwelling

“Traditional dwellings” are terms used in academic research at home and abroad. The term
“dwelling” is often understood as a civilian’s housing. It is an architectural form built by folk craftsmen
with local building materials within the same cultural or linguistic circle. The living environment of
traditional dwelling houses is a community of social, spatial, ecological and cultural self-awareness.
Traditional architecture discussed in this paper refers to the concept of vernacular architecture. In the
Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World, Paul Oliver pointed out several characteristics of
“vernacular architecture”: indigenous, anonymous (i.e., no architect), spontaneous (i.e., unconscious),
folk (unofficial), traditional, rural and so on [1].
Human Settlements are a holistic system, which are not only a space system, but also a cultural
system, a social structure system and an economic system. It is a form of residence that people
Sustainability 2020, 12, 637; doi:10.3390/su12020637 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19
Human Settlements are a holistic system, which are not only a space system, but also a cultural
system, a social structure system and an economic system. It is a form of residence that people in the
Sustainability
same cultural 12, 637coordinate with the natural environment in the long-term, and sets up a mutual
2020,circle 2 of 19
emotional mechanism between the context of communication, culture and social ethics. Traditional
residential houses are affected by the natural environment, social environment and artificial
in the same cultural circle coordinate with the natural environment in the long-term, and sets up
environment [1] (p. 225). The relationship among the three factors is a dynamic process, which
a mutual emotional mechanism between the context of communication, culture and social ethics.
influences each other. Only in the constant change and development can the traditional residential
Traditional residential houses are affected by the natural environment, social environment and artificial
culture be inherited and continued, and succeed in making the traditional residence sustainable
environment [1] (p. 225). The relationship among the three factors is a dynamic process, which
development. Traditional residence is a whole concept. From the perspective of space environment,
influences each other. Only in the constant change and development can the traditional residential
there are three levels: performance level, structure level and spiritual level [2]. Three courtyards nine
culture be inherited and continued, and succeed in making the traditional residence sustainable
halls buildings contain these three levels. The performance level is a complex composed of san-ho-
development. Traditional residence is a whole concept. From the perspective of space environment,
yuan. The structure level is a brick and wood structure with an exquisite architectural structure. The
there are three levels: performance level, structure level and spiritual level [2]. Three courtyards nine
spiritual level is embodied in the concepts of harmony between man and nature, social ethics and
halls buildings contain these three levels. The performance level is a complex composed of san-ho-yuan.
order.
The structure level is a brick and wood structure with an exquisite architectural structure. The spiritual
level is embodied in the concepts of harmony between man and nature, social ethics and order.
1.1.1. The Composition of a Three Courtyards Nine Halls Building
1.1.1.Three
The Composition of a halls
courtyards nine Threebuilding
Courtyards
is a Nine Halls Building
combination of vertical or horizontal splicing of san-
ho-yuan
Three courtyards nine halls building is a combination gradually
(Figures 1 and 2). When the scale of the residence of verticalexpands, san-ho-yuan
or horizontal splicingwill
of
develop in depth according to different base sites, forming shapes like “日”, “目”, and then
san-ho-yuan (Figures 1 and 2). When the scale of the residence gradually expands, san-ho-yuan will expand
to the left
develop inand right,
depth forming
according to adifferent
combination of “曰
base sites, ”, “田shapes
forming ” or larger. In a regular
like “日”, “目”, and and symmetrical
then expand to
large residence, san-ho-yuan is actually a kind of standard unit that
the left and right, forming a combination of “曰”, “田” or larger. In a regular and symmetrical can be pieced together vertically
large
and
residence, san-ho-yuan is actually a kind of standard unit that can be pieced together vertically and
horizontally, which can adapt to the different shapes of the site. It is convenient to expand and
connect in stages.
horizontally, whichNo canmatter
adapt howto themuch it is shapes
different expanded,of the it site.
is neatIt isand completeto[3]
convenient . Taking
expand and a san-ho-
connect
yuan as a No
in stages. monomer,
matter howthe one is connected
much with the
it is expanded, it isother
neat and to form a group
complete [3].ofTaking
buildings, which hasas
a san-ho-yuan a
certain
a monomer,scientific nature.
the one Firstly, from
is connected with antheeconomic
other to formaspect, the construction
a group of buildings,ofwhich residential
has a houses
certain
requires
scientificanature.
large amount
Firstly, of capital.
from Buildingaspect,
an economic a san-ho-yuan first and of
the construction then developing
residential gradually
houses requires cana
alleviate the pressure of construction funds. Secondly, in the era of farming
large amount of capital. Building a san-ho-yuan first and then developing gradually can alleviate the civilization, prosperity of
population
pressure of and family is particularly
construction funds. Secondly, important.
in the The
era ofarchitectural form of Three
farming civilization, courtyards
prosperity nine halls
of population
can make the same tribe live together and form an inter-connected courtyard
and family is particularly important. The architectural form of Three courtyards nine halls can make group. The number of
houses to be built can be determined by the number of children. The last
the same tribe live together and form an inter-connected courtyard group. The number of houses to be one is that it can adapt to
the
builtchanges of different by
can be determined terrains. Underofthe
the number condition
children. Theof lastterrain
one isleveling,
that it can it adapt
extends vertically
to the changes andof
horizontally from a single courtyard to a regular. When encountering irregular
different terrains. Under the condition of terrain leveling, it extends vertically and horizontally from a terrain, it can be
extended freely but
single courtyard to ais regular.
still connected with the mainirregular
When encountering building.terrain,
The changeit caninbe the unit form
extended of san-ho-
freely but is
yuan is limited,with
still connected but the
the main
extension of a basic
building. unit is in
The change infinite,
the unit which
formisofasan-ho-yuan
combinationisoflimited,“limited” butand
the
“infinite”.
extension of a basic unit is infinite, which is a combination of “limited” and “infinite”.
Figure 1.
Figure Evolution intention
1. Evolution intention map
map of
of san-ho-yuan
san-ho-yuan [4].
[4].
Sustainability 2020, 12, 637 3 of 19

Figure 2. Existing residential buildings.
1.1.2. Architectural Form and Culture Are in the Same Vein

The patio of a Three courtyards Figure
Figure 2.
nine Existing
2. Existing residentialis
residential
halls building buildings.
buildings.
a courtyard. Three patios are connected
together
1.1.2.as “three courtyards”,
Architectural and each
Form and Culture Arepatio
in thehasSame threeVeinhalls, a total of nine, which is called Three
1.1.2. Architectural Form and Culture Are in the Same Vein
courtyards nine halls. The building is a brick-concrete structure residence with Hui-style architecture
The patio of a Three courtyards nine halls building is a courtyard. Three patios are connected
The patio of
as its foundation. The a Three
overall courtyards nine halls
style is simple building and
and elegant, is a the
courtyard. Three patios
space system are connected
is complete (Figure 3).
together as “three courtyards”, and each patio has three halls, a total of nine, which is called Three
Thetogether
residence as “three
is mainlycourtyards”,
composed andofeach two patio haswith
floors, threeahalls,sloped a total
roof.
courtyards nine halls. The building is a brick-concrete structure residence with Hui-style architecture
of The
nine,mainwhichhallis called
and Three are
foyer
courtyards
bright. There nine halls.
are cornices The building
on thestyle is a
sideisnear brick-concrete
theandcourtyard, structure
supported residence with Hui-style architecture
as its foundation. The overall simple elegant, and the spaceby wooden
system pillars with
is complete (Figure colors
3). of
as
black, its foundation.
white, grayisand The overall style
log.composed
Most of of is simple
the existingand elegant,
Three and the
courtyards spaceninesystem
halls is complete (Figure 3). in
The residence mainly two floors, with a sloped roof. The main hallbuildings
and foyer are were built
bright.
The
the Ming residence is mainly composed of two floors, with a sloped roof. The main hall and foyer are
Thereand Qing Dynasties.
are cornices on the sideAccording to the investigation,
near the courtyard, supported by wooden the buildings in Xianju
pillars with colorsare the most
of black,
bright. There are cornices on the side near the courtyard, supported by wooden pillars with colors of
intact. There
white, grayareandJishan hall,ofRixin
log. Most hall, Xinde
the existing Three hall, etc., in
courtyards Gaoqian
nine village,were
halls buildings and built
Kangle in thehall,
Ming Heqin
black,
and
white,
Qing
gray andAccording
Dynasties.
log. Mosttoofthe theinvestigation,
existing Three the
courtyards
buildings in
nine halls
Xianju are
buildings
the most
were built
intact. There
in
hall, Hele hall, etc., in Lizhai village. Taking Xingshen hall in Gaoqian village (Figure 4) as an example,
the Ming
arebuilt
Jishan and Qing Dynasties. According to the investigation, the buildings in Xianju areHele
the hall,
most
it was byhall, Rixin
Xi-guan hall, Xinde
Wu, hall, etc.,
who strictly in Gaoqian
observes village, and
sentiment andKangle
is highlyhall,respected
Heqin hall, by others. The
intact.
etc., There
in Lizhai are Jishan
village. hall,
Taking Rixin hall,
Xingshen Xinde
hall in hall,
Gaoqian etc., in
villageGaoqian
(Figure village,
4) as anand Kangle
example, ithall,
was Heqin
built
namehall,ofHele
the hall,
hall is taken
etc., fromvillage.
in Lizhai the analects
Taking of Confucius,
Xingshen “three provinces in a day”.4) asIt isexample,
binary and
by Xi-guan Wu, who strictly observes sentiment and hall in
is highly Gaoqian
respected village (FigureThe
by others. an
name of the
is divided
it hall intoby
wasisbuilt a lobby,
Xi-guan front
Wu, yard
who and back
strictly yard, sentiment
observes which form and a is
“cross
highly courtyard”
respected pattern
by others. with
The the
taken from the analects of Confucius, “three provinces in a day”. It is binary and is divided
samename binarythe compound in from
the west. The entrance is located on the centralinaxis of the house, with
andthe
into aoflobby, hall is taken
front yard and theyard,
back analectswhich of Confucius,
form a “cross “three provinces
courtyard” patterna with
day”. It is
the binary
same binary
firstisfloor being
divided into
compound
a lobby.
in athelobby, The
west.front
main hall and
yard andisback
The entrance
the
located
wing
yard,onwhich
rooms on
form axis
the central
the
a “cross left
of the
and right
courtyard”
house, with
are three
pattern
the first
rooms
with the in
floor
width
same and
being atwo
binary floors
lobby. Thein
compound height.
main inhall The
the and
west. south
the The
wing side
entrance
roomsof the wing
the leftrooms
isonlocated on
and in the
theright arefront
central axis of
three yard isinused
the house,
rooms width to and
with seal
the the
volcanic
first wall,
twofloor
floors which
being
in height. is connected
a lobby.The The main
south with
side ofthe
hall theentrance
and the wing
wing rooms door inwall
rooms theon asthea yard
front whole.
left and The
rightto
is used gable
are facade
sealthree roomsis rich
the volcanic in in
contour.
width and two floors in height. The south side of the wing rooms in
wall, which is connected with the entrance door wall as a whole. The gable facade is rich in contour.the front yard is used to seal the
volcanic wall, which is connected with the entrance door wall as a whole. The gable facade is rich in
contour.
Figure
Figure Threecourtyards
3. 3.Three courtyards nine
nine halls
hallsbuildings
buildings[5].
[5].
Figure 3. Three courtyards nine halls buildings [5].
Sustainability
Sustainability 2020,
2020, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 44 of
of 19
19
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Xingshen
Xingshen hall.
hall.
1.1.3.
1.1.3. The
1.1.3. The Spatial
The Spatial Nature
Spatial Nature of
Nature of the
of the Courtyard
the Courtyard
Courtyard
AA courtyard
A courtyard is
courtyard is an
an enclosed space. “San-ho-yuan”
enclosed space. “San-ho-yuan” is
“San-ho-yuan” isis not
not only
not only aaa substantial
only substantial space,
substantial space, but
space, but also
but also aa
also
spiritual
spiritual and
and cultural
cultural connotation,
connotation, including
including the
the enclosure
enclosure of of space,
space, the the harmony
harmony between
between
spiritual and cultural connotation, including the enclosure of space, the harmony between human human
human and
and nature,
nature, family
family harmony
harmony and and cultural
cultural harmony.
harmony.
and nature, family harmony and cultural harmony.
Enclosure in the
Enclosure the Sense of of Space
Enclosure in in the Sense
Sense of Space
Space
Moholy-Nagy
Moholy-Nagy defines space asas“the relationship between the positions of objects”, indicating that
Moholy-Nagy defines defines space
space as “the “the relationship
relationship between
between the the positions
positions of of objects”,
objects”, indicating
indicating
it can
that be experienced by all human senses. Emphasizing that space is a dynamic field and architecture
that itit can
can bebe experienced
experienced by by all
all human
human senses.
senses. Emphasizing
Emphasizing that that space
space is is aa dynamic
dynamic field field and
and
is no longer is
architecture anno exhibition between individuals, but a building group relationship: the group edge
architecture is no longer an exhibition between individuals, but a building group relationship: the
longer an exhibition between individuals, but a building group relationship: the
line becomes
group edge a kind
line of fluid;
becomes a space
kind of has
fluid;fluidity
space and
has itfluidity
is a series
and ofit innumerable
is a series of relation
innumerable sequences [6].
relation
group edge line becomes a kind of fluid; space has fluidity and it is a series of innumerable relation
Three
sequencessan-ho-yuans are connected with each other by corridors, thus preventing people from getting
sequences [6]. [6]. Three
Three san-ho-yuans
san-ho-yuans are are connected
connected with with each
each other
other by by corridors,
corridors, thus thus preventing
preventing
wet during
people the rainy wet
season whenthe they walk through the they
buildings (Figure 5).the
The Ma Tau Wall, made
people from getting wet during the rainy season when they walk through the buildings (Figure
from getting during rainy season when walk through buildings (Figure 5).
5).
of
The grey
Ma bricks,
Tau plays
Wall, a
made decorative
of grey role
bricks, on the
plays one
a hand,
decorative and has
role the
on the function
one of
hand, fire
and prevention
has the on the
function
The Ma Tau Wall, made of grey bricks, plays a decorative role on the one hand, and has the function
other hand.
of The first floor has stone windows with small openings, whilewith the secondopenings,
floor has round
of fire
fire prevention
prevention on on the
the other
other hand.
hand. The The first
first floor
floor hashas stone
stone windows
windows with small small openings, while while
windows
the second with
floor only
has one
round head protruding
windows with out.
only San-ho-yuans
one head are
protruding connected
out. to
San-ho-yuansform aare
closed space,
connected
the second floor has round windows with only one head protruding out. San-ho-yuans are connected
surrounded
to by a wall with a height of 5–6am. Open doors in the east, west, north and south form a large
to form
form aa closed
closed space,
space, surrounded
surrounded by by a wall
wall with
with aa height
height ofof 5–6
5–6 meters.
meters. OpenOpen doors
doors in in the
the east,
east,
enclosed courtyard.
west, It can beaseen from the elevation and plan of the buildingthe (Figure 6), that when the
west, north
north andand south
south form
form a large
large enclosed
enclosed courtyard.
courtyard. It It can
can be
be seen
seen fromfrom the elevation
elevation and and plan
plan ofof
door
the is closed,
building the inside
(Figure 6), andwhen
that outside
the are
doorseparated
is closed, tothe
prevent
inside theft
and and attack.
outside are The closedto
separated courtyard
prevent
the building (Figure 6), that when the door is closed, the inside and outside are separated to prevent
can play aattack.
theft role in security.
theft and
and attack. The The closed
closed courtyard
courtyard can can play
play aa role
role inin security.
security.
Figure
Figure 5.
Figure 5. The
5. The connective
The connective corridor.
connective corridor.
corridor.
Sustainability 2020, 12,
12, x637
FOR PEER REVIEW 55of 19
of 19
Figure 6. Residential defense function [7].

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Residential
Residential defense
defense function
function [7].
[7].
Harmony between Man and Nature
Harmony between
Harmony between Man and and Nature
In addition toMan harmonyNature with the environment, geomancy is also an important aspect of the
harmonyIn addition
between
In addition to harmony
to man
harmony with
and nature
with the the environment,
in environment,
Three courtyards geomancy
nine halls
geomancy is also
is also an important
buildings.
an important aspect
Lao-zi aspect
contains of two
of the
the
harmony
harmony between
importantbetween man
concepts:man andand
nature
and nature
space.
nature in Three
in Mixedcourtyards
Three clay is used
courtyards nine halls
halls buildings.
to make
nine utensils,
buildings. Lao-zi contains
because
Lao-zi contains
the middle two
two is
important
empty, so we
important concepts:
implement
concepts: nature
nature and
effect. space.
and Carved
space. Mixed Mixed
doors and clay is used
clay windows to
is used tocovermake
makeinto utensils,
a house,
utensils, because
because
because the
thethe middle
middle
middle is
is
empty,
is empty,
empty, so
so wewe implement
and effect.
effect. Carved
have the function
implement of a house.
Carved doors
doors and
andwindows
Professor Yi-diao
windows cover
Zhang
cover into a ahouse,
house,because
intointerprets the the
“none”
because the middle
of is
Lao-zi
middle
empty,
asempty,
is and
an intangible
andhave thethe
have function
substance, of aofhouse.
which
function isanot Professor
only
house. spaceYi-diao
Professor Zhang
in essence,
Yi-diao butinterprets
Zhang alsointerprets
geomancythe “none” of Lao-zi
theof“none”
architecture as[8].
of Lao-zian
intangible
Each
as an of substance,
the four substance,
intangible which
corners of the is not
which only
courtyard space
is not only in
in Three essence,
space courtyardsbut
in essence,also
ninegeomancy
buthalls
also is of architecture
equippedof
geomancy with [8]. Each
a large water
architecture of
[8].
the four
tank of
Each corners
to the
collect of the
four water. courtyard
cornersInoftraditional in
the courtyard Three
culture,courtyards
in Three “water” nine halls is
and “wealth”
courtyards equipped
nine hallsare with a
in line with
is equipped large water
withthe tank
traditional
a large water to
collect
concept
tank towater. Inwater.
traditional
of geomancy.
collect culture, san-ho-yuan
In Secondly,
traditional “water”
culture, and “water”“wealth”
is composed are inof
and “wealth” lineaare
with
hallin theandtraditional
line wingtheroom.
with conceptFrom
traditional of
geomancy.
anthropomorphism
concept Secondly,
of geomancy. san-ho-yuan
of spaces
Secondly, is
and names composed
san-ho-yuan of a hall
(Figuresis7 composed and wing
and 8), the of room.
analogy From
a hallof and anthropomorphism
spacewing
and form,
room.view From of
of
Yin spaces
and and
Yang names
and five (Figures
elements 7 and
to 8),
analyze the analogy
the Chinese of space and
traditional
anthropomorphism of spaces and names (Figures 7 and 8), the analogy of space and form, view of form,
body, view
is howof Yin and
thinking Yang
is and
viewed
five
Yin elements
in san-ho-yuan.
and toThrough
Yang and analyze the Chinese
transformation
five elements to analyze traditional
andthe body, traditional
interpretation,
Chinese is how thinking
a space is how
viewed
of heaven-human
body, is inratio,
thinking san-ho-yuan.
is heaven-
viewed
Through
human
in transformation
unity, and
san-ho-yuan. and
heaven-human
Through interpretation,
transformationisomorphism a space of heaven-human
is formed [9].
and interpretation, ratio, heaven-human
a space of heaven-human ratio, heaven- unity,
and heaven-human
human isomorphism is
unity, and heaven-human formed [9]. is formed [9].
isomorphism
(a) (b)
The spatial
Figure 7. The (a) characteristics
spatial anthropomorphic
anthropomorphic san-ho-yuan.(b)
characteristics of san-ho-yuan. (a) is san-ho-yuan; (b) is human
body [7]
Figure 7. (p.
The1).
spatial anthropomorphic characteristics of san-ho-yuan. (a) is san-ho-yuan; (b) is human
body [7] (p. 1).
Sustainability 2020, 12, 637
Sustainability x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of
of 19
19
(a) (b)
Figure 8. The spatial anthropomorphic
Figure 8. anthropomorphic characteristics of Three
Three courtyards
courtyards nine
nine halls.
halls. (a) is Three
Three
courtyards
courtyards nine
nine halls;
halls; (b)
(b) is
is human
human body
body [10].
[10].
Geomancy
Geomancy is is the
the scientific
scientific wisdom
wisdom thatthat traditional
traditional craftsmen
craftsmen build
build with
with the
the dimensional
dimensional nature
nature
and the person to be in harmony. The observation of the natural environment is
and the person to be in harmony. The observation of the natural environment is not a completely not a completely
objective
objective view
view of
of nature,
nature, but
but aa human
human starting
starting point
point [11].
[11]. Chinese
Chinese culture
culture has
has long
long combined
combined man
man
and nature. The residential buildings are the bridge between man and earth, forming
and nature. The residential buildings are the bridge between man and earth, forming a harmonious a harmonious
coexistence
coexistence between
between manman and
and all
all things
things on
on earth,
earth, which
which isis the
the heaven-human
heaven-human unityunity advocated
advocated by
by
Taoist
Taoistphilosophy.
philosophy.
Family
Family Harmony
Harmony
Three
Three courtyards
courtyards ninenine halls
halls buildings
buildings are are constructed
constructed with with the
the concept
concept of of patriarchy
patriarchy and and the
the
residential
residential buildings
buildings are are the
the materialization
materialization of of the
the lifestyle
lifestyle of
of the
the times.
times. As As anan orderly
orderly symbol
symbol to to
convey
convey information,
information, the the external
external visible
visible objects
objects record
record thethe material
material state
state system
system of of the
the era
era in
in which
which
the
the symbol
symbol subject
subject lives,
lives, cultural
cultural psychology
psychology and and human
human values,
values, as
as well
well asas the
the relationship
relationship between
between
people
people and and things,
things, people
people and and people,
people, andand people
people andand society
society [12].
[12]. The
The formation
formation of of early
early traditional
traditional
families
families often
often relies
relies on
on the
the consanguinity
consanguinity as as the
the link
link toto form
form the
the same
same clanclan and
and live
live together.
together. It It is
is
formed by blood and marriage and the basic form is clan, branch and family.
formed by blood and marriage and the basic form is clan, branch and family. Almost all buildings in Almost all buildings
in Three
Three courtyards
courtyards nine
nine hallsare
halls areofofthe
thesame
sameclan.
clan.ForForexample,
example,Lizhai
Lizhaivillage
village isis the
the residence
residence of of LiLi
people while Fengshuqiao is mainly of Zhou people, and Wu people are
people while Fengshuqiao is mainly of Zhou people, and Wu people are the main group in Gaoqian the main group in Gaoqian
village.
village. The
The congregations
congregations of of the
the same
same clan
clan are
are mainly
mainly families,
families, expanding
expanding and and maintaining
maintaining the the same
same
clan for several generations, which is conducive to the expansion of the labor
clan for several generations, which is conducive to the expansion of the labor force and family power. force and family power.
The
The characteristic
characteristic of of familyism
familyism reflected
reflected in in space
space isis central.
central. Based
Based on on the
the principle
principle of of independence
independence
and
and integrity within the family, its spatial schema is centripetal [13]. It is manifested in
integrity within the family, its spatial schema is centripetal [13]. It is manifested in two
two aspects;
aspects;
one
one is the architectural complex which is derived from a single courtyard and the other is taking
is the architectural complex which is derived from a single courtyard and the other is taking the
the
ancestral hall as the core of ethics. Clan often set up an organizational system
ancestral hall as the core of ethics. Clan often set up an organizational system in strict accordance in strict accordance with
the
withethical patternpattern
the ethical of a “clan-branch-family”.
of a “clan-branch-family”. The expansion of the building
The expansion is consistent
of the building with the with
is consistent clan,
forming the ethical order of the family.
the clan, forming the ethical order of the family.
Cultural Harmony
Cultural Harmony
The traditional Chinese society is a pattern of difference that is derived from the inside and pushed
The traditional Chinese society is a pattern of difference that is derived from the inside and
out at different levels. Traditional residence is one of them. It is not merely a “container” to live in, but
pushed out at different levels. Traditional residence is one of them. It is not merely a “container” to
a “home” which corresponds to, carries and specifically represents a human nature, containing the
live in, but a “home” which corresponds to, carries and specifically represents a human nature,
power and passion of life. In people’s concept of living, the traditional residence is an organic structure
containing the power and passion of life. In people’s concept of living, the traditional residence is an
composed of life, belief, value and ethics, which can best reflect the survival wisdom of “unity of
organic structure composed of life, belief, value and ethics, which can best reflect the survival wisdom
of “unity of heaven and man” and the continuous life character [1] (p. 171). In the investigation, the
researchers found
Sustainability that
2020, 12, 637 there were high-ranking officials in the village of Three courtyards nine halls
7 of 19
architecture groups in history. Such as Yi-han Li, from Lizhai, who was the Vice Chief Imperial
Supervisor in the Ming Dynasty. In the history of Gaoqian, there were many outstanding talents, such
heaven and man” and the continuous life character [1] (p. 171). In the investigation, the researchers
as Fu Wu, a great scholar of Long Tuge in the Northern Song Dynasty; Jian Wu, the Prime Minister
found that there were high-ranking officials in the village of Three courtyards nine halls architecture
in the Southern Song Dynasty; and Shi-lai Wu, the Chief Imperial Supervisor in the Ming Dynasty.
groups in history. Such as Yi-han Li, from Lizhai, who was the Vice Chief Imperial Supervisor in the
Xianju is greatly influenced by Neo-Confucianism. Its concept of benevolence, filial piety and
Ming Dynasty. In the history of Gaoqian, there were many outstanding talents, such as Fu Wu, a great
harmony
scholarisofdeeply
Long Tuge rooted in people’s
in the Northernminds. In the residential
Song Dynasty; Jian Wu, the buildings, the couplets
Prime Minister and murals
in the Southern
thatSong
promote
Dynasty;reading, diligence,
and Shi-lai Wu, and benevolence
the Chief Imperial are everywhere.
Supervisor in the Ming Dynasty. Xianju is greatly
Secondly,bythe
influenced layout of ThreeItscourtyards
Neo-Confucianism. nine halls filial
concept of benevolence, is based on harmony
piety and the courtyard
is deeply asrooted
the core
organization space. The central axis-symmetric layout (Figure 9) consists of the
in people’s minds. In the residential buildings, the couplets and murals that promote reading, diligence, patio-hall-wing room-
corridors. It also shows
and benevolence a fixed pattern in function. The main hall has three rooms (one central hall
are everywhere.
Secondly, the
and two transverse halls), and layout of Three courtyards
the left and rightninewing
hallsrooms
is basedalso
on the courtyard
have as the core
three rooms. Theorganization
patio is inlaid
withspace.
pebblesTheinto central axis-symmetric
various auspiciouslayout (Figure
patterns. On9)theconsists
centralofaxis,
the patio-hall-wing
there are usually room-corridors.
three layers of
It alsowith
the hall, shows wing a fixed
rooms pattern in function.
and small The main
courtyards hallsides.
on both has three
Therooms (one central
court contains hall and
another twoand
court,
transverse halls), and the left and right wing rooms also have three rooms.
each hall is connected with the outside by separate gates. The residential concept of middle parents The patio is inlaid with
andpebbles
respectintofor various
seniority auspicious patterns. On the central axis, there are usually three layers of the hall,
(the older on the left and the younger on the right) is designed to maintain
with wing rooms and small courtyards on both sides. The court contains another court, and each hall
a clear and complete family order in space. In terms of residential function, the entrance is the spatial
is connected with the outside by separate gates. The residential concept of middle parents and respect
node of the internal and external connection of the house. The front yard and hall are used for
for seniority (the older on the left and the younger on the right) is designed to maintain a clear and
hospitality, while the back yard is the private space for family, which constitutes the public space
complete family order in space. In terms of residential function, the entrance is the spatial node of
between familyand
the internal members
external and the external
connection connection.
of the house. The The architectural
front yard and hall space
are presents a high degree
used for hospitality,
of axis features: entrance > courtyard > court. The central axis space is the
while the back yard is the private space for family, which constitutes the public space between family space of transportation
organization
members and of the whole connection.
the external residential The house, and alsospace
architectural the presents
space carrier of connection
a high degree between
of axis features:
members
entranceof > the courtyard > court.
family, with theThehighest overall
central integration
axis space degree.
is the space The front andorganization
of transportation back yard is of the
main theconnecting
whole residentialpart ofhouse,
the court,
and also hall,
the wing
space room
carrier and other architectural
of connection between membersspacesof[4]. theThere
family,is a
commonwith theand highest
frequentoverall integration
space degree. The
in the middle front
of the and back
depth axis,yard
and isthe
theuse
main connecting
frequency ofpart
the of the to
space
court, hall, wing room and other architectural spaces [4]. There is a common
both sides becomes lower and lower. It not only adapts to the organic construction of nature, but and frequent space in thealso
middle of the depth axis, and the use frequency of the space to both
is in line with the order and hierarchy and the Confucian patriarchal system thought of by the sides becomes lower and lower.
It not only
traditional bigadapts
family. to Enclosed
the organicspaceconstruction
formedofby nature, but also is
a courtyard is in line with the order
a combination and hierarchy
of specific historical,
and the Confucian patriarchal system thought of by the traditional big family. Enclosed space formed
environmental, cultural and climatic factors, and is a carrier of local residents’ material, culture and
by a courtyard is a combination of specific historical, environmental, cultural and climatic factors,
life.
and is a carrier of local residents’ material, culture and life.
Figure 9.
Figure Axis map.
9. Axis map.
Sustainability
2020, 12,
12, x637
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 8of
of 19
19
1.2. Research Object

