1.

Uses of solar energy

The potential for solar energy is enormous, since about 200,000 times the world’s total daily
electric-generating capacity is received by Earth every day in the form of solar energy.
Unfortunately, though solar energy itself is free, the high cost of its collection, conversion,
and storage still limits its exploitation in many places. Solar radiation can be converted either
into thermal energy (heat) or into electrical energy, though the former is easier to accomplish.
Thermal energy
Among the most common devices used to capture solar energy and convert it to thermal
energy are flat-plate collectors, which are used for solar heating applications. Because the
intensity of solar radiation at Earth’s surface is so low, these collectors must be large in area.
Even in sunny parts of the world’s temperate regions, for instance, a collector must have a
surface area of about 40 square metres (430 square feet) to gather enough energy to serve the
energy needs of one person.
The most widely used flat-plate collectors consist of a blackened metal plate, covered with
one or two sheets of glass, that is heated by the sunlight falling on it. This heat is then
transferred to air or water, called carrier fluids, that flow past the back of the plate. The heat
may be used directly, or it may be transferred to another medium for storage. Flat-plate
collectors are commonly used for solar water heaters and house heating. The storage of heat
for use at night or on cloudy days is commonly accomplished by using insulated tanks to
store the water heated during sunny periods. Such a system can supply a home with hot water
drawn from the storage tank, or, with the warmed water flowing through tubes in floors and
ceilings, it can provide space heating. Flat-plate collectors typically heat carrier fluids to
temperatures ranging from 66 to 93 °C (150 to 200 °F). The efficiency of such collectors (i.e.,
the proportion of the energy received that they convert into usable energy) ranges from 20 to
80 percent, depending on the design of the collector.
Another method of thermal energy conversion is found in solar ponds, which are bodies
of salt water designed to collect and store solar energy. The heat extracted from such ponds
enables the production of chemicals, food, textiles, and other industrial products and can also
be used to warm greenhouses, swimming pools, and livestock buildings. Solar ponds are
sometimes used to produce electricity through the use of the organic Rankine cycle engine, a
relatively efficient and economical means of solar energy conversion, which is especially
useful in remote locations. Solar ponds are fairly expensive to install and maintain and are
generally limited to warm rural areas.
On a smaller scale, the Sun’s energy can also be harnessed to cook food in specially
designed solar ovens. Solar ovens typically concentrate sunlight from over a wide area to a
central point, where a black-surfaced vessel converts the sunlight into heat. The ovens are
typically portable and require no other fuel inputs.

How wind turbines work

When the wind blows past a wind turbine, its blades capture the wind’s kinetic energy and
rotate, turning it into mechanical energy. This rotation turns an internal shaft connected to a
gearbox, which increases the speed of rotation by a factor of 100. That spins a generator that
produces electricity.
Typically standing at least 80 meters (262 feet) tall, tubular steel towers support a hub with
three attached blades and a “nacelle,” which houses the shaft, gearbox, generator, and
controls. Wind measurements are collected, which direct the turbine to rotate and face the
strongest wind, and the angle or "pitch" of its blades is optimized to capture energy.
A typical modern turbine will start to generate electricity when wind speeds reach six to nine
miles per hour (mph), known as the cut-in speed. Turbines will shut down if the wind is
blowing too hard (roughly 55 miles an hour) to prevent equipment damage.
Over the course of a year, modern turbines can generate usable amounts of electricity over 90
percent of the time. For example, if the wind at a turbine reaches the cut-in speed of six to
nine mph, the turbine will start generating electricity. As wind speeds increase so does
electricity production.
Another common measure of wind energy production is called capacity factor. This measures
the amount of electricity a wind turbine produces in a given time period (typically a year)
relative to its maximum potential.
For example, suppose the maximum theoretical output of a two megawatt wind turbine in a
year is 17,520 megawatt-hours (two times 8,760 hours, the number of hours in a year).
However, the turbine may only produce 7,884 megawatt-hours over the course of the year
because the wind wasn’t always blowing hard enough to generate the maximum amount of
electricity the turbine was capable of producing. In this case, the turbine has a 45 percent
(7,884 divided by 17,520) capacity factor. Remember—this does not mean the turbine only
generated electricity 45 percent of the time. Modern wind farms often have capacity factors
greater than 40 percent, which is close to some types of coal or natural gas power plants.

2. CHALLENGES OF WIND POWER

 Wind power must still compete with conventional generation sources on a cost
basis. Depending on how energetic a wind site is, the wind farm might not be cost
competitive. Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the
past 10 years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled
generators.

 Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the
electricity is needed. Transmission lines must be built to bring the electricity from
the wind farm to the city. However, building just a few already-proposed transmission
lines could significantly reduce the costs of expanding wind energy.
 Wind resource development might not be the most profitable use of the
land. Land suitable for wind-turbine installation must compete with alternative uses
for the land, which might be more highly valued than electricity generation.

 Turbines might cause noise and aesthetic pollution. Although wind power plants
have relatively little impact on the environment compared to conventional power
plants, concern exists over the noise produced by the turbine blades and visual
impacts to the landscape.

 Turbine blades could damage local wildlife. Birds have been killed by flying into
spinning turbine blades. Most of these problems have been resolved or greatly
reduced through technological development or by properly siting wind plants.