1.

0 MECHANICS

Newton’s Laws of Motion (1687)

Newton’s First Law

Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by some
external force.

Newton’s Second Law

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the external force acting on the
body and takes place in the direction of the force.

Newton’s Third Law

If a body A exerts a force on a body B, then B exerts an equal and opposite force on body A.

Mass & Weight

The mass of a body is a measure of its resistance to acceleration. It is a measure of the inertia of the
body. The weight of a body is the force exerted on its mass by gravity. Acc. due to gravity, g = 9.81 ms -2

Equations of motion for uniform acceleration

V = u + at u = velocity when t=0

V2 = u2 + 2as v = velocity at time t

S = ut + ½ at2 a = constant acceleration

S = ½ (u + v) t s = distance

Laws of Friction

(i) The frictional force between 02 surfaces opposes their relative motion.
(ii) Frictional forces are independent of the area of contact of the surfaces

Principle of conservation of linear momentum

The total linear momentum of a system of interacting (colliding) bodies, on which no external forces are
acting, remains constant.

Principle of conservation of mechanical Energy, Work Done & Power

Sum of Kinetic and potential Energies is a constant in a system

Kinetic Energy (K.E) = ½ mv2, Potential Energy (P.E) = mgh (h = height of the body from ground level)

Work done (W) = Constant Applied Force (F) x Distance moved in direction of Force (s)

Power (P) = Rate of doing Work = Work Done/Time = Fv

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 2.0 STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Solid, Liquid, Gas

Solid – Fixed Shape & Fixed Volume

Liquid – No fixed Shape but Fixed Volume

Gas – No fixed shape & no Fixed Volume

Brownian Motion

Fluids are composed of molecules in a state of continuous random motion. Motion can be made more
pronounced by increasing temperature of the fluid.

Types of Solids

Crystalline Solids – Atoms are arranged in a regular way (e.g. Diamond, graphite)

Amorphous Solids – Atoms are arranged in an irregular way (e.g. glass, wax) & have no definite melting pt

Types of Polymers

Polymers consist of large molecules in the form of long chains, with each chain consisting of small
molecules called monomers. They can be either natural (e.g. rubber, wool) or synthetic.

Thermoplastics – These soften and become more flexible on heating. There are usually weak Van Der
Waal Forces (Non Hydrogen and Non Dipole Dipole Bonds) between the chains (e.g. PVC, HDPE, PTFE).

Thermosetting Plastics – These are more brittle and rigid than thermoplastics. They do not soften on
heating and can withstand higher temperatures (e.g. epoxy resins for adhesives)

Elastomers – These can be stretched considerably and still return to their original lengths when the
stresses are removed (e.g. raw rubber or latex).

Properties of Polymers – The main bonds in polymers are covalent (Non Ionic). This accounts for their
low thermal and electrical conductivities. They are less dense than metals and are usually resistant to
water and acids.

Properties and flow of Fluids

Density (ƥ ) = Mass per unit volume = M/V

Density of Water = 1.0 x 103 kgm-3, Density of Mercury = 1.36 x 104 kgm-3

Specific Density = Density of substance per density of water at 4 0C

Pressure (P) = Force acting per unit area = F/A = hƥg

Atmospheric Pressure = 1 atm = 1.01 bar = 760 mmHg (Hg = Mercury), Vacuum Pressure = 0

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure

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Static Pressure = The Static Pressure at a point in a flowing fluid is the actual pressure at that point

Dynamic Pressure = ½ ƥv2

Total Pressure = Static + Dynamic Pressure

Pascal & Archimedes Principle

Pascal’s Principle

Any pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted to every part of the fluid and to the walls of its
container regardless of its shape.

Archimedes Principle

A body immersed (totally or partially) in a fluid experiences an upthrust (apparent loss of weight) which
is equal to the weight of fluid displaced.

Types of Flow & Fluids

Steady Flow – All the fluid particles that pass any given point follow the same path at the same speed.

Laminar Flow –Steady flow in which the velocities of all the particles on any given streamline are the same

Turbulent Flow – Speed and direction of the fluid particles passing any point vary with time

Incompressible Fluid – A liquid in which changes in pressure produce no change in density

Continuity & Bernoulli Equations

Continuity Equation

If a fluid is undergoing steady flow, then the mass of fluid which enters one end of a tube of flow must
be equal to the mass that leaves at the other end during the same time, meaning flow rate is constant.

Av = constant

Bernoulli Equation

For an incompressible, non viscous fluid undergoing steady flow, sum of pressure kinetic energy per unit
volume and potential energy per unit volume is constant at all points on a streamline.

P + ½ ƥv2 + ƥgh = constant

Density & Pressure & Velocity Measuring Instruments

 The U-Tube Manometer & Bourdon Gauge measure pressure

 The Hydrometer measures relative densities of liquids
 The Venturi Meter measures velocity of a fluid by measuring drop in pressure which occurs by
the introduction of a constriction into a pipe carrying a fluid
 The Pitot-Static tube measures velocity of a moving fluid

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 3.0 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Types of Thermometers

Mercury & Alcohol in Glass Thermometer

Advantages of using mercury are that it is opaque and easily seen, it does not stick to glass and is a good
conductor of heat.

Mercury in Glass Thermometer Range = -39 to 357 0C

Upper temperature limit can be extended up to 800 0C by filling the thermometer with an inert gas like
Nitrogen which increases pressure on the mercury and hence its boiling point.

Lower temperature limit can be extended up to -115 0C by use of alcohol. Alcohol is also more sensitive
to temperature change than mercury but its expansion is very non-linear.

Thermocouple

Thermocouples rely on the fact that EMF is temperature dependent. They use the Thermoelectric or
Seebeck effect to measure temperature. When 02 dissimilar metals are in contact, an EMF is setup at
that point of contact. EMF will increase as the temperature of the junction will increase. EMF is
measures either using a milli-voltmeter or a potentiometer.

Thermocouples have very small heat capacities and so have very little effect on the temperature of the
body they are measuring and thus can measure rapidly fluctuating temperatures.

Platinum/Rhodium Thermocouples Upper Range = 1700 0C

Resistance Thermometer

Resistance Thermometers rely on the fact that resistances of metals are temperature dependent. They
are usually made of Platinum because of its high temperature coefficient of resistance and high melting
point (17730C).

Platinum Resistance thermometers have relatively large heat capacities, meaning they take a
considerable amount of time to come into thermal equilibrium with their surroundings.

Platinum Resistance Thermometer Range = -200 to 1200 0C

Thermistor

Thermistors, similar to resistance thermometers, rely on their change of electrical resistance with
temperature to measure temperature. But contrary to resistance thermometers, they have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance, meaning their resistance decreases approximately exponentially
with increasing temperature.

Thermistors have very small heat capacities and thus respond quickly. When used with a wheatstone
Bridge, they are as 20 times as sensitive as resistance thermometers.

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Thermistor Range = -70 to 3000C

Temperature = Degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

Temperature (Kelvin) = Temperature (Degree Celsius) + 273.15

Gas Laws

Boyles Law – At constant T, pV = a constant

Charles Law – At constant p, V/T = a constant

Pressure Law – At constant V, P/T = a constant

Ideal Gas Equation

pV = nRT

 p = Pressure of Gas (Pa)

 V = Volume of gas (m3)
 n = Number of moles of gas (mol)
 R = Molar Gas Constant (=8.31 JK-1mol-1)
 T = Temperature of gas (K)

Useful Relationships

 STP = 273 K & 760 mmHg (1.013 x 105 Nm-2)

 Molar Volume at STP = 22.4 x 10-3 m3
 Molar Mass = mass per mole (SI Unit: gmol-1)
 Relative Molecular Mass, Mr = [Average molecular mass / (1/12 x mass of carbon 12 atom)]
 n = number of moles
 N = Number of molecules
 Avogadro Constant, NA = Number of atoms in one mole (N/n) = 6.022 x 10 23 mol-1
 Molar Gas Constant, R = 8.31 JK-1mol-1
 Boltzmann’s Constant, k = (R/ NA) = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1

Avogadro’s Law

Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure (STP) contain the same number of
molecules.

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

The total pressure of a mixture of gases, which do not interact chemically, is equal to the sum of partial
pressures of each gas.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if all parts of it are at the same temperature and pressure.

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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Two bodies which are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The Heat Energy (ΔQ) supplied to a system is equal to the sum of the increase in the Internal Energy
(ΔU) of the system and the work done (ΔW) by the system on its surroundings. Internal Energy of a
system is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of the molecules of the system.

ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW

Isothermal Process: ΔU = 0

Adiabatic Process: ΔQ = 0

Heat Capacities

Heat Capacity, C = Heat required to produce unit temperature rise (J 0C-1)

Specific Heat Capacity, c = Heat required to produce unit temperature rise in unit mass of substance (J kg -1 0C-1)

Specific Heat Capacity of water = 4.2 x 10 3 J kg-1 0C-1

Molar Heat Capacity at constant pressure and volume , c p & cv

For an ideal gas, cp - cv = R

Enthalpy, H ΔH = ΔU + pΔV

Adiabatic Process: ΔH = 0

Endothermic Process: ΔH > 0

Exothermic Process: ΔH < 0

Second Law of Thermodynamics

It is not possible to convert heat continuously into work without at the same time transferring some heat
from a warmer body to a colder body.

Entropy, S ΔS = ΔQ/T

ΔS = Increase in entropy of a system when it undergoes a reversible change (JK -1)

ΔQ = Heat absorbed by a system and is so small that the process can be considered to take place at a
constant temperature

CYCLES

Carnot Cycle (Refrigeration), Otto Cycle (Petrol Engine), Diesel Cycle (Diesel Engine), Rankine Cycle (Steam Engine)

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 4.0 ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

I = Steady Current (A)

V = Potential Difference across conductor (V)

R = Resistance (Ω)

A = Cross Sectional Area of Conductor (m2)

L = Length of Conductor (m)

G = Conductance (Siemens (S))

ρ = Resistivity of Conductor material (Ωm)

σ = Conductivity (Sm-1)

Resistance, R = V/I

Ohm’s Law = I α V

Resistivity, ρ = RA/L

Conductance, G = I/R

Conductivity, σ = I/ ρ

Maximum Power Theorem

A given source of EMF delivers the maximum amount of power to a load when the resistance of the load is equal
to the internal resistance of the source.

EMF, E = I (R + r)

E = EMF of a cell

I = Current delivered by a cell

R = External resistance

r = Internal resistance

Power, P = IV = I2R.

P = E2R/(R + r)2

When dP/dR = E2(r – R) / (R + r)3 = 0, R = r

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Coulomb’s Law : F α Q1Q2/r2

F = Force between 02 electrically charged bodies (N)

Q1 & Q2 = Charge of each body ©

r = Separation between the 02 bodies (m)

EMF & Potential Difference

The EMF of a cell is defined as the energy converted into electrical energy from other forms (chemical,
mechanical) when unit charge passes through it.

The Potential Difference between 02 points in an electric field is equal to the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from the point at the lower potential to that at a higher potential.