Chapter 8: Conservation Laws The Continuity Equation

8.1 Charge and Energy 8.1.1 The Continuity Equation

∂ρ (r, t )
∫V ∂t
dτ = − ∫ (∇ ⋅ J )dτ
V
(invoking the divergence theorem)
Charge the paradigm
Conservation laws Energy ∂ρ
⇒ = −∇ ⋅ J the continuity equation
in electrodynamics Momentum ∂t (in differential form)
Angular momentum
This equation is a precise mathematical statement of the
Global conservation of charge: the total charge in the universe local conservation of charge.
is constant. It can be derived from Maxwell’s equations.
=0
Local conservation of charge: If the total charge in some ∂ρ ∂ ∂E 1 1
= ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E) = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ ) = ε 0∇ ⋅ (− J + ∇ × B)
volume changes, then exactly that amount of charge must ∂t ∂t ∂t ε0 ε 0 µ0
have pass in or out through the surface. ∂ρ
= −∇ ⋅ J (a consequence of the law of electrodynamics)
∂t
dQtotal ∂Q
= 0 = enc + v∫ J ⋅ da Q1: The energy and momentum density Æ analogous to ρ.
dt ∂t S
1 Q2: The energy and momentum “current” Æ analogous to J. 2

8.1.2 Poynting’s Theorem (I) Poynting’s Theorem (II)

The work necessary to assemble a static charge distribution Starting point: How much work, dW, is done by the
ε0 electromagnetic forces acting on these charges in the
2 ∫
We = E dτ
2
(against the Coulomb repulsion of like charges)
interval dt? (using the Lorentz force law)
The work required to get current going dW = F ⋅ dl = q(E + v × B) ⋅ vdt = qE ⋅ vdt
µ0
2 ∫
Wm = B dτ (against the back emf)
2
dW
= qE ⋅ v = ∫ (E ⋅ v ) ρ dτ = ∫ (E ⋅ J )dτ
dt V V
The total energy stored in the electromagnetic fields is
1 1 2 (the work done per unit time, per unit volume
U em = We + Wm = ∫ (ε 0 E 2 + B )dτ = ∫ uem dτ i.e. the power deliver per unit volume)
2 µ0
1 1 2 Q: Can we express this quantity in terms of the fields alone?
where uem = (ε 0 E 2 + B )
2 µ0 Yes, use the Ampere-Maxwell law to eliminate J,
analogous to the proof of the continuity equation.
Q: Can we derive this equation in a more general and more
1 ∂E
persuasive way? J= ∇ × B − ε0
µ0
3 4
∂t
 Poynting’s Theorem (III) Poynting’s Theorem and Poynting Vector
∂E ∂E dW d 1 1
E⋅J = E⋅(
1
∇ × B − ε0 )=
1
E ⋅ (∇ × B) − ε 0 E ⋅ = − ∫ (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 )dτ − v∫ (E × B) ⋅ da
S µ
µ0 ∂t µ0 ∂t dt dt V 2 0

E ⋅ (∇ × B) = B ⋅ (∇ × E) − ∇ ⋅ (E × B) (product rule 6) (total energy stored in the field, Uem)

(Faraday’s law) (the rate at which energy is carried out of
∂B V, across its boundary surface S, by the
∇×E = − electromagnetic fields.)
∂t
∂E ∂B 1 Poynting’s theorem: “work-energy theorem” of electrodynamics.
E ⋅ J = −(ε 0 E ⋅ + µ 0 B ⋅ ) − ∇ ⋅ (E × B )
∂t ∂t µ0
Poynting vector: the energy per unit time, per unit area,
1 ∂ 1
=− (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 ) − ∇ ⋅ (E × B) transported by the fields.
2 ∂t µ0
dW d 1 1 1
= ∫ (E ⋅ J )dτ = − ∫ (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 )dτ − v∫ (E × B) ⋅ da S≡ (E × B ) (S: the energy flux density)
dt V dt 2 V S µ0 µ0
5 6
(invoking the divergence theorem)

