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Chapter 3
X i
X1 X 2 Xn
X i1
n n
Sample size Observed values
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Measures of Central Tendency:
The Mean DCOVA
(continued)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Mean = 13 Mean = 14
11 12 13 14 15 65 11 12 13 14 20 70
13 14
5 5 5 5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Median = 13 Median = 13
n 1
Median position position in the ordered data
2
If the number of values is odd, the median is the middle number
Note that
n 1 is not the value of the median, only the position of
2
the median in the ranked data
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
No Mode
Mode = 9
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Measures of Central Tendency:
Review Example
DCOVA
House Prices: Mean: ($3,000,000/5)
$2,000,000 = $600,000
$ 500,000
$ 300,000
Median: middle value of ranked
$ 100,000 data
$ 100,000 = $300,000
Sum $ 3,000,000 Mode: most frequent value
= $100,000
X i
X i1
n Middle value Most
in the ordered frequently
array observed
value
Example:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Range = 13 - 1 = 12
7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12
Range = 12 - 7 = 5 Range = 12 - 7 = 5
Sensitive to outliers
1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,5
Range = 5 - 1 = 4
1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,120
Range = 120 - 1 = 119
S 2 i1
n -1
Where X = arithmetic mean
n = sample size
Xi = ith value of the variable X
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Measures of Variation:
The Sample Standard Deviation
DCOVA
Most commonly used measure of variation
Shows variation about the mean
Is the square root of the variance
Has the same units as the original data
n
Sample standard deviation: (X X)
i
2
S i1
n -1
If the values are all the same (no variation), all these
measures will be zero.
S
CV 100%
X
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Locating Extreme Outliers:
Z-Score
DCOVA
To compute the Z-score of a data value, subtract the
mean and divide by the standard deviation.
Skewness
Statistic < 0 0 >0
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Shape of a Distribution
(Kurtosis)
DCOVA
Kurtosis
Statistic < 0 0 >0
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Quartile Measures
DCOVA
Quartiles split the ranked data into 4 segments with
an equal number of values per segment
Q1 Q2 Q3
The first quartile, Q1, is the value for which 25% of the
observations are smaller and 75% are larger
Q2 is the same as the median (50% of the observations
are smaller and 50% are larger)
Only 25% of the observations are greater than the third
quartile
(n = 9)
Q1 is in the (9+1)/4 = 2.5 position of the ranked data
so use the value half way between the 2nd and 3rd values,
so Q1 = 12.5
(n = 9)
Q1 is in the (9+1)/4 = 2.5 position of the ranked data,
so Q1 = (12+13)/2 = 12.5
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3
Xsmallest Q1 Q2 Q3 Xlargest
0 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 9 27
00 22 33 55 27
27
X i
X1 X 2 XN
i1
N N
Where μ = population mean
N = population size
Xi = ith value of the variable X
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Numerical Descriptive Measures
For A Population: The Variance σ2
DCOVA
Average of squared deviations of values from
the mean
N
Population variance: (X μ)
i
2
σ2 i1
N
N
Population standard deviation:
i
(X μ) 2
σ i1
N
68%
μ
μ 1σ
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The Empirical Rule
Approximately 95% of the data in a bell-shaped
DCOVA
distribution lies within two standard deviations of the
mean, or µ ± 2σ
95% 99.7%
μ 2σ μ 3σ
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Using the Empirical Rule
DCOVA
Suppose that the variable Math SAT scores is bell-
shaped with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation
of 90. Then,
68% of all test takers scored between 410 and 590
(500 ± 90).
At least within
( X X)(Y Y )
i i
cov ( X , Y ) i1
n 1
Only concerned with the strength of the relationship
No causal effect is implied
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Interpreting Covariance
DCOVA
Covariance between two variables:
cov(X,Y) > 0 X and Y tend to move in the same direction
cov(X,Y) < 0 X and Y tend to move in opposite directions
cov (X, Y)
r
SX SY
where
n
(X X)(Y Y)
n n
i i (X X)
i
2
(Y Y)
i
2
X X
r = -1 r = -.6
Y
Y Y
X X X
r = +1 r = +.3 r=0
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Ethical Considerations
DCOVA
Numerical descriptive measures: