Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE

International Conference on Robotics Kc Automation

Detroit, Michigan May 1999

Continuum Robots - A State of the Art

G. Robinson, J.B.C. Davies
Department of Mechanical & Chemical Engineering,
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK

Abstract
Like the human limbs which inspired them most robots
are discrete mechanisms with rigid links connected by
single degree of freedom joints. In contrast ‘continuum’
and ‘serpentine’ robot mechanisms move by bending
through a series of continuous arcs producing motion
which resembles that of biological tentacles or snakes.
This paper provides a single reference to the expanding
technology of continuum robot mechanisms. It defines the
fundamental diference between discrete, serpentine and
continuum robot devices; presents the ‘state ofthe art’ of
continuum robots and outlines their areas of application;
and introduces some control issues. Finally some
conclusions regarding the continued development of these DISCRETE SERPENTINE CONTINUUM
devices are made.
Fig. 1 Robot Motion

1 Introduction It should be clear that there are fundamental

Most robots are discrete mechanisms constructed from
a series of rigid links. These are connected by discrete
single degree of freedom joints, and controlled movement
is only generated at these joints. The intermediate links
may be considered infinitely stiff and essentially exist to
ensure a known relationship between the centres of
consecutive joints. The need for stiff links creates heavy
robot mechanisms, large sections of which are passive
supporting structures. Although this approach might be
essential for many industrial applications where speed of
operation and accuracy are paramount, there are many
situations where different attributes may provide
improved performance.
Serpentine robots also utilise discrete joints but
combine very short rigid links with a large density of
joints. This creates highly mobile mechanisms which
appear to produce smooth curves, similar to a snake.
Continuum robots do not contain rigid links and
identifiable rotational joints. Instead the structures bend
continuously along their length via elastic deformation
and produce motion through the generation of smooth
curves, similar to the tentacles or tongues of the animal
kingdom [I].
differences in form between conventional discrete,
serpentine, and continuum robots (fig. 1). This paper only
considers continuum robots.
2 Continuum Robots
Several forms of continuum robot have been
developed. These can be broadly classified as ‘intrinsic’,
‘extrinsic’, or ‘hybrid’, according to the method and
location of mechanical actuation. In an intrinsic device
the actuators are located on and form part of the animated
mechanism. Extrinsic devices use remote actuation and
motion is transferred into the mechanism via a
mechanical linkage. Hybrid devices use a combination of
both intrinsic and extrinsic actuation.
Each of these groups can be sub-divided into ‘planar’
or ‘spatial’ devices according to the type of motion
produced. Planar devices only move in a single plane of
bending, whilst spatial devices can bend in any direction
perpendicular to their longitudinal axis.
2.1 Intrinsic Planar

0-7803-5180-0-5/99 $10.00 0 1999 IEEE 2849


Fig. 2 Intrinsic Planar Actuator
The simplest form of continuum actuators are fluid
operated planar devices (fig. 2), which require a single
pressure input to produce bending in a single plane. The
physical construction of the actuator walls determines the
motion produced. Typically one side of the elastic
actuator has a different axial stiffhess to the remaining
walls. Increasing internal pressure generates strain
variations across the structure and bending occurs.
Elasticity causes the device to straighten on decreasing
pressure. Several variations exist and a typical application
is for compliant fingers, increasing the versatility and
error tolerance of grasping end-effectors, whilst
minimising control requirements [2-51. The use of planar
continuum mechanisms to transport simple objects within
a plane has also been investigated [6-71.
2.2 Intrinsic Spatial
The basic construction for intrinsic, fluid operated,
spatial continuum mechanisms combines both the
actuator and the supporting structure into a single unit
(fig. 3) [SI. This produces a simple, compact, lightweight
mechanism which contains no moving parts and yet can
generate motion with up to three degrees of freedom,
allowing both the direction and magnitude of tip
movement to be controlled. Operation relies on the elastic
deformation of parallel actuator chambers placed at equal
BASE END PLATE
r6 TIP END PLATE
BELLOWS ELEMENT
11
I I I
LSUPPORT TIE
END PLUGS
PRESSURE PORT’
Fig. 3 Spatial Bellows Actuator
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Fixed End
Resultant Bending:
Pressures:
Free End
Fig. 4 Actuator Motion
intervals about a central longitudinal axis. Internal
pressures are controlled to generate extension forces and
the structure deforms according to constraints provided
by the end forms (fig. 4). It is essential for operation that
internal pressures generate axial extension rather than
radial expansion and several approaches have been
developed to ensure anisotropic elasticity. Devices with
many degrees of freedom can be obtained by placing
several independent actuators in series.
These actuators exhibit passive elastic compliance to
external forces in the directions normal to their
longitudinal axis. External forces cause compliant motion
of the actuator until the force balance within the structure
is restored. The resulting increase in strain energy causes
the actuator to return to its undisturbed configuration on
removal of the external force.
Suzumori et al. described the construction and
operation of small low pressure silicon rubber actuators
(flexible micro-actuator or FMA) ranging from 1 - 20 mm
in diameter [9]. Three parallel chambers were moulded
directly into a single cylindrical unit. Integral nylon
reinforcing fibres around the circumference of the
cylinder resisted radial expansion whilst allowing the
actuator to stretch longitudinally. Single stage devices
were used as the fingers of a four fingered gripper, whilst
a 120 mm long 7 degree of freedom manipulator
(including a 1 degree of freedom gripper) was produced
using multiple stages. Subsequently FMAs have been
used in the construction of mini 6 legged walking robots
only 15 mm long [lo]. Also stereolithographic techniques
have enabled arrays of parallel FMA actuators to be made
in a single process. The objective is to manoeuvre objects
across the surface of a large FMA array by the distributed
actuation of the parallel actuators, in a similar manner to
the villi of animal intestines [ 111.
Davies described a much larger 744 mm long
pneumatic device using three parallel thin walled
polymeric bellows connected at each end by rigid plates