Differential Form of Poynting’s Theorem Example 8.1

dW d 1 When current flows down a wire, work is
= − ∫ (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 )dτ − v∫ S ⋅ da done, which shows up as Joule heating of
dt dt V 2 S

dW d the wire. Find the energy per unit time

= ∫ umech dτ (umech: the mechanical energy density) delivered to the wire using Poynting vector?
dt dt V V
d 1 d Sol: 1 E = zˆ
∫
dt 2V
(ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 )dτ = ∫ uem dτ (uem: the energy density
dt V of the fields)
S≡
µ0
(E × B ) L
µI
B(r = a) = 0 φˆ
d d 2π a
So
dt V∫ umech dτ = − ∫ uem dτ − v∫ S ⋅ da
dt V S 1 V µI VI
So S= ( zˆ × 0 φˆ ) = − rˆ (point radially inward)
d d
(divergence theorem) µ0 L 2π a 2π aL
dt ∫V dt ∫V ∫V
u mech dτ = − u em dτ − (∇ ⋅ S )dτ
The energy per unit time passing through the surface of the
∂ wire is:
(umech + uem ) = −∇ ⋅ S (the differential form of Poynting’s theorem)
∂t dW dU em
d ∂ − v∫ S ⋅ da = S (2π aL) = VI = = 0 (static fields)
Q: What’s the difference between and ? 7 S dt dt 8
dt ∂t
 8.2 Momentum The Fields of a Moving Charge
8.2.1 Newton’s ThirdLaw in Electrodynamics
Suppose two charges, q1 and q2, proceed
in along x axis and y axis, respectively.
They can only slide on the axes with
velocities v1 and v2 as shown in the figure.
Q: Is the Newton’s third law valid?
The electric force between them satisfies the third law, but
the magnetic force does not hold (same magnitudes, but
their directions are not opposite).
In electrodynamics the third law does not hold. The proof of
The magnetic field of a moving
conservation of the momentum, however, rests on the cancellation The electric field of a
charge does not constitute a
of the internal forces, which follows from the third law. moving charge is not given
steady current. Thus it is not
by Coulomb’s law.
Q: How to rescue the momentum conservation? given by Biot-Sarvart law.
The fields themselves carry momentum. (Surprise!) 9 10

8.2.2 Maxwell’s Stress Tensor Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (II)

1 ∂E
The total electromagnetic force on the charges in volume V: f = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E + (∇ × B) × B − ε 0 ( × B)
µ0 ∂t
F = ∫ ρ (E + v × B)dτ = ∫ ( ρ E + J × B)dτ = ∫ fdτ
V V V ∂ ∂E ∂B
Where f denotes the force per unit volume. (E × B ) = ×B + E×
∂t ∂t ∂t
f = ρE + J × B
∂B
Eliminate ρ and J by using Maxwell’s equations. (Faraday’s law) = −∇ × E
∂t
ρ = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)
1 ∂
1 ∂E f = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E + (∇ × B) × B − ε 0 E × (∇ × E) − ε 0 (E × B)
J= ∇ × B − ε0 µ0 ∂t
µ0 ∂t
1
1 ∂E E × (∇ × E) = ∇E 2 − (E ⋅∇)E
f = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E + ( ∇ × B − ε 0 )×B 2
µ0 ∂t 1
(∇ × B) × B = −B × (∇ × B) = − ∇B 2 + (B ⋅∇ )B
1 ∂E 2
= ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E + (∇ × B) × B − ε 0 ( × B)
µ0 ∂t 11 12
 Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (III) Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (IV)
∂ 1 1 1 1 if i = j
f = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E −
1 1 1
∇B 2 + (B ⋅∇)B − ε 0 ∇E 2 + ε 0 (E ⋅∇)E − ε 0 (E × B) Tij ≡ ε 0 ( Ei E j − δ ij E 2 ) + ( Bi B j − δ ij B 2 ) δ ij = 
2 µ0 µ0 2 ∂t 2 µ0 2 0 if i ≠ j
=0 ε0 2 1
1
= ε 0 [(∇ ⋅ E)E + (E ⋅∇)E] + [(B ⋅∇)B + (∇ ⋅ B)B] Txx = ( Ex − E y − Ez ) +
2 2
( Bx − By − Bz )
2 2 2

