International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 130 (2019) 938–946

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International Journal of Biological Macromolecules

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ijbiomac

Effects of different drying conditions on the starch content, thermal

properties and some of the physicochemical parameters of whole green
banana flour
Amir Amini Khoozani ⁎, Alaa El-Din Ahmed Bekhit, John Birch ⁎
Department of Food Science, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The physicochemical and thermal properties of whole green banana flour obtained from oven air-drying (ODF) at
Received 25 November 2018 three temperatures (50, 80 and 110 °C) and freeze-drying (FDF) were compared to wheat flour (WF). Lightness
Received in revised form 15 February 2019 and yellowness were negatively affected by the temperature increment. The FDF samples exhibited higher a* and
Accepted 2 March 2019
L* values and had the closest browning index to WF (P-value b 0.01). Also, the ODF50 samples had the highest
Available online 4 March 2019
emulsion activity, whereas FDF had the highest emulsion stability (P-value b 0.05). The oil holding and water
Keywords:
holding capacities of the FDF samples were significantly higher than all other samples (P-value b 0.05). A higher
Banana resistant starch content was found in the FDF (46.72%) and ODF50 (44.58%) samples. The ODF50 samples had the
Drying highest amylose content and degree of crystallinity (P-value b 0.05) as well as the lowest gelatinization temper-
Physicochemical properties ature amongst the green banana flour samples (4.69 °C). Oven air-drying increased the gelatinization tempera-
Resistant starch ture drastically for all GBF samples (P-value b 0.05). In conclusion, drying the whole green banana at 50 °C
Thermal properties resulted in the least negative effects on RS content compared to the other drying temperatures investigated in
this study and was the closest to the characteristics of the FDF samples.
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction perishable food commodity and is also sensitive to postharvest defects

The increased demand for functional food products has led to an en-
hanced interest in whether nutrients such as minerals, vitamins, bioac-
tive compounds, fiber and prebiotics are present in food formulations
[1]. Amongst the prebiotics, RS has gained a lot of attention in recent
years, due to its acknowledged health benefits. Resistant starch is pres-
ent in grains, legumes and seeds (RS1), raw starchy plants (RS2),
retrograded starchy foods (RS3), chemically modified starch (RS4) and
in amylose-lipid complexes (RS5) that are considered to be physically
inaccessible to digestion [2]. Banana, the world's most favorite fruit, is
one of the richest sources of RS2 at early stages of ripeness [3].
Globally, banana is reported to be the fourth most demanded food
after rice, wheat and corn [4]. According to FAO, banana (Musa Caven-
dish, AAA group) is an essential part of New Zealanders diet with a per
capita consumption on average of 20 kg of banana per year, which is re-
ported to be more than the worldwide average consumption [5]. How-
ever, banana is the second most discarded food in New Zealand after
bread, contributing to 3% of the total food waste [6]. Banana is a
⁎ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: amir.amini@postgrad.otago.ac.nz (A.A. Khoozani),
aladin.bekhit@otago.ac.nz (A.E.-D.A. Bekhit), john.birch@otago.ac.nz (J. Birch).
including bruising during transportation, browning due to inappropri-
ate ripening environments and it is reported may even be rejected be-
cause of its “unacceptable” curved shape [7].
Unripe banana is rich in RS which is recognized to have positive ef-
fects on colon health [8], while ripe banana contains more digestible
starch and protein [9]. Bananas consist of two parts, the banana pulp
(BP) and the banana peel (BPe). The pulp is a rich source of essential
phytonutrients, phenolic compounds, B group vitamins, ascorbic acid
and tocopherols, while the BPe is a rich source of minerals, bioactive
compounds and dietary fiber (DF) such as pectin, cellulose, hemicellu-
loses and lignin [10].
Considering the nutritional value of both pulp and peel of green ba-
nanas, the production of green banana flour (GBF), which can be ob-
tained by drying, provides a way to preserve the nutritional benefits
and increase the shelf-life of banana material [11]. The drying condi-
tions used, such as different temperatures and humidity levels, can
have a profound influence on both functional and technological charac-
teristics of the obtained GBF. In addition, the way in which green banana
can be prepared for the drying process (whole, paste, slices) exerts dif-
ferent properties on the final product [12–14].
Unripe banana flour is considered to be a suitable formatted product
for use in food processing, in addition to its high RS2 content and low

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.03.010
0141-8130/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 A.A. Khoozani et al. / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 130 (2019) 938–946
digestible starch [15]. Hence, the preparation of green banana flour re-
quires a drying method that results in retention of nutritional proper-
ties, especially RS2.
The effects of room drying [16], including oven air-drying [17,18],
spouted bed with hot air flow [19], pulsed-fluidized bed agglomeration
[20], ultrasound and pulsed-vacuum followed by air drying [13], micro-
wave heating [12], freeze-drying [12,15] and spray drying [21] on some
of the attributes of different green banana parts have been reported.
However, the collective information available comparing different
oven air-drying temperatures with non-heat treatment processes on
properties of unpeeled GBF, especially on RS content and hydration
properties, have scarcely been reported in the literature. Also, the effect
of freeze drying, which is considered to be one of the best dehydration
methods for heat-sensitive materials, on the thermal properties and
starch content of GBF has not yet been investigated.
Compared to other methods of drying, freeze-drying is considered to
be the best dehydration method for heat-sensitive materials to enable
achievement of the highest possible quality, minimal comprising of
color, structure, nutrients and flavor. As most of the leading banana pro-
ducers are located in developing countries, a simple and efficient drying
method would be preferable for production of GBF with the highest pos-
sible yield and quality. Consequently, from the feasibility point of view
in the food industry and the minimum effect on green banana nutrients,
oven air-drying and freeze-drying (followed by blast freezing) were
chosen for analysis in this study, to investigate the effect of processing
on the properties of the produced flour.
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of freeze-drying and of three
different oven air-drying methods on whole GBF, with examination of
the effects of these methods on the starch content, functional behavior
and some of the physicochemical properties.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample preparation
A total of 20 kg green banana (Cavendish of Musa (AAA) Nanica
cultivar) was supplied by a local food supply company in Dunedin,
New Zealand between February and March 2018. The bananas
were harvested approximately 100 days after anthesis and were
not exposed to any maturation treatments. Samples of the bananas
were processed on arrival and were used for the measurement of
pH, firmness, total soluble solids and titratable acidity. The produc-
tion steps used to produce the dried green banana flour are shown
in Fig. 1. Wheat flour was provided by the same local food supply
company in Dunedin New Zealand and was used as a reference
sample.
2.2. Sample characterization
The pH of processed banana samples were measured using a pH
meter (HANNA Instruments, Woonsocket, USA). Titratable acidity was
determined according to the official method 942.15 (2005) AOAC [22]
using an analytical radiometer (Ph-STAT, Colorado, US). A hand-held re-
fractometer (ATAGO N1, California, USA) was used to determine the
total soluble solids with correction for acidity and temperature values
according to Kar, Chandra, Prasad, Samuel and Khurdiya [23]. Total solids
were assessed by gravimetric determination after drying at 60 °C under a
pressure of 60 mm Hg for 16 h.
2.3. Green banana flour production
After rinsing the supplied green bananas with distilled water con-
taining sodium hypochlorite (10 g/L), the bananas were immersed in
0.5% (w/v) citric acid solution for 15 min and then drained, in order to
reduce enzymatic browning. The green bananas were then cut into
slices with 2 mm thickness and then dipped in 0.5% (w/v) citric acid
939
solution for 15 min and then drained well. The treated sliced bananas
were dried using either an oven air-drying method or freeze-drying
method.
2.3.1. Oven air-drying method
The sliced bananas were distributed on screened trays and trans-
ferred into a pre-heated forced-oven air-dryer (LABEC, Laboratory
Equipment Pty Ltd., Marrickville, NSW, Australia) at either 50 °C, 80 °C,
or 110 °C for either 2, 4 or 7 h, until no further change in weight was
achieved.
2.3.2. Freeze-drying method
The banana samples were placed on stainless steel trays in a blast
freezer (IRINOX, Treviso, Italy) at −30 °C for 4 h and then transferred
to a freeze dryer (SP Scientific, New York, USA). The dried green ba-
nana slices that were subjected to either of the drying methods were
then ground and the powder passed through a 70 mesh (212 μm)
screen, then vacuum packed, and stored at 4 °C until used for
analysis.
2.4. Physicochemical properties of the banana flour
Some of the physicochemical properties, such as water activity
(a w), moisture content, ash, protein, lipid and carbohydrate, were
determined according to the AOAC 2000 standard methods [22].
The a w was measured by an Aqualab device (Decagon Devices,
Washington DC, USA) at 24 °C. The moisture content of the samples
was reduced using a vacuum oven dryer (Thermoline, Australian