Fig. 5 Polymeric Gripper
[ 12-13]. The convoluted bellows walls ensured that
longitudinal extension due to internal pressure was much
larger than radial expansion. This approach also produced
a pneumatic gripper which exploited its intrinsic
compliance to perform stable open loop manipulations on
a range of objects [I41 (fig. 5). Compliant finger motion
both reduces the risk of damage to grasped objects or
fixtures due to excessive contact force, and increases
grasp stability by absorbing external disturbances and
positional errors which might otherwise lead to grasp
failure [ 151.
Subsequently the Amadeus project is developing
continuum end-effector technology and control
techniques to improve the sampling and manipulation
capabilities of underwater systems [16-171. Fig. 6 shows
the first hydraulic laboratory prototype which used
phosphor bronze bellows fingers [ 18-20]. Successful
laboratory operation of this device ensured progression to
Fig. 6 Amadeus Phase 1 Prototype
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the second phase of the project. This is developing a
robust system providing enhanced functionality by
embodying the benefits of continuum technology, and
which is suitable for trials in the marine environment.
Robinson et al. discuss the stringent design and
operational constraints, and the technical challenges
associated with the development of a dextrous robot end-
effector for operation in harsh unstructured environments
P11.
As the research effort into intrinsic continuum devices
increases new methods of actuation are being proposed.
Kallio et al. described the control of a micro-
manipulator using a similar parallel bellows construction
[22]. Three small nickel bellows support and control the
orientation of a platform, which in turn moves a micro-
manipulator arm. An innovative system of piezohydraulic
actuation operates the bellows producing a system with
sub-micrometer resolution in a workspace several
hundred micrometers across. The continuum approach
was ideal for this application because the bellows are able
to both extend and bend, enabling a compact structure to
be produced by removing the need for spherical joints.
Ivanescu and Stoin suggested using electrorheological
fluids to control fluid filled devices [23]. These fluids
change viscosity in the presence of DC electric fields, and
hence the provision of suitable electrodes would enable
continuum devices to be stiffened once a desired
configuration had been reached.
Kornbluh et al. described the use of Electrostrictive
Polymer Artificial Muscle (EPAM) actuators in robotic
applications and suggested the construction of a multi-
sectioned redundant continuum arm [24]. EPAM
actuators contract when a voltage is applied across a
polymer dielectric and may provide a lightweight
compact actuator. Since force is produced by contraction
additional supporting elements are required to prevent
collapse of the overall continuum structure. Obviously
fluid powered artificial muscles such as the McKibben
muscle [25] could also be used to construct similar
devices.
Shape memory alloys lend themselves to the
production of small actuators and applications where low
efficiency and slow response are unimportant, and several
actively controlled continuum endoscopes have been
described for medical intervention [26-271.
2.3 Extrinsic

Fig. 7 Extrinsic Actuator
One technique to construct lightweight continuum
devices with many degrees of freedom is to utilise remote
actuation, and transfer motion into the structure via
groups of antagonistic tendons (fig. 7). Independent
tendon pairs or triads control the orientation of rigid
plates placed at intervals along the structure. Springs
connect successive plates and ensure that the tendons
remain in tension. Spatial continuum motion occurs since
the springs bend according to sequential plate
orientations. Various constructions have been described
with different numbers of sections, tendon arrangements,
and degrees of freedom [26, 281. These devices are
hollow and suggested applications include the
transportation of liquids or bulk materials.
2.4 Hybrid
Essentially hybrid structures follow a similar approach
to extrinsic tendon devices, except that the passive
springs are replaced by actively controlled bellows (fig.
8). Hemami proposed a potential construction for a
redundant hybrid manipulator with many two degree of
freedom sections [29]. More recently the commercially
available KSI tentacle manipulator has been developed
[30]. A central pneumatic bellows is operated in
conjunction with two sets of extrinsic tendon triads. One
triad inserts halfway along the bellows structure and
controls the shape of the proximal half. The other inserts
at the free end and controls the form of the distal portion
of the device. The internal bellows pressure opposes the
operation of the tendons, ensuring they always remain in
tension. By varying the tendon lengths and the bellows
pressure both the length and stiffness of the structure can
be controlled.
Fig,, 8 Hybrid Actuator
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3 Applications
Current developments focus on three main areas of
application; grasping and manipulation; locomotion; and
positioning.
3.1 Grasping and Manipulation
The fluid operated continuum actuators exhibit a
useful range properties which ensure their application as
the fingers of robot end-effectors. Inherent structural
compliance increases grasp stability and minimises
contact damage, whilst the absence of moving parts
eliminates problems of stiction and reduces the risk of
environmental contamination. The devices may also be
easily cleaned for applications involving hazardous
materials, food or medical production.
Both planar and spatial designs are available
depending upon the level of dexterity required. Planar
fingers only require a single control input to produce
motion and hence the range of available grasps is limited.
Spatial fingers require three input pressures per finger but
are capable of omni-directional movement. This
significantly increases the dexterity of devices using these
fingers allowing asymmetric grasps on irregularly shaped
objects, and object manipulation (translation and rotation)
to be performed solely through finger actuation.
3.2 Locomotion
Spatial fluid actuators have also been investigated as
the legs of walking robots. However the payload of such
devices is limited by the buckling capacity of the legs and
until a compact lightweight actuation system is developed
the range and functionality of these robots will be limited
by the need to provide services via an umbilical link [8,
101.
The converse application using a static array of
parallel actuators for object transportation requires the
development of manufacturing techniques, miniature
valve technology and distributed control methods [l I].
3.3 Positioning
All three forms of continuum robot have been
investigated for positioning applications (fig. 9). The
simple structures enable lightweight mechanisms with
long reaches to be considered for operations within
constrained environments with restricted access, such as
storage tanks or nuclear cells.
However any mechanism utilising an elastic structure
exhibits compliance and will deflect when subject to a
disturbing force. This could be due to a collision with an

Fig. 9 Two Stage Continuum Robot
external constraint, the payload, or the self-weight of the
device. Thus long continuum mechanisms are suited to
positioning tasks requiring relatively low positional
accuracy with small payloads, such as inspection,
cleaning, or bulk transport.
This structural compliance can also be exploited when
working within constrained, unstructured or delicate
environments, since devices will deflect rather than
generate large contact forces during collisions with its
environment.
4 Control Issues
Continuum devices present a novel control problem in
that the entire structure undergoes elastic deformation and
there are no joints to control or measure. Methods of
direct measurement of the device end-point are required
for reliable position control. Indirect position models
which relate internal bellows pressures to deflected
position via physical parameters have been proposed for
single stage fluid operated devices [3 1-32]. Similarly
extrinsic tendon operated devices might utilise position
models based on tendon tension and length to infer
position. The micro-manipulator system used proximity
sensors to measure the orientation of the supporting plate
and hence obtain the micro-manipulator position [22].
However low accuracy tasks utilising tele-operation
may exploit device compliance to absorb positional and
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contact errors and provide an alternative solution to rigid
systems requiring accurate position control.
Conclusions
Continuum robots posses fundamental characteristics
which distinguish them from either discrete or serpentine
robots.
A number of different construction methodologies
have been developed based on intrinsic, extrinsic or
hybrid actuation, providing either planar or spatial
functionality.
The actuators display a range of useful properties
including compliant motion and simple construction.
Used appropriately continuum devices may enhance
the performance of other robot systems or enable new and
challenging applications to be investigated. Currently
described applications include subsea manipulation;
micro-manipulation; inspection; jet-washing; walking
robots; and endoscopic intervention.
The development of continuum robot technology
continues to present many technical challenges and
research opportunities.
Acknowledgements
Amadeus phase 2 is supported by the European
Community under the Marine Science and Technology
(MAST 111) research directive grant number: mas3-ct95-
0024. The authors would like to acknowledge
collaboration with their colleagues in the Ocean System
Laboratory, Department of Computing and Electrical
Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh; the
Departmento Informatica Sistemistica Telematica,
University of Genova, Genova, Italy; and the Instituto Per
L' Automazione Navale, National Research Centre,
Genova, Italy.
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