µ0 2 2 µ0
ε 1
1 ε ∂ Tyy = 0 ( E y2 − Ez2 − Ex2 ) + ( By2 − Bz2 − Bx2 )
− ∇B 2 − 0 ∇ E 2 − ε 0 ( E × B ) 2 2 µ0
2 µ0 2 ∂t ε0 2 1
Tzz = ( Ez − E y − Ex ) +
2 2
( Bz2 − By2 − Bx2 )
It can be simplified by introducing the Maxwell stress tensor. 2 2 µ0
1
1 1 1 Txy = Tyx = ε 0 ( Ex E y ) + ( Bx By )
Tij ≡ ε 0 ( Ei E j − δ ij E 2 ) + ( Bi B j − δ ij B 2 ) µ0 Because Tij carries two indices,
2 µ0 2 1
Tyz = Tzy = ε 0 ( E y Ez ) + ( By Bz ) it is sometimesIwritten with a
(the Kronecker delta, another example see Prob. 3.45) µ0 double arrow T .
1
Tzx = Txz = ε 0 ( Ez Ex ) + ( Bz Bx )
1 if i = j µ0
δ ij = 
0 if i ≠ j Q: How does the tensor operate?
13 See, “Vector Analysis”, Chap.8, M. E. Spiegel, McGRAW-HILL.
14

Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (V) Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (VI)

I
On can form the dot product of tensor T with a vector a: The force per unit volume:
I ∂S
(row vector) f = ∇ ⋅ T − ε 0 µ0
I ∂t
(a ⋅ T) j = ∑
i= x, y , z
aiTij
The total force on the charges in V is:
I d
(column vector)
I F = v∫ T ⋅ da − ε 0 µ0 ∫ Sdτ
(T ⋅ a)i = ∑ Tij a j S
dt V
j = x, y , z

Physically, the Maxwell stress tensor is the force per unit

The divergence of the Maxwell stress tensor is: area acting on the surface.
I 1
(∇ ⋅ T) j = ε 0 [(∇ ⋅ E) E j + (E ⋅∇) E j − ∇ j E 2 ]
2
1 1
+ [(B ⋅∇) B j + (∇ ⋅ B) B j − ∇ j B 2 ]
µ0 2
15 16
 Example 8.2 Example 8.2 (II)
A uniformly charged solid sphere of radius Cont’: rˆ = sin θ cos φ xˆ + sin θ sin φ yˆ + cos θ zˆ
R and charge Q is cut into two hemisphere. Q
Tzx = ε 0 Ez Ex = ε 0 ( ) 2 sin θ cos θ cos φ
Find the force required to prevent the 4πε 0 R 2
Q
hemisphere from separating. Tzy = ε 0 Ez E y = ε 0 ( ) 2 sin θ cos θ sin φ
4πε 0 R 2
Sol: This is an electrostatics, no magnetic field involved. ε Q
I Tzz = 0 ( Ez2 − E y2 − Ex2 ) = ε 0 ( ) 2 (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ )
1 Qr 4πε 0 R 2
E=
4πε 0 R 3
rˆ F = T ⋅ da
S
v∫ 2
dFz =
ε0
(
Q
) 2 sin θ cos θ dθ dφ
The boundary surface consists of two parts---bowl and disk. 2 4πε 0 R 2

The net force is obviously in the z-direction. The force on the bowl is:
I
dFz = (T ⋅ da) z = Tzx dax + Tzy da y + Tzz daz π / 2 2π
ε0 Q Q2 1
Fbowl = ∫ ∫ ) sin θ cos θ dθ dφ =
2
(
Express the electric component in Cartesian coordinate. θ =0 φ =0 2 4πε 0 R 2 4πε 0 8R 2
17 18

Example 8.2 (III) 8.2.3 Conservation of Momentum

Cont’:
Newton’s second law Î the force on an object is equal to
The force on the disk is: the rate of change of its momentum.
R 2π
ε0 Q 1 Q2 dp I d
F = mech = v∫ T ⋅ da − ε 0 µ0 ∫ Sdτ
Fdisk = ∫ ∫
r =0 φ =0
(
2 4πε 0 R 3
) 2 r 3drdφ =
4πε 0 16 R 2 dt S
dt V
where pmech is the total (mechanical) momentum of the
The net force on the northern hemisphere is: particles contained in the volume V.
 dp mech
F=
13Q 2  dt = ∫ g mech dτ (an analogous interpretation,
 not a rigorous proof)
4πε 0 16 R 2  dp
V
d
 em = ε 0 µ0 Sdτ , where p em = (ε 0 µ0S)dτ = g em dτ
 dt dt ∫
V
∫
V
∫
V

Q: Can we solve this problem using a simpler approach?

(momentum stored in the (momentum density)
Yes, we can use the potential energy to find the net force. electromagnetic fields themselves)
19 20
 Conservation of Momentum (II) Conservation of Momentum (III)
I
v∫ T ⋅ da (the momentum per unit time flowing in through the surface.
S
The roles of Poynting’s vector:
Conservation of momentum in electrodynamics: the energy per unit area, per unit time, transported by
S
Any increase in the total momentum (mechanical plus electromagnetic fields.
electromagnetic) is equal to the momentum brought in by µ0ε 0S the momentum per unit volume stored in those fields.
the fields.

∂ I
(g mech + g em ) = −∇ ⋅ (−T) (in differential form) The roles of momentum stress tensor:
∂t I
T the electromagnetic stress acting on a surface.
(momentum flux density, playing the role of J in I
continuity equation, or S in Poynting’s theorem) −T the flow of momentum transported by the fields.

21 22

Sol: The fields are

Example 8.3 (hidden momentum)
1 λ
E= sˆ
A long coaxial cable, of length l, consists of an inner 2πε 0 s 1 λI
conductor (radius a) and an outer conductor (radius b). It is S≡ (E × B ) = zˆ
µ0 I µ0 4π 2ε 0 s 2
connected to a battery at one end and a resistor at the other. B= φˆ
2π s
The inner conductor carries a uniform charge per unit lengthλ,
and a steady current to the right; the outer conductor has the The momentum in the fields is: (an astonishing result!)
opposite charge and current. What is the electromagnetic µ λI b 1 µ λ Il
momentum stored in the fields. p em = ∫ µ0ε 0Sdτ = 0 2 ∫ 2 l 2π sdszˆ = 0 ln(b / a )zˆ
4π a s 2π

In fact, if the center of mass of a localized system is at rest,

its total momentum must be zero.

There is “hidden” mechanical momentum associated with the

flow of current, and this exactly cancels the momentum in the
fields.
23 24
 8.2.4 Angular Momentum Example 8.4
The electromagnetic fields carry energy and momentum, not
merely mediators of forces between charges. Imagine a very long solenoid with radius R, n
1 turns per unit length, and current I. Coaxial
uem = (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 ) with the solenoid are two long cylinderical
2
shells of length l---one, inside the solenoid at
g em = ε 0 µ0S = ε 0 (E × B) radius a, carries a charge +Q, uniformly
distributed over the surface; the other,
How about the angular momentum ?
outside the solenoid at radius b, carries
A em = r × g em = ε 0 [r × (E × B)] (again, not a rigorous proof) charge –Q. When the current in the solenoid
is gradually reduced, the cylinders begin to
rotate, as we found in Ex. 7.8. Where does
Even perfectly static fields can harbor momentum and the angular momentum come from?
angular momentum. See the following example.
25 26

Sol: The fields are

1 Q
E= sˆ (a < s < b)
2πε 0 ls Homework of Chap.8
B = µ0 nIzˆ ( s < R)

The momentum density is: (an astonishing result!)

µ0 nIQ Prob. 1, 4, 6, 10 ,12, 15
g em = µ0ε 0S = ε 0 E × B = − φˆ (a < s < R)
2π ls
The angular momentum density is:
µ0 nIQ
A em = r × g em = ε 0 [r × (E × B)] = − zˆ (a < s < R)
2π l
The total angular momentum in the fields is:
µ0 nIQ
Lem = ∫ A em dτ = − ( R 2 − a 2 )zˆ
2 27 28