1.2. Research Object
The research sites of this paper are Gaoqian village, Lizhai village and Fengshuqiao village in
XianjuThe research
County, sites ofProvince,
Zhejiang this paper are Gaoqian
China (Figure 10 village, Lizhai
). Gaoqian village
village and Fengshuqiao
is located in the eastern village in
part of
Xianju County, Zhejiang Province, China (Figure 10). Gaoqian village is
Baita town, about 20 kilometers away from Xianju County. It is one of the settlements of the Wu located in the eastern part
of Baitaatown,
family, about 20family
distinguished km away from Xianju
in regions south County. It is one
of the Yangtze of the
River. Thesettlements
village was of founded
the Wu family,
in the
a distinguished
Yuan Dynasty and family
wasin regions
built south
between of the
1350 andYangtze
1900 AD. River. The
There arevillage was founded
1074 households in in
thethe Yuan
village.
Dynasty and was built between 1350 and 1900 AD. There are 1074 households
The existing buildings retain the style of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which are the most in the village. The existing
buildings retaintraditional
representative the style of houses
the Minginand Qing Dynasties,
eastern Zhejiang. which
Gaoqian areisthea most representative
village formed by traditional
the same
houses in eastern Zhejiang. Gaoqian is a village formed by the same ancestor.
ancestor. The earliest of Wu’s ancestors, Bai-yan Wu and Ying-yan Wu, built the house and expanded The earliest of Wu’s
ancestors, Bai-yan Wu and Ying-yan Wu, built the house and expanded to form the
to form the current architectural pattern. The scale of the building is large and the overall layout is current architectural
pattern. The
preserved. scale is
Lizhai of45thekilometers
building is largefrom
away and Xianju
the overall layout
County, is preserved.
which is dominated Lizhaibyisthe
45Likm away
family.
from Xianju County, which is dominated by the Li family. Residential buildings
Residential buildings in Lizhai are typical Three courtyards nine halls buildings and the village was in Lizhai are typical
Three courtyards
included nine hallsChinese
in the traditional buildings and the
village. village wasvillage
Fengshuqiao included in the traditional
is located in the middleChinese
and village.
east of
Fengshuqiao
Xianju County, village is locatedaway
20 kilometers in thefrom
middle and eastThe
the county. of Xianju County, of
three brothers 20 Zhou’s
km away fromsettled
family the county.
here
The three brothers of Zhou’s family settled here from 1506–1521, and it has
from 1506–1521, and it has been nearly 500 years. The existing “Three courtyards nine bright halls” been nearly 500 years.
The existing
dwellings are“Three courtyards
large in nine bright
scale, uniquely halls” dwellings
constructed, exquisitely are large in
carved, scale, and
elegant uniquely
clean,constructed,
and rich in
exquisitely carved,
cultural connotations. elegant and clean, and rich in cultural connotations.
Figure 10.
Figure Research site.
10. Research site.
In the
In the field
field research,
research, the
the study
study found
found that
that the
the construction
construction ofof Three
Three courtyards
courtyards ninenine halls
halls was
was
seriously damaged, which is embodied in the following aspects: First, traditional
seriously damaged, which is embodied in the following aspects: First, traditional dwellings are dwellings are
poorly protected.
poorly Many traditional
protected. Many traditional dwellings
dwellings are are increasingly
increasingly destroyed
destroyed andand declined
declined duedue toto natural
natural
and man-made factors. Second, the new concrete dwellings are not in harmony
and man-made factors. Second, the new concrete dwellings are not in harmony with traditional brick- with traditional
brick-and-wood
and-wood dwellings
dwellings in terms
in terms of architectural
of architectural modeling,
modeling, materials,
materials, colors
colors andand volumes,
volumes, as shown
as shown in
in Figure 11. Third, residents’ awareness of protection is weak, and the
Figure 11. Third, residents’ awareness of protection is weak, and the emphasis on traditional emphasis on traditional
residential cultural
residential cultural assets
assets is
is insufficient. Lastly, local
insufficient. Lastly, local traditional
traditional cultural
cultural resources
resources areare gradually
gradually
disappearing. Traditional dwellings were demolished because of being
disappearing. Traditional dwellings were demolished because of being old and broken, and old and broken, and were
were
replaced by urban-style dwellings. The traditional residential culture and style
replaced by urban-style dwellings. The traditional residential culture and style of the architectural of the architectural
form has
form has gradually
gradually disappeared.
disappeared
In view of the currentproblems
In view of the current problemsfacedfacedbybyThree
Three courtyards nine
courtyards halls
nine buildings,
halls buildings,strengthening
strengtheningthe
study of traditional residential culture, protecting the historical and cultural
the study of traditional residential culture, protecting the historical and cultural heritage of heritage of traditional
dwellings, and
traditional excavating
dwellings, historical and
and excavating cultural
historical andconnotations are conducive
cultural connotations to protecting
are conducive the spatial
to protecting
the spatial texture and architectural cultural heritage of traditional dwellings in eastern Zhejiang.form
texture and architectural cultural heritage of traditional dwellings in eastern Zhejiang. The spatial The
of traditional
spatial form of dwellings in eastern
traditional dwellingsZhejiang is influenced
in eastern Zhejiangby is
various factorsby
influenced such as building
various factorsmaterials,
such as
construction
building technology
materials, and culture,
construction whichand
technology is an important
culture, whichcultural asset. Due
is an important to residents’
cultural asset. Dueweak
to
residents’ weak sense of protection of traditional residential cultural assets, traditional dwellings
sense suffered
have of protection of traditional
serious damage residential cultural
in the process of assets,
economic traditional dwellings
development. have suffered
Owing serious
to the lack of
damage in the process of economic development. Owing to the lack of systematic
systematic and in-depth research on spatial form of traditional dwellings, traditional construction and in-depth research
on spatial
culture form of traditional
is missing, dwellings,
and the disordered traditional construction
construction of new buildings culture is missing,
is not and with
in harmony the disordered
the space
construction of new buildings is not in harmony with the space of traditional
of traditional dwellings, which separates the construction context of traditional dwellings. Some dwellings, whichof
separates the construction context of traditional dwellings. Some of the traditional
the traditional dwellings gradually lose the momentum of inheritance, and disordered development dwellings gradually
lose become
has the momentum of inheritance,
an obstacle and disordered
to sustainable development
development has become
of traditional an obstacle
dwellings. to sustainable
The purpose of this
development of traditional dwellings. The purpose of this article is to explore the
article is to explore the construction methods, living wisdom and construction culture contained in construction methods,
living wisdom
traditional and construction
dwellings. culture research,
Through systematic containedresidents’
in traditional dwellings.
awareness Through
of preserving systematic
cultural assets
research, residents’ awareness of preserving cultural assets of traditional
of traditional residential houses can be enhanced, and suggestions can be provided for cultural residential houses can be
enhanced, and suggestions can be provided for cultural inheritance of traditional
inheritance of traditional dwellings, which is conducive to inheritance of traditional residential dwellings, which
is conducive
culture. It is to inheritance
beneficial of traditional
to realize residential
the sustainable culture. It isof
development beneficial
traditionalto realize the sustainable
residences in eastern
development of traditional residences in eastern Zhejiang to explore the construction
Zhejiang to explore the construction concept and form of new dwellings based on the construction concept and form
of new dwellings based on
culture of traditional dwellings. the construction culture of traditional dwellings.
Figure 11. New

New dwellings
dwellings coexist
coexist with traditional dwellings.
2. Literature
2. Literature Review
Review
2.1. Research on Traditional Residential Buildings from Single Discipline to Interdisciplinary

2.1. Research on Traditional Residential Buildings from Single Discipline to Interdisciplinary
It is generally believed in the academia that the study of traditional Chinese dwellings began
It is generally believed in the academia that the study of traditional Chinese dwellings began
with the research on ancient buildings by a group of scholars organized by Society for the Study of
with the research on ancient buildings by a group of scholars organized by Society for the Study of
Chinese Architecture in the 1930s. Researchers represented by Liu, Liang, Long and Liu, drew lessons
Chinese Architecture in the 1930s. Researchers represented by Liu, Liang, Long and Liu, drew lessons
from western classical architectural research methods, and investigated typical Chinese dwellings
from western classical architectural research methods, and investigated typical Chinese dwellings by
by using architectural monolithic surveying and mapping as a basic operation mode, which laid the
using architectural monolithic surveying and mapping as a basic operation mode, which laid the
foundation for the study of Chinese dwellings [1] (p. 3). Yu (2001) discusses the interaction between
foundation for the study of Chinese dwellings [1] (p. 3). Yu (2001) discusses the interaction between
architecture, clan organization and family life in southeast China with the method of multidisciplinary
architecture, clan organization and family life in southeast China with the method of
research, which analyzes the types and living patterns of dwellings, and conducts a comparative
multidisciplinary research, which analyzes the types and living patterns of dwellings, and conducts
study of dwellings in different regions with typology [14]. Li (2005), intercrossing research of different
a comparative study of dwellings in different regions with typology [14]. Li (2005), intercrossing
subjects, has held the main current of the research on vernacular architecture. Based on the thoughts of
research of different subjects, has held the main current of the research on vernacular architecture.
subject crossing and theories integration, Li’s book tries to research combining vernacular architecture
Based on the thoughts of subject crossing and theories integration, Li’s book tries to research
with Sociology, Human Geography, Communication and Ecology in order to set up structural frames
combining vernacular architecture with Sociology, Human Geography, Communication and Ecology
of different theories, and to open up various fields of vision for research workers [1] (p. 3). Since the
in order to set up structural frames of different theories, and to open up various fields of vision for
1990s, scholars have gradually applied multi-disciplinary research to study the traditional residential
research workers [1] (p. 3). Since the 1990s, scholars have gradually applied multi-disciplinary
culture. They have analyzed the residents’ traditional ideas, lifestyle, economy and religion, and shifted
research to study the traditional residential culture. They have analyzed the residents’ traditional
ideas, lifestyle, economy and religion, and shifted from the description of traditional residential
houses’ architectural form to a deeper analysis of space and culture.
from the description of traditional residential houses’ architectural form to a deeper analysis of space
and culture.
2.2. Research on Human Geography

Human geography pays attention to the characteristics of regional distribution and the relationship
between human phenomena and geographical environment. Based on the theory of the human–land
relationship, it explores the distribution, change and diffusion of various human phenomena, as well
as the science of the spatial structure of human social activities [15]. With the help of theories of human
geography, human–land relationship, spatial behavior and location, the study of traditional dwellings
has expanded the range of study, the angle of finding and putting forward problems, and the method
of studying problems, which is of great significance to the study of traditional dwellings. Tuan (2003),
attempts to systematize humanistic insights, to display them in conceptual frames (here organized as
chapters) so that their importance is evident to us, not only as thoughtful people curious to know more
about our own nature—our potential for experiencing—but also as tenants of the earth practically
concerned with the design of a more human habitat [16]. Anthropological research on space is related
to consanguinity and geography. Huang (1998), puts forward a very important point in Ancient Law
that consanguinity has a very important reason (especially single surname villages) and geography is
another important factor. Besides “ancestral place”, “sacrificial circle” is a specific organization based
on geography. Morgan (1881), discusses the relationship between space and relatives of American
Indians, which laid the foundation of ethnography for the later study of functionalism and home space,
but did not give theoretical significance to space study [17]. Tang (2014), introduces the research method
of cultural geography to systematically collect and process the basic data of traditional residential
buildings in Meizhou area, aiming to describe and explain the spatial differences and distribution
rules of the cultural landscape of traditional residential buildings in Meizhou from a new perspective
of geography [18]. Based on the geographical analysis and quantitative research, Du (2016), adopts
the methods of description, superposition and dominant factors to divide the cultural divisions of
traditional residential buildings in Nanning, which mainly includes the analysis of the types of houses,
the evolution of the forms of houses, the layout forms of houses, the forms and structures of houses and
the patterns of houses [19]. Phan (2016), describes the folk houses through the research and analysis
methods of cultural geography, and analyzes the phenomenon behind them, as well as the residential
culture and evolution law of residential culture, explaining the uniqueness of traditional residence and
differences between cultural areas which build on local, unique and natural geographical conditions
and human geographical conditions [20].
2.3. Research on Spatial Form and Culture

A single building is presented as formal articulation. Architectural form is always understood
from the perspective of being between heaven and earth, their stand, rise and open. Stand means
the relationship with the earth, rise means the relationship with heaven, open means the interaction
with the environment, that is, the relationship between the outside and the inside [21]. The study of
morphology is the internal spatial law of architectural form, not just the style of appearance. Guo (1998),
points out that form refers to the “general rule” behind group production, which is the average quality
and abstracted space law [17] (p. 18). Nelson Wu from Yale University in the United States uses image
to study Chinese architecture, combining space and culture, using squares to represent intellectual
geometry, and illuminating the main axis to express Chinese space concepts. It is very enlightening to
describe the Chinese people’s view of living space as round sky and square earth, which is the world
in which man and nature reach a balance. Chen (1998), proposes that there is a set of symbolic systems
in architecture that can represent the spatial meaning. The various meanings of architecture can be
read with some symbolic systems, including the representation of religion, social culture, economy
and ideology [17] (pp. 155–164). Chiou (2003), takes Taiwan’s traditional residential architecture as the
starting point and western thinking as the reference, reviews the unique body concept in ancient China
with reference to western ideas, discusses the body concept embodied in the traditional residential
buildings in Taiwan, and understands the deep connotation and cultural structure hidden in traditional
residential buildings in Taiwan [22]. Rapoport (2007), discusses the relationship between housing
form and culture from the perspective of family, attempts to describe the special aspects of culture
more concretely, and points out that culture had a great influence on housing form [23]. Concepts of
culture and environment are cited in such studies. Bai, Yang and Zhou (2011), from the perspective of
relationship between material cultural heritage and intangible cultural heritage of traditional villages,
wrote a paper to discuss theoretical basis, methodology and means to be used in the research process of
traditional village culture, which provides a theoretical basis for future cultural research of traditional
villages [24]. Tian (2018), focuses on morphological characteristics of Youfang villagers’ residences,
basic types of plane and typical architectural layout of traditional dwellings, architectural facade
characteristics, architectural construction techniques and decorative characteristics, etc. The cultural
connotation of traditional dwellings in Youfang village is extracted, including Heluo culture, Fengshui
culture and ecological culture, etc. The historical value, artistic value, scientific value, social value
and cultural value of the dwellings are discussed in detail, and the protection idea of “authenticity,
integrity, coordination and sustainability” is put forward [25]. Gu (2019), studies the layout type and
characteristics, functional space and living environment, spatial scale rule and plane construction
of traditional residential buildings in South Fujian, analyzes the rationality of layout, diversity of
combination, suitability of living environment, etc., to provide reference for the future architectural
design, heritage protection and repair work in South Fujian [26]. Li and Shen (2019), take traditional
dwellings in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China in Western Hebei Province as the
model, and expound decoration characteristics of traditional houses from aspects of courtyard space,
interior space, building materials, carving art, door and window forms, cornice treatment and color
relations, so as to provide reference for the research of traditional houses [27].
2.4. Relevant Literature of Three Courtyards Nine Halls

Wang (2006), takes the ancient town of Potan in Xianju as their research object, and introduces
the history and architectural style of the town from humanistic, local customs, folk arts, and religious
beliefs [28]. Bao and Chen (2018), take Gaoqian historical and cultural village in Xianju, China, as an
example, analyze water culture of ancient villages from the perspective of water resources planning,
and provide positive suggestions on the inheritance of the village water culture and regional economic
development from the aspects of reservation, integration, repair and utilization [29]. Taking Gaoqian
ancient village as an example, Wu and Xiao (2003), analyze the preconditions, driving forces and
constraints of sustainable development of ancient villages from six aspects: cultural protection and
economic development, cultural management and community tourism, ecological security and capacity
control [30]. Wang (2017), starts with the traditional residential form in Taizhou, explores the protection
strategies of traditional residential buildings during the transition period by discussing the layout,
construction concept and existing problems, aiming at providing feasible ideas for the protection of
traditional residential buildings in Taizhou [31]. Wang (2013), is drawing lessons from the architectural
design of Xianju Vocational Education Center in terms of space composition, modeling elements and
colors of “Three courtyards nine halls” architecture, so as to combine traditional residential culture
with modern design, which is of great significance to inheritance of traditional residential culture [32].
Chen (2015) on this basic, focusing on analyzing the settlement space, residential space morphology
and pattern shape of Gaoqian, including street space, water space and public building space and
residential space, and analyzes a typical example. Finally, according to the Gaoqian ancient village,
protection problems under the new urbanization form the regional characteristic element of the village
culture protection, economic development, moderate protection of ancient villages planning and other
aspects, proposing the Gaoqian ancient village space form protection strategies, provides theoretical
support and practical guidance for the protection of traditional villages [33]. Pang, Shen and Zhou
(2018) introduce the “chuan” river system form, “seven star mound” and “seven star pond” village
pattern, and thirteen “Three courtyards nine halls” in Xianju Gaoqian village, describe living culture
of wisdom ecology in Xianju, and discuss the farming-reading culture contained in the village [34].
Tang (2018), clarifies the relationship between the clan cultural spirit and the village landscape space
layout, architectural texture, interior layout and village cultural space to reveal the space composition
and cultural space elements of Lizhai Village. On the premise of respecting and protecting historical
elements, exploring the positive significance of space development in Lizhai Village and the updated
research methods for spatial layout will provide reference to the traditional villages’ communication
space and the construction of human settlements [35]. Feng, Liang and Ma (2019), targeting the ancient
villages of Gaoqian, under the guidance of the concept of digital memory, find that the possibility of
constructing “digital heritage” and “digital memory” of ancient villages is to use digital information
resources to restore, recreate and reproduce the heritage and memories of ancient villages in physical
and psychological worlds, and explore new models of rural Chinese cultural memory based on archival
resources [36].
In summary, the research on traditional dwellings has made some achievements in methodology
and research works. However, researches on Three courtyards nine halls in eastern Zhejiang mainly
describe the current situation of traditional dwellings, and are insufficient on residential culture and
lack in-depth analysis and interpretation. Researches on the architecture of Three courtyards nine
halls are mostly from the perspective of bystanders. From the perspective of the residents themselves,
the distance between the research results and the existing conditions is too long and is not conducive
to real solutions to current practical problems.
3. Research Methods and Process
3.1. Research Methods
3.1.1. Field Investigation

Field research is most commonly used for qualitative research. Architectural shape, spatial
characteristics and residential culture of traditional dwellings are analyzed by actual investigation of
participatory observation, interviews, and residential surveying and mapping.
The survey content includes the relationship between the dwelling form and terrain, construction
time, production methods, and social structure. In the field investigation of dwellings, the researchers
start from three aspects. (1) Collect, organize, verify and analyze relevant historical documents and
materials, and supplement a large number of field investigations, social surveys and oral data to
improve the precision of research and the scientificity of research results. (2) The spatial layout of
residential buildings and the distance between the spatial nodes of major buildings are recorded
by real-world surveying and mapping. The layout of residential buildings is drawn based on the
numerical values. (3) With the help of UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle), 3D images are used to obtain
the information such as terrain, landforms, spatial textures, residential architecture, and residential
architecture scale. The coordinates of the main node buildings are located by GPS to assist in drawing
the residential space. The UAV is equipped with high-resolution sensors in the air to take aerial
photos. The 360 degree aerial photos are obtained with a wide-angle lens, and the aerial panoramic
images are generated through post-processing data. The villages of Three courtyards nine halls under
investigation are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Field investigation sites of Three courtyards nine halls in East Zhejiang.
City Village Village Village Village Village Village

Xianju Gaoqian Lizhai Fengshuqiao Fangzhai Guanshan Butou
Tiantai Zhangsi
Linhai Linggen
3.1.2. In-Depth Interviews

This research mainly uses qualitative research methods of in-depth interviews and participatory
observations. The paper has continued to study the space and cultural sustainable development of
traditional dwellings in eastern Zhejiang for many years, and has conducted close and long-term
investigations on traditional dwellings. At the same time, a number of government research projects
had completed, such as Research on the Analysis and Inheritance and Protection of Spatial Features of
Historical and Cultural Villages and Towns (Project No. 2017PY007), Research on the Protection and
Development of Civilian Residences in Ancient Towns of Taizhou (Project No. 16YZ04), and A Study on
the Development Plan of Xianju County’s Tourism. The researchers conducted field investigation and
interviews in Gaoqian village, Lizhai village, Fengshuqiao village, Fangzhai village and Guanshan
village in Xianju, Linggen village in Linhai, Zhangsi village in Tiantai on May 1 to 6, 2016, July 10 to 16,
2017, November 3 to 7, 2017, May 8 to 10, 2018, August 22 to 25, 2018, July 3 to 6, 2019, and August 15
to 19, 2019. They focused on semi-structured in-depth interviews through the “snowball” sampling
method. The sequence of interviews was villagers, tourists, village cadres, county planning bureau staff
and experts and scholars. In-depth understanding of historical and cultural, human geography and
residential-related information of Three courtyards nine halls architecture, living with local people to
record the subjective experience of local residents, examining the relationship between people, people
and living environment, from which the essential relationship between environment and architecture,
as well as residents’ life and existence can be found.
The interview is mainly divided into 5 levels: (1) Interviews with local residents (such as Granny
Wu (82 years old), retired teacher in Gaoqian Village, Xiao-jie Li (49 years old)). Local residents have
lived here for a long time and are familiar with the history of dwellings and the evolution of space.
(2) Interviews with tourists (such as photographer Cheng Zhu (37 years old); Miss Tian (28 years
old)). Through the interview, the tourists’ intuitive experience of traditional dwellings and their
understanding of Three courtyards nine halls can be learned. (3) Interviews with traditional craftsmen
and repairers (such as Yong Wu (52 years old), Da-hai Wu (38 years old)). As the builders and repairers
of traditional dwellings, they have an in-depth understanding of the spatial characteristics, spatial
structure and construction techniques of traditional dwellings. (4) Interview with government staff
(Planning Bureau, Land Bureau and village cadres, such as Hai-tao Wu (50 years old), director of
Gaoqian Village, chief Li (43 years old), Xianju County Planning Bureau). It is helpful to effectively
and deeply understand the distribution, graphics, protection and policy information of the traditional
Three courtyards nine halls in eastern Zhejiang in the short term. (5) Interviews with experts and
scholars. Talk with experts and scholars (such as professor Yue-jun Li (51 years old), professor Shi-rong
Wu (50 years old)) who are familiar with Three courtyards nine halls, and acquire knowledge of Three
courtyards nine halls from the perspective of experts.
The preliminary survey period of this study is relatively long, with a total of 43 key interviewees.
The average length of the interview is more than 1 hour. The content of the interview includes the
construction time of traditional dwellings, the spatial layout characteristics, the functions of each space,
and the residents. In the later stage, the interview manuscript was anonymously coded. From 2017 to
2019, key interviews were conducted with 131 people (Table 2). The code of the interview data in this
article appears in the format of 20170710CVN-I. The first 4 numerals are the year of the interview and
the middle 4 are the date. “C” (city) refers to the research city, for example, “TZ” refers to Taizhou, “LH”
refers to Linhai, “TT” refers to Tiantai, “XJ” refers to Xianju; “V” (Village) refers to the investigated
village, such as “GQ” refers to Gaoqian, “LZ” refers to Lizhai, “FSQ” refers to Fengshuqiao, “FZ” refers
to Fangzhai, “ZS” refers to Zhangsi, etc.; “N” (number) refers to the interviewee number; “I” refers to
the identity of the interviewer; “G” refers to government staff; “A” refers to traditional craftsmen; “S”
refers to scholars; “R” refers to local residents; “T” refers to tourists. For example, “20170710XJGQ01-F”
represents the first interviewee in Gaoqian Village, Xianju County on July 10, 2017, and his identity is a
farmer. Secondly, the researchers have completed a number of traditional residential design practices.
Through discussions with their peers and customer feedback, they have a certain understanding of the
traditional residential culture and construction, and have a more comprehensive understanding of the
status quo of traditional dwellings in eastern Zhejiang.
Table 2. Survey interview samples.
Number Gender Age Occupation Usual Residence

20170711XJGQ01-R M 53 Farmer Gaoqian
20170711XJGQ 02-R F 82 Retirees Gaoqian
20170712XJGQ 03-A M 52 Farmer Gaoqian
20170712XJGQ04-T F 28 Staff Taizhou
20170713XJLZ05-R M 49 Farmer Lizhai
20170713XJLZ06-T M 37 Staff Taizhou
20170714XJLZ07-A M 42 Famer Lizhai
20170715XJFSQ08 -R M 67 Famer Fengshuqiao
20170716XJ09-G M 43 Staff Xianju
20171103XJGQ01-G M 50 Staff Gaoqian
20171104XJGS02-R F 56 Famer Guanshan
20171105XJBT03-R M 63 Famer Guanshan
20171105XJ04-G M 51 Staff Xianju
20171106LH05-S M 56 Professor Xianju
20180508LHLG01-R M 45 Famer Linggen
20180508LHLG02-G M 47 Staff Linggen
2017110510LH03-S M 51 Professor Linhai
201808022TTZS01-R F 64 Famer Zhangsi
201808022TTZS02-R M 39 Famer Zhangsi
201808023TTZS03-A M 46 Staff Zhangsi
201808024TTZS04-T F 35 Staff Hangzhou
20190703XJFZ01-R F 55 Famer Fangzhai
20190703XJFZ02-A M 47 Famer Fangzhai
20190703XJFZ03-G M 50 Staff Fangzhai
20190703XJFZ04-G M 50 Staff Fangzhai
20190815XJLZ01-R F 64 Farmer Lizhai
20190816XJGQ02-R M 79 Farmer Gaoqian
20190816XJGQ03-T F 44 Staff Shanghai
20190816XJGQ04-T M 38 Staff Taizhou
20190817XJBT05-T M 45 Staff Xianju
20190819XJ06-S M 68 Retirees Xianju
3.1.3. Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is adopted as the main research method for analysis in this study. Interview
materials are obtained through in-depth interviews, then verbatim texts are analyzed in context and
main core categories are summarized after the interview. Grounded theory was first proposed by
Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. In current social science research, Grounded theory is regarded as
one of the most scientific qualitative research methods, which can be based on scientific principles
(such as inductive and deductive reasoning processes), comparative principles, hypothesis verification
and theoretical establishment [37]. In the analysis stage, there are mainly the following steps. Digital
display is to conduct an interview and record the recorded content of the interview into a verbatim
draft, encode the text material with open coding, axial coding and selective decoding. Axial coding is
a paradigm model that represents causal conditions, phenomena, contexts, intermediate conditions,
actions or strategic actions and results, connecting main categories and subcategories. Selective
decoding is mainly based on the choice of core category, and there is a systematic connection to
verify the relationship between categories. In the process of theorization, the decoding still needs
to continue to develop the category, making the theory more delicate and complete until “theory
saturation” [38]. Gang Li, majoring in architecture, and Mr. Cheng Zhu were invited to participate in
the coding and data validation and analysis. Analysis is a method of in-depth study of various aspects
such as appearance and endoplasm of things. On the basis of a comprehensive understanding of the
current situation, the paper extracts hidden deep connotations of spatial characteristics of traditional
architecture. Through the analysis, the deep connotation is summarized, so as to excavate the beneficial
enlightenment to the architectural protection and design.
3.2. Research
3.2. Research Framework
Framework
In the
In the study
study ofof traditional
traditional residential
residential culture,
culture, appropriate
appropriate research
research methods
methods are
are selected
selected by
by
research problems and research purposes. Based on the literature review, through field
research problems and research purposes. Based on the literature review, through field research and research and
data compilation,
data compilation, it is analyzed
it is analyzed that
that traditional
traditional dwellings
dwellings are are affected
affected by the natural
by the natural environment,
environment,
artificial environment
artificial environmentand and social
social environment,
environment, and and areresult
are the the result of collective
of collective wisdomwisdom of local
of local residents
residents who have lived for generations. The spatial form of traditional residential
who have lived for generations. The spatial form of traditional residential buildings presents a unity of buildings
presents a unity
performance of performance
levels, levels,
structural levels andstructural
spirituallevels
levels,and spiritual
which levels,
contains which contains
harmony between harmony
man and
betweenfamily
nature, man and nature,
harmony family
and harmony
cultural harmonyand(Figure
cultural12).
harmony (Figure 12).
Figure 12. Research ideas of traditional residential culture.

Figure 12. Research ideas of traditional residential culture.
4. Research Analysis
4. Research Analysis
Traditional residence in eastern Zhejiang is a non-renewable cultural asset. The building of Three
Traditional
courtyards residence
and nine in eastern
halls contains Zhejiang
profound is a non-renewable
cultural connotations. cultural
In order asset. The the
to realize building of
heritage
Three courtyards and nine halls contains profound cultural connotations. In order to realize the
heritage of traditional residential culture and the protection of cultural heritage in eastern Zhejiang,
there are two aspects that need to be achieved: (1) Strengthen the research of traditional residential
culture, enrich the cultural connotation of traditional residential buildings; (2) Innovate traditional
residential buildings, and apply cultural innovation to the design of residential buildings through
of traditional residential culture and the protection of cultural heritage in eastern Zhejiang, there are
two aspects that need to be achieved: (1) Strengthen the research of traditional residential culture,
enrich the cultural connotation of traditional residential buildings; (2) Innovate traditional residential
buildings, and apply cultural innovation to the design of residential buildings through heritage of
traditional culture. Architectural culture is rooted partly in tradition, partly in the past, and partly
in a rapidly
and partly inchanging
a rapidlysociety,
changing with new functional
society, requirements,
with new functional new materials
requirements, newand new ideas
materials [39].
and new
This means inheriting the construction culture, ecological wisdom and
ideas [39]. This means inheriting the construction culture, ecological wisdom and space philosophy space philosophy contained
in traditional
contained residential residential
in traditional buildings, and realizing
buildings, andsustainable development
realizing sustainable of traditional
development of residential
traditional
buildings on the premise of maintaining residential culture and architectural
residential buildings on the premise of maintaining residential culture and architectural form. form.
Under the
Under thedirection
direction of sustainable
of sustainable development,
development,newly-built residential
newly-built buildingsbuildings
residential adopt ecologicaladopt
and scientific construction technology, starting from the overall ecological
ecological and scientific construction technology, starting from the overall ecological planning of planning of residential
buildings, on
residential the basison
buildings, ofthe
fully understanding
basis the functions,
of fully understanding theforms, structures,
functions, meanings, traditional
forms, structures, meanings,
context and ecological system of residential buildings, to improve
traditional context and ecological system of residential buildings, to improve quality of quality of life, balance thelife,
circulation
balance
the circulation of energy and material flow in the residential system, reduce the waste of and
of energy and material flow in the residential system, reduce the waste of natural resources the
natural
destruction of natural environment, and inherit the construction
resources and the destruction of natural environment, and inherit the construction culture of culture of traditional residential
buildings [40].
traditional Traditional
residential residential
buildings buildings
[40]. adapt toresidential
Traditional the naturalbuildings
environment, which
adapt to isthereflected
naturalin
that the residential buildings and settlement layout conform to the terrain,
environment, which is reflected in that the residential buildings and settlement layout conform to the rarely destroy the natural
environment,
terrain, rarely and the buildings
destroy the natural integrate with the
environment, andlocal
thenatural
buildingslandform,
integrate which
withisthean local
organic part
natural
of the natural
landform, which environment.
is an organic The part
design of ofthe
architectural appearance is
natural environment. consistent
The design with traditional
of architectural
appearance is consistent with traditional residential buildings. In the full excavation of with
residential buildings. In the full excavation of regional cultural characteristics, combined the
regional
production and living needs
cultural characteristics, combined of thewith
villagers, to achieveand
the production theliving
integration
needs of of traditional
the villagers, and tomodern,
achieve
we highlight the regional characteristics of the village characteristics,
the integration of traditional and modern, we highlight the regional characteristics of the village which adapt to the needs of
the times of new residential buildings. The newly-built traditional dwellings
characteristics, which adapt to the needs of the times of new residential buildings. The newly-built in eastern Zhejiang
continue thedwellings
traditional spatial layout and exterior
in eastern formcontinue
Zhejiang of the traditional
the spatialThree courtyards
layout nine halls
and exterior formdwellings,
of the
with traditional grey tile roof and white high Ma Tau Wall (Figure 13).
traditional Three courtyards nine halls dwellings, with traditional grey tile roof and white high Ma In terms of spatial structure,
the scientific
Tau Wall (Figureand reasonable
13). In terms factors of traditional
of spatial structure, residential buildings
the scientific are retained
and reasonable to create
factors a pleasant
of traditional
temperature,
residential humidity
buildings areand well-ventilated
retained to create environment. While minimizing
a pleasant temperature, humidityenergy consumption,
and well-ventilated
hygiene standards, building safety and indoor environmental comfort
environment. While minimizing energy consumption, hygiene standards, building safety and are improved. New buildings
indoor
are integrated with
environmental traditional
comfort residentialNew
are improved. buildings to achieve
buildings sustainablewith
are integrated development
traditional of residential
traditional
residentialtobuildings.
buildings achieve sustainable development of traditional residential buildings.
Figure 13. Architectural

Architectural renderings of residential buildings in Gaoqian [41].
5. Conclusions
The traditional Chinese residential space represents two modes of thinking and cultural forms.
First, the residential form reflects the concept of harmony between man and nature. Second, the
pattern shows a standardized life behavior and ethics order. The former is influenced by Taoism,
5. Conclusions
The traditional Chinese residential space represents two modes of thinking and cultural forms.
First, the residential form reflects the concept of harmony between man and nature. Second, the pattern
shows a standardized life behavior and ethics order. The former is influenced by Taoism, which
concerns health, wealth and safety. The latter is influenced by Confucianism, which is the moral ideal
of the upper class [42]. The sustainable development of traditional houses includes the exploration and
utilization of traditional cultural resources, the coexistence of human and nature, human and human.
Traditional dwellings are formed in the process of understanding the natural and human environment.
Residential culture is the accumulation of history and tradition, which reflects the concept and wisdom
of living.
This study adopts an interdisciplinary approach, combining the disciplines of architecture, human
settlements, and geography to systematically study the space of traditional dwellings, to explore the
essence of traditional dwellings in eastern Zhejiang. It is concluded that the traditional dwellings in
eastern Zhejiang have quite strict rules in terms of building site selection, specifications and functions
with influence of the Confucian ritual system and geomantic philosophy. The dwellings are the private
homes of big officials or large families. The building is connected with the courtyard. The hall is
the regional center and spiritual center of the whole building, which contains the traditional spatial
order. It embodies the cultural concept of “unity of nature and man, respect for seniority” held
by the same clan, and is an important cultural asset. The formation of a symbiotic environment is
the result of long-term evolution and adaptation, and also the process of continuous evolution and
adaptation to the environment. The ecological development of traditional dwellings is promoted by
the research on the culture of Three courtyards nine halls, that is, refers to the whole process of human
social economy, individual development and biological system, which is the ecological development
process [43]. In today’s society, which emphasizes the construction of ecological civilization, traditional
residential buildings in eastern Zhejiang provide a lot of ecological experience for reference. In the
aspects of site selection, spatial layout, building structure and building materials, traditional residential
buildings fully consider various energy-saving, environmental protection and recyclable building
technologies and means, such as natural ventilation, sunshade and heat insulation, waterproof and
moisture-proof, which provide a good indoor environment for residents and reflect the sustainable
development concept of low energy consumption. These ecological concepts can be used for reference
in contemporary architectural design and developed in combination with the characteristics of the
times [44]. At the same time, traditional residential buildings contain profound cultural connotations
and new residential buildings should be consistent with traditional residential culture. Only when
they originated from and blend into culture, can they show strong vitality and realize the sustainable
development of traditional residential cultural assets.
Author Contributions: Writing, H.-f.W.; Supervision, S.-c.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Taizhou Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project in 2018 “Research
on Traditional Architecture and Integrated Cultural Elements and their Application and Promotion”, Grant
number 18GHY10 and Taizhou University’s research project “Research on Sustainable Development of Traditional
Village Cultural Landscapes from the Perspective of Regional Culture” in 2019, Grant number 2019PY032.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to Hai-tao Wu, director of Gaoqian village in Xianju County; Grandma Wu, retired
teacher of Baita Town Middle School in Xianju County; elder brother Yong Wu of Gaoqian village; photographer
Cheng Zhu, etc., for the interview and photo materials; as well as Grandpa Wu of Gaoqian village and Xiao-jie Li
of Lizhai village for their warm help.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Li, X.F. Vernacular Architecture: Interdisciplinary Research Theories and Methods; China Building Industry Press:
Beijing, China, 2005; p. 1.
2. Shan, Q.D. From Traditional Dwellings to Regional Architecture; China Building Industry Press: Beijing, China,
2014; p. 14.
3. Wang, D.J. Zhejiang Local-Style Dwelling Houses; Shang Lin Press: Taipei, Taiwan, 1985; p. 112.
4. Wang, H.F. Spatial analysis of traditional architecture of Lizhai in East Zhejiang. In Proceedings of the
2019IDSFC, Taipei, Taiwan, 25 May 2019.
5. Zhejing News. Available online: https://zj.zjol.com.cn/news/532470.html (accessed on 13 August 2019).
6. Nagy, L.M. Vision in Motion; Paul Theobald & Co: Chicago, IL, USA, 1947; pp. 3–10.
7. Shanghai Jingwei Architectural Planning and Design Research Institute Shanghai Branch. Lizhai, Xianju.
Prot. Dev. Plan. Tradit. Villages 2014, 1, 4.
8. Han, B.D. Architecture, History and Culture: On Traditional Architecture by Han Baode; Tsinghua University:
Beijing, China, 2014; p. 21.
9. Chiou, S.C. A study on the ideas of body upon the Taiwanese vernacular dwellings. Archit. J. 2004, 47, 35–51.
10. Guan, H.S. Folk Houses and Society and Culture; Ming Wen Publishing House: Taipei, Taiwan, 1992; p. 39.
11. Han, B.D. Fengshui: The framework of Chinese environmental concept. J. Archit. Urban Rural Stud. Natl.
Taiwan Univ. 1983, 2, 123–150.
12. Ding, J.Q. Chinese Living Culture; Red Leaf Cultural Enterprise Co. LTD: Taipei, Taiwan, 1999; p. 269.
13. Han, B.D. Chinese Architecture and Culture; Lianjing Publishing Co., LTD: Taipei, Taiwan, 2004; p. 150.
14. Yu, Y. Study on the Floristic Type of Southeast Architecture in China; China Building Industry Press: Beijing,
China, 2001; pp. 1–8.
15. China Encyclopedia General Committee. Encyclopedia of China: Geography; Encyclopedia of China Publishing
House: Beijing, China, 1984; p. 12.
16. Tuan, Y.F. Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience; University of Minnesota Press: London, UK, 2003; p. 7.
17. Guo, Z.L. Settlement and Society; Garden City Cultural Enterprise Co. LTD: Taipei, Taiwan, 1998; p. 67.
18. Tang, Y. Study on Traditional Houses in Meizhou Based on Cultural Geography. Master’s Thesis, South
China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China, 2014.
19. Du, W.Y. Study on the Traditional Villages and Houses in Nanning Area Based on Cultural Geography.
Master’s Thesis, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China, 2016.
20. Phan, T.A.T. Study on Traditional Villages and Houses in Dienbian Area of Vietnam Based on Cultural
Geography. Master’s Thesis, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China, 2016.
21. Chi, T.N. Introduction to Architectural Phenomenology; Laurel Books Co., LTD: Taipei, Taiwan, 1992; p. 212.
22. Chiou, S.C. On Culture and Preservation of Taiwanese Traditional Architecture; Taiwan Architectural Culture:
Tainan, Taiwan, 2003; p. 109.
23. Rapoport, A.; Chang, Q. House Form and Culture; China Building Industry Press: Beijing, China, 2007;
pp. 1–10.
24. Bai, P.F.; Yang, Z.; Zhou, J.P. Thoughts on the research methods of traditional village culture. Archit. Cult.
2011, 8, 102–103.
25. Tian, P.P. Study on the Protection of Traditional Settlements and Houses in Xingyang. Master’s Thesis, Henan
Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China, 2018.
26. Gu, H.J. Study on the Plane Pattern of Traditional Houses in the Coastal Area of South Fujian. Master’s
Thesis, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou, China, 2019.
27. Li, F.; Shen, L.X. The decorative features of traditional village houses in Southern Hebei. Henan Sci. Technol.
2019, 23, 104–107.
28. Wang, D.T. Thousand Years of Potan; China Academy of Fine Arts Press: Hangzhou, China, 2006; pp. 1–10.
29. Bao, H.B.; Chen, L. Analysis of water culture in traditional villages takes Gaoqian as an example. Residence
2018, 7, 83.
30. Wu, C.Z.; Xiao, J.L. Cultural and ecological strategies for sustainable development of Ancient Villages—A
case study of Gaoqian ancient villages. Urban Plan. Forum 2003, 4, 56.
31. Wang, H.F. Analysis on the protection and development strategy of traditional dwelling houses in Taizhou.
Zhejiang Constr. 2017, 34, 1–6.
32. Wang, X.S. Xianju vocational education campus architecture design. Archit. Technol. 2013, 4, 196–199.
33. Chen, S.D. Study on the Spatial form of Gaoqian Ancient Village Settlement and Residence in Taizhou
City under the Background of New Urbanization. Master’s Thesis, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua,
China, 2017.
34. Pang, Q.K.; Shen, Z.F.; Zhou, Z.Y. Visit to Xianju Traditional Village; Zhejiang Gongshang University Press:
Hangzhou, China, 2018; pp. 1–10.
35. Tang, Q.L. Study on the Space Renewal of Lizhai Village from the Perspective of Clan Culture Spirit. Master’s
Thesis, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China, 2018.
36. Feng, H.L.; Liang, J.H.; Ma, L.Q. Research on the construction of digital memory platform for Taizhou ancient
villages. Chin. Arch. 2019, 5, 74–75.
37. Hu, Y.H.; Yao, M.H. Theories, Methods and Research Cases of Native Women; Giant Stream Books Co., LTD:
Taipei, Taiwan, 1996; pp. 141–158.
38. Hu, W.Y. Locals and Practices of Sustainable Development of Local Culture; Yi Dian Industrial Co. LTD: Taichung,
Taiwan, 2009; p. 44.
39. Jenks, C. Post-Modern Architecture; China Building Industry Press: Beijing, China, 1986; p. 16.
40. Zhou, W. Analysis of Architectural Space and Regeneration of Traditional Houses. Ph.D. Thesis, Xi’an
University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, China, 2004.
41. Shanghai Jingwei Architectural Planning and Design Research Institute Shanghai Branch. Gaoqian, Xianju.
Prot. Dev. Plan. Tradit. Villages 2014, 1, 1.
42. Huang, Y.G. Space Power and Society; Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica: Taipei, Taiwan, 1995; p. 264.
43. Hu, D. The ecological connotation and development significance of sustainability. J. Ecol. 1996, 2, 32–37.
44. Chen, Z.Y. Study on the ecology of traditional houses in south Fujian. J. Inn. Mong. Agric. Univ. 2019, 21,
90–95.
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Spatial Form Analysis and Sustainable Development Research of Traditional Residential Buildings

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Spatial Form Analysis and Sustainable Development Research of Traditional Residential Buildings

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

sustainability

Keywords: traditional dwelling; cultural asset; spatial characteristics; residence culture

1.1. Traditional Dwelling

Sustainability 2020, 12, 637; doi:10.3390/su12020637 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 637 3 of 19

Figure 2. Existing residential buildings.

1.1.2. Architectural Form and Culture Are in the Same Vein

Figure 6. Residential defense function [7].

1.2. Research Object

Figure 11. New

2.1. Research on Traditional Residential Buildings from Single Discipline to Interdisciplinary

2.2. Research on Human Geography

2.3. Research on Spatial Form and Culture

2.4. Relevant Literature of Three Courtyards Nine Halls

3. Research Methods and Process

3.1. Research Methods

3.1.1. Field Investigation

City Village Village Village Village Village Village

3.1.2. In-Depth Interviews

Table 2. Survey interview samples.

Number Gender Age Occupation Usual Residence

3.1.3. Grounded Theory

Figure 12. Research ideas of traditional residential culture.

Figure 13. Architectural

You might also like