Marketing Group, Marrickville, NSW, Australia) at 60 °C for 16 h
(Method 925.40; AOAC 2000). The ash content was determined fol-
lowing ashing of samples in a furnace (Method 923.03; AOAC
2000). The Kjeldahl method was used to determine the protein con-
tent (%N × 6.25) of samples using Method 923.03; AOAC 2000. The
lipid content was determined using the Soxhlet extraction method
(Method 920.39; AOAC 2000) [22]. The carbohydrate content was
calculated by the following equation:
Carbohydrate ðgÞ ¼ 100−½moisture content ðgÞ þ ash ðgÞ þ protein ðgÞ þ lipid ðgÞ
2.4.1. Color measurements
The color of banana samples was assessed by using a Hunterlab
Spectrocolorimeter (Hunter Lab Mini Scan Plus Colorimetric, USA).
The color parameters were defined using the CIE L*a*b* system, where
L ∗ (L ∗ = complete black and L ∗ = 100 perfect white), a ∗ (−a ∗ = green-
ness and +a ∗ = redness) and b∗ (−b ∗ = blueness and +b ∗ =
yellowness) values were calculated [24].
Chroma values (C) that were near zero were interpreted to indicate
subdued colors, whereas high chroma values were interpreted to spec-
ify a more vibrant color. Browning index and chroma were measured by
the following formula [25].
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
Chroma ¼ a2 þ b
Browning index
100ðx−0:31Þ
¼ ; where x is obtained using the following formula :
0:17
a þ 1:75L
x¼ 
5:645L þ a −3:012b
2.4.2. Oil and water holding properties
The oil holding capacity (OHC) and water holding capacity (WHC)
were determined as previously described by Nasrin, Noomhorm and
Anal [24]. The solubility index (SI) and swelling power (SP) were
940 A.A. Khoozani et al. / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 130 (2019) 938–946
Fig. 1. Flow chart of green banana flour production by two different drying methods. * WF, wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-dried flour at
80 °C, ODF110, oven-dried flour at 110 °C.
determined according to the method of Nasrin, Noomhorm and Anal
[24]. One gram aliquots of banana sample were dispersed in either
50 mL of distilled water to determine the WHC, or 50 mL of canola
oil to measure the OHC in previously weighed centrifuge tubes
(NALGENE®). The tubes were capped and placed in a water bath at
various temperatures (40 °C, 60 °C and 80 °C) for 30 min with inter-
mittent stirring. The tubes were then cooled to room temperature
and then centrifuged at 1500g for 20 min. The OHC was calculated
as g of oil per g of dried flour. The supernatant generated from the
centrifugation step in the WHC measurement was dried at 105 °C
for 5 h to determine the SI (g/100 g). The paste was weighed and
then dried for 5 h at 100 °C. The WHC (g/g) and SP (g/g) were deter-
mined according to the following formula [26]:
WHC = (W3 − W4)/W4, where W3 and W4 are the weights of wet
residue and dry residue, respectively.
SI ¼ W
W1  100, where W1 and W2 are the weights of the dry sample
2
itself and the dry sample in supernatant, respectively.
W3
SP ¼
W4
For determination of emulsion activity (EA), a mixture consisting of
10 mL of distilled water, 10 mL of soybean oil and 1 g of the sample was
put in a calibrated centrifuge tube. After centrifugation at 1500g for
5 min, the ratio of the height of emulsion layer to the total height of
the mixture in the tube was recorded as EA percentage [27].
After keeping the emulsion at 80 °C for 30 min in a heated water-
bath, the tubes were cooled down with cold tap water and then centri-
fuged at 1500g for 15 min. The emulsion stability (ES) was calculated as
 A.A. Khoozani et al. / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 130 (2019) 938–946
the ratio of the height of the emulsified layer compared to the total
height of the mixture in the tube [27].
2.5. Relative crystallinity
An X-Ray diffractometer (Bruker Model D8 Discover, Billerica, USA)
was set up with parameters of 30 mA and 40 kV, a diffraction angle (2θ)
range of 5–40°, a 0.03° step size and measuring time of 15 s, according to
the method reported by Campuzano, Rosell and Cornejo [3]. The relative
crystallinity (RC) was calculated according to the following equation:
RCð%Þ ¼ ðAcþAa
Ac
Þ  100, where Aa is the amorphous area and Ac is the
crystalline area. These areas were quantified using the software
Origin®2017 (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, USA).
2.6. Starch analysis
2.6.1. Resistant starch
The RS content was determined according to the methodology of
AOAC 2002.02, using a Megazyme kit (Resistant starch assay kit;
Megazyme International, Wicklow, Ireland) according to the manufac-
turer guidelines. The samples were incubated in a shaking water bath
with two enzymes, pancreatic α-amylase and amyloglucosidase
(AMG) for 16 h at 37 °C in order to achieve complete hydrolysis of the
non-resistant starch. After centrifugation, the pellet was washed with
ethanol (50% v/v) and the supernatant was decanted. The RS in the pel-
let was dissolved in 2 M KOH by vigorously stirring in an ice-water bath
for 20 min. The starch was quantitatively hydrolyzed to glucose with
AMG and then the glucose determined using a glucose oxidase/peroxi-
dase reagent (GOPOD) and RS was calculated as mg of glucose × 0.9 (as
the conversion factor).
2.6.2. Total starch
The total starch content was assessed according to the AOAC method
996.11 using a kit (total starch assay kit; Megazyme International,
Wicklow, Ireland). The principle of the method involves the hydrolysis
of starch using a thermostable α-amylase into soluble branched and un-
branched maltodextrins, according to the method of Moongngarm,
Tiboonbun, Sanpong, Sriwong, Phiewtong, Prakitrum and Huychan [8].
Digestible starch (DS) was determined by pooling and washing the su-
pernatant, adjusting the volume to 100 mL, and measuring the D-
glucose content with GOPOD. RS was subtracted from TS to determine
DS.
2.6.3. Amylose and amylopectin
The amylose content was quantified using a commercial kit (amy-
lose/amylopectin kit; Megazyme International, Wicklow, Ireland)
based on the separation of amylose and amylopectin and precipitation
of amylopectin with the addition of concanavalin-A (Con A) and remov-
ing it by centrifugation.
2.7. Thermal properties
Starch gelatinization temperature was examined by differential
scanning calorimetry (Diamond DSC, Perkin Elmer, Connecticut, USA),
using an instrument equipped with an intercooler unit (Perkin Elmer,
Model 2P, USA.), with nitrogen as the purge gas. Based on the method
of Tribess, Hernández-Uribe, Méndez-Montealvo, Menezes, Bello-
Perez and Tadini [28], approximately 2 mg (db) of the sample was accu-
rately weighed in an aluminum pan and 7 μL of deionized water was
added. After tightly sealing the pans and maintaining them at room
temperature for an hour, the samples were exposed to a temperature
gradient from 24 °C to 120 °C at a rate of 10 °C min−1. The gelatiniza-
tion/peak temperature (Tp), onset temperature (T0) and transition en-
thalpy (ΔH) and gelatinization range (R) were obtained directly from
the data curves using the Pyris® manager software.
941
2.8. Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed by Minitab® program version 16.
After confirming that the data were normally distributed, the ANOVA
test was applied to assess the significance of the differences amongst
the treatments for each variable. The correlation between the variables
was determined using Pearson's correlation. The differences amongst
the means were resolved using Tukey's test. The significance level was
set at P-value b 0.05, with a confidence interval of 95%. All the tests
were performed in triplicates.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Physicochemical properties
The physicochemical characteristics and firmness of green bananas
are presented in Table 1 compared to data reported by Tribess,
Hernández-Uribe, Méndez-Montealvo, Menezes, Bello-Perez and Tadini
[28] and Abbas, Saifullah and Azhar [26]. The results in Table 1 suggests
that the banana samples used for GBF production was at the first stage
of ripeness.
3.1.1. Proximate composition
The composition of GBF flour samples compared to the reference
control (WF) is shown in Table 2. Compared to WF, all GBF samples re-
gardless of drying method showed significantly lower moisture content
(MC), aw, protein content and lipid content values, and significantly
higher ash and carbohydrate contents (P-value b 0.05). This behavior
was also reported in a report on GBPF [29]. The lower water content
in all GBF samples indicated better stability and longer shelf life due to
the lower potential for microbial growth (aw b 0.4) and better stability
against physical and chemical reactions. Amongst the GBF samples, as
the drying temperature increased above 50 °C, a substantial change in
water content was observed (P-value b 0.05), which may be related to
the higher rate of drying compared to others [30]. The FDF samples
had the same carbohydrates, lipid, protein and ash contents found in
oven-dried samples. However, the FDF samples had higher moisture
content than the ODF80 and ODF110 (P-value b 0.05) and was not dif-
ferent from ODF50 (Table 2).
As green bananas have been considered as valuable fruits due to
their abundance in minerals, taking advantage of the minerals in the
BPe also resulted in higher amount of ash compared to peeled green ba-
nana flour [11]. The results indicated that the carbohydrates content
was over 80% of the GBF (g/100 g db), which was similarly found by
Bezerra, Amante, de Oliveira, Rodrigues and da Silva [29] who investi-
gated on GBPF. The inclusion of the peel in addition to the pulp could
lead to a greater amount of RS2 and RS3. Overall, the effect of drying
methods on the composition of GBF was not statistically significant
(P-value N 0.05).
3.1.2. Color
The differences in color parameters of GBF samples and WF are
shown in Table 3. The results showed that FDF had a light green bright
Table 1
Physicochemical properties and firmness of green banana compared to previous findings.
Banana Data from literaturea Current
characteristics findings
First ripening Second ripening
stage stage
pH 5.3 ± 0.1 4.8 ± 0.1 5.3 ± 0.1
Soluble solids (°Brix) 5±2 7±1 4.2 ± 1.0
Total solids (g/100 g) NR NR 30.7 ± 2.3
Firmness (N) 26 ± 6 14 ± 2 26.8 ± 3.0
Titratable acidity 0.24 ± 0.03 0.44 ± 0.03 0.32 ± 0.07
Mean values ± SD of triplicate determinations. NR, not reported.
a
Tribess, Hernández-Uribe, Méndez-Montealvo, Menezes, Bello-Perez and Tadini [28].
942 A.A. Khoozani et al. / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 130 (2019) 938–946

Table 2 Table 4
The composition of green banana flour and wheat flour samples (db g/100 g). Hydration properties of green banana flour and wheat flour.

Sample Moisture Water Ash Protein Lipid Carbohydrate T WF FDF ODF50 ODF80 ODF110 SEM
content activity
WHC40 1.97c 3.58c 3.01a 3.00ba 3.06a 0.74
WF 9.47a 0.64a 2.83a 9.78a 1.24a 76.68b WHC60 4.71b 5.23b 4.31cb 4.86dc 3.90c 0.63
FDF 5.27b 0.24c 5.21bc 3.97b 0.92b 84.61a WHC80 7.87ba 9.62a 7.61b 7.64c 7.07c 0.71
ODF50 5.09bc 0.25c 5.19b 4.17b 0.93b 84.62a OHC40 2.74cb 5.81b 2.77cb 2.70dc 2.49c 0.68
ODF80 4.56d 0.34bc 5.21bc 4.13b 0.93b 85.14a OHC60 2.54c 5.91b 2.77cb 2.76dc 2.53c 0.87
ODF110 4.46d 0.39b 5.24bc 4.14b 0.93b 85.26a OHC80 2.34c 5.9a 2.92a 2.74dc 2.47c 0.62
SEM 0.12 0.23 0.61 0.13 0.26 0.71 SI40 0.06c 0.12c 0.14b 0.19cb 0.18ba 0.54
SI60 0.08c 0.13c 0.14b 0.19cb 0.18ba 0.75
Mean values of triplicate determinations. Mean values in the same column followed by
SI80 0.16c 0.14d 0.17cb 0.20b 0.20a 0.78
different letters are significantly different (P-value b 0.05). SEM, Standard Error of Mean.
SP40 3.28c 5.00cb 4.64b 4.65c 4.58b 0.61
WF, wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-
SP60 6.24cb 5.96d 6.02cb 6.77b 5.70b 0.88
dried flour at 80 °C, ODF110, oven-dried flour at 110 °C.
SP80 10.73b 11.75b 10.31cb 10.63c 9.93c 0.70

flour; with the highest values for lightness, yellowness and chroma
amongst the GBF samples. Increasing the temperature resulted in a
darker color amongst oven dried samples (P b 0.05). The same trend
was observed by previous researchers in GBPF [17,31,32]. The degrada-
tion of chlorophyll, which is sensitive to oxygen, heat and pH, produces
pheophytin and pheophorbide which accounts for the green–brown
color [32]. Moreover, the high amount of starch and protein along
with the high temperatures may have resulted in the partial Maillard re-
action [33]. Similarly, Yangilar [17] stated that FDF had a greener color
than spray dried banana pulp flour. The degree of color saturation
(chroma) was notably higher in FDF compared to oven dried GBF and
WF (P-value b 0.05) in the current study, which also corresponds with
Aziah and Komathi [34] findings on unpeeled pumpkin four. Compared
to the spouted bed drying method, GBF obtained from freeze-drying
and all oven air-drying methods were darker in color [19]. Also, it was
reported that GBF made from BPe had shown a darker color when pro-
duced by microwave drying and freeze-drying, respectively [12,15]. Ac-
cording to Jeet, Immanuel and Prakash [35], the bright color of flour
could be more acceptable for the consumer. Yet, the incorporation of
flour as an ingredient into food products could eventually affect the
color of the flour. In general, it seems that more starch would be pre-
served in FDF and ODF50 compared to other samples.
3.2. Hydration properties
As shown in Table 4, as the temperature increased, the mean value of
WHC increased significantly in all GBF and control samples (P-value b
0.05). At 40 °C, all GBF samples absorbed more water than WF, and
the FDF samples showed the highest significant value (P-value b 0.05).
Similar trends amongst the samples were observed at higher tempera-
tures with the ODF110 values had lower values than WF at 60 °C and
80 °C. While WHC could be related to the physical status of amylose
[36], the amount of insoluble dietary fibers, protein and particle porosity
of the flour could also play an important role in water absorption
[17,24].
Increasing the temperature results in protein denaturation and
starch gelatinization. This may lead to greater water absorption due to
the availability of hydroxyl (OH) groups [37]. According to Alkarkhi,
Mean values of triplicate determinations. Mean values in the same line followed by differ-
ent letters are significantly different (P-value b 0.05). SEM, Standard Error of Mean. WHC,
water holding capacity. OHC, oil holding capacity. SI, solubility index. SP, swelling power.
WF, wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-
dried flour at 80 °C, ODF110, oven-dried flour at 110 °C.
Ramli, Yong and Easa [38], the release of amylose into water during
heating, occurs more in pulp flour than peel flour. Compared to other
findings, the current results showed higher WHC for FDF than those re-
ported by previous findings [9,17]. High WHC indicates the capability of
FDF to be used as a thickener in semi-liquid and liquid foods [26]. Also,
Grigelmo-Miguel, Gorinstein and Martín-Belloso [39] stated the synere-
sis in food can also be controlled by adding flour with high WHC due to
the increment in expansibility of starch matrix.
The OHC of flour relates to the hydrophobic character of starch: the
higher the OHC, the higher the EA [27]. In other words, stabilization of
food systems with high fat content, such as in bakery products, can be
easily achieved by emulsifiers [40]. By promoting the formation of
starch-protein complex and strengthening the gluten-gluten interac-
tion, emulsifiers can improve the aeration in bakery products [34]. The
results of this study specified a substantial increase in OHC for FDF sam-
ple at all temperatures compared to the control and other GBF (P-value
b 0.05). Comparing results at 80 °C showed a significant increase in OHC
of ODF50, which means it can be considered as an emulsifier compared
to the control and other GBF samples. However, ODF50 showed signifi-
cantly lower values for OHC compared to FDF. The current results for
FDF were higher than those reported for green banana pulp flour
(GBPF) [17,27], mango peel flour [41] and citrus peel flour [42]. The
OHC found in FDF is almost equals to the OHC content of Balady flat
bread which contained GBPeF [16] and unripe plantain peel flour [37].
It has been previously stated that the amylose-lipid complex forma-
tion, which can be formed during heating at above gelatinization tem-
peratures, produces RS5 which is resistant to hydrolysis formulation
[43]. As a result, FDF could increase the RS content, and also be used
as an alternative emulsifying agent in food. The results of the emulsify-
ing properties were correlated with OHC properties (r N 0.92, P-value b
0.05). The ES of different samples ranged between 30.54% and 36.47%,
where ODF110 had the lowest stability and ODF50 showed the highest
stability (P-value b 0.05) as shown in Table 5. However, the ES values

Table 3 Table 5
Color analyses of green banana flour and wheat flour. Emulsifying properties of green banana flour and wheat flour.

Sample L* a* b* Browning Index Chroma Sample Emulsion activity Emulsion stability

WF 66.69e 0.87b 11.82a 20.05a 11.85a WF 32.61b 9.69e

FDF 59.72d −0.75a 15.55d 28.45b 15.57e FDF 32.59b 28.99a
ODF50 51.46c 2.08c 14.32c 33.67c 14.47d ODF50 36.47a 19.21d
ODF80 46.55b 2.55d 12.13b 34.93cd 12.40b ODF80 32.65b 23.15c
ODF110 42.42a 2.97de 13.63c 42.90d 13.94c ODF110 30.54c 25.36b
SEM 0.76 0.43 0.63 0.42 0.53 SEM 0.17 0.16

Mean values of triplicate determinations. Mean values in the same column followed by Mean values of triplicate determinations. Mean values in the same column followed by
different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05). SEM, Standard Error of Mean. WF, different letters are significantly different (P-value b 0.05). SEM, Standard Error of Mean.
wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-dried WF, wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-
flour at 80 °C, ODF110, oven-dried flour at 110 °C. dried flour at 80 °C, ODF110, oven-dried flour at 110 °C.
 A.A. Khoozani et al. / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 130 (2019) 938–946
varied from 9.69% to 28.99% for WF and FDF, respectively. Consequently,
FDF appears to act as an emulsifier as it has the highest stability amongst
whole green banana flours as well as WF.
The SI is related to the soluble solid contents in dried flour, while the
SP is an index that relates to the strength of the starch granule to stay
intact during high cooking temperatures [29]. The SI and SP specify
the range of interaction within the amorphous (amylopectin) and crys-
talline (amylose) areas of starch molecule together with the length of
branches, degree of branching, and formation of the molecules [24]. As
mentioned earlier, an increase in SI and SP brings about gelatinization,
which is the basis for making pre-cooked starchy foods, especially in
bakeries [44].
The obtained results showed that all GBF samples had higher SI com-
pared to WF, and this increase was significant for ODF80 and ODF110
(P-value b 0.05). However, the increment in SI was not as high as
GBPF [3,29,45], but greater than in green banana peel flour (GBPeF)
[24,46]. The same pattern was observed for SP as well; considering
FDF had a more stable starch structure than other GBFs as temperature
increases. As Campuzano, Rosell and Cornejo [3] reported, the ripening
stage is positively correlated with SI. By increasing the temperature over
the gelatinization temperature (N65 °C), starch degradation and sugar
release lead to an increase in both SI and SP.
The distribution of amylopectin and amylose in starch granule was
suggested as a factor that influenced the SI value by Seguchi, Tabara,
Iseki, Takeuchi and Nakamura [47]. As amylose plays a key role in main-
taining the starch structure, the higher amylose content could eventu-
ally create a more compact starch granule. At temperatures rose above
65 °C, both the SI and SP were dramatically increased (P-value b 0.05).
As the hydrogen bonds break, the water molecules bind to the exposed
OH groups and the granule expands and exudes amylose, meaning it
would be more difficult for starch to overflow outside of the granules
[45]. According to Ratnayake, Hoover and Warkentin [46], green banana
starches compared to those of corn, chayote and cassava, swell more
slowly, which may signify that a strong micellar arrangement needs to
be broken. In consequence, incorporation of the peel into the pulp
flour has improved the SI and SP of the whole GBF.
3.3. Starch analysis
Starch is classified into two groups based on its digestibility: digest-
ible starch (comprises of slow and rapidly digestible starches) and resis-
tant starch [48]. In the whole green banana, 70–80% of the dry weight
contributes to starch, considering that the peel contains up to 12% of
the total amount of starch [3]. It has been previously described that
the RS type in green banana is type two, which is resistant to hydrolysis
[49]. However, during the production of GBF the amount of RS2 de-
creases due to gelatinization, especially in higher temperature [23].
Fig. 2. Starch analysis of green banana flour and wheat flour. * WF, wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-dried flour at 80 °C, ODF110, oven-
dried flour at 110 °C.
943
That fact signifies the importance of choosing the right processing con-
dition together with proper pre-treatments.
The present results corroborate the previous findings about the de-
structive effect of drying at higher temperatures (Fig. 2). Interestingly,
ODF50 displayed similar values to FDF, which had the highest amount
of RS. Although the difference between FDF and ODF50 samples was sig-
nificant (P-value b 0.05), the RS content was well preserved during the
ODF50 heat-treated flour compared to ODF80 and ODF110.
More than half of the total starch in FDF and ODF50 was RS. While
the digestible starch represented a range between 17% and 36% dry
weight base (db) in GBF samples, the WF contained the highest amount
of available starch. Also, the results indicated that drying temperatures
over 80 °C did not have a significant effect on RS content reduction (P-
value N 0.05).
Drying conditions at temperatures below 60 °C, the RS content of
FDF and ODF50 were higher than the reported values for GBPF
[18,19,30] and only lower than the findings of Surendra Babu,
Mahalakshmi and Parimalavalli [50], who also worked on GBPF,
which might be due to the different variety (Monthan) used in
their study. Considering the dramatic increase in the levels of di-
gestible starch in both ODF80 and ODF110, it can be suggested
that retrogradation could be a reason for the disruption of the starch
molecule, precisely amylose.
As shown in Fig. 3, the amount of amylose was decreased dramati-
cally by the application of heat treatment. Contrarily, during the
freeze-drying process the amylose crystallites remained nearer to the
double amount compared to other GBF samples and WF. The linear
structure of amylose (α-1 → 4) is responsible for the RS2 structure,
whereas amylopectin is branched and its chains are connected through
(α-1 → 6) bonds to form a composite structure [51]. Multiple significant
correlations were found between amylose and RS (r N 0.91, P-value b
0.01) as well as TS (r N 0.89, P = 0.05), and WHC (r N 0.90, P = 0.05) Ac-
cording to Eshak [16], higher amount of amylose led to higher a OHC,
which was seen in the current study. This, brings about the possibility
of amylose-lipid complex that has been shown is resistant against α-
amylase (RS5). The FDF results were higher than those found in GBPF
reported by Bi, Zhang, Jiang, Hong, Gu, Cheng, Li and Li [49] but almost
the same for ODF50 [31,52] and even more than culled plantain starch
[24]. As the amount of RS found in FDF and OFD50 were higher than
other samples, it may be advisable for nutritional purposes to use RS
as a functional ingredient, as it contributes to the prevention the colo-
rectal cancer [51,53].
3.4. Relative crystallinity
The XRD patterns of starches are categorized into three types: A, B
and C. A-type starches possess surface pores and channels which are
944 A.A. Khoozani et al. / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 130 (2019) 938–946

Fig. 3. Amylose and Amylopectin content of green banana flour and wheat flour. * WF, wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-dried flour at 80 °C,
ODF110, oven-dried flour at 110 °C.

slowly digestible, while C-type, can be easily lost in foods due to the hy-
drothermal procedures such as boiling, cooking and baking which
brings about complete or partial starch gelatinization [54]. However,
B-type starches do not have pores in their structure and are inherently
resistant to digestion [55]. In green banana, the abundance of B-type
makes it valuable in terms of health benefits [52].
The XRD patterns of GBF different samples and WF are shown in
Fig. 4. Three prominent peaks were detected by diffractogram within
the diffraction angles of 15° and 25°, which relates to B-type crystallinity
[55]. While WF showed the least amount of crystallinity, the increased
drying temperature resulted in the disruption of the starch crystalline
section. FDF had 58.34% crystallinity, which was the greatest amongst
the GBF samples (P b 0.05). These results explained the existing signif-
icant correlation between the obtained RS amount and the effect of tem-
perature (r N 0.91, P = 0.05). These results also confirmed that
destroying the granular crystalline structure of starch was associated
with decreasing in the amount of RS. This relation was presented by
Zhang and Hamaker [56] who investigated the starch properties in
green banana. The current findings suggest a greater crystallinity in
FDF compared to some studies on GBPF obtained from different culti-
vars [49]. Furthermore, Wang, Huang and Chen [11] reported the effect
of cultivar on the percentage of crystallinity in this order: Pisan Awak N
Bluggoe N Cavendish N Pisang.
Most of the RS found in GBF is type two [4]. The crystalline area is
structurally tight and orderly in a way that makes it hard for it to be
eroded by acids and enzymes, whereas the non-crystalline area (amor-
phous part) can be easily degraded [27,28]. In this study, all heat-treated
flours showed that crystallinity decreased along with the amylose
content.
3.5. Thermal properties
Thermal properties of the whole GBF and WF are presented in
Table 6. All of the thermal variables, except for gelatinization range,
were significantly higher in GBF samples than the control (P-value b
0.05). Due to the presence of RS in the GBF samples, a higher Tp than
WF was found, ranging from 74.99 °C to 75.9 °C. This significant differ-
ence could be related to the high amount of DF in pulp, and especially

Sample Crystallinity SEM

WF 41.16e 1.23
FDF 58.34 a
1.34
ODF50 48.39b 1.19
ODF80 45.64 c
1.41
ODF110
Intensity

43.37d 1.49

ODF110
ODF80
ODF50
FDF
WF

5 8 12 15 18 22 25 28 31 35
2θ (degrees)

Fig. 4. X-Ray diffraction patterns of banana flours and wheat flour. * WF, wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-dried flour at 80 °C, ODF110,
oven-dried flour at 110 °C.
 A.A. Khoozani et al. / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 130 (2019) 938–946 945

Table 6 heat-treated sample (i.e. FDF). Future studies should focus on the parti-
Thermal properties of green banana flour samples and wheat flour. cle size distribution, starch granule microstructure and rheological
Sample Start Onset Maximum Stop Delta H R (°C) properties of the whole green banana flour to understand their potential
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (J/g) behavior during packaging, transportation and use in food systems.
WF 54.7d 56.66d 62.62c 69.42d 5.41e 11.95a
FDF 64.18c 71.08c 74.99b 90.64a 23.16a 8.02b
Conflict of interest
ODF50 67.73ab 73.45a 75.9a 85.51a 19.48b 4.69d
ODF80 66.69b 71.03c 74.60b 81.61c 10.31d 6.88c
ODF110 68.54a 72.9b 75.86a 84.37b 11.7c 5.92cd The authors declare that they do not have any conflict of interest.
SEM 0.63 0.75 0.85 0.61 0.81 0.59

Mean values of triplicate determinations. Mean values in the same column followed by
different letters are significantly different (P-value b 0.05). SEM, Standard Error of Mean.
WF, wheat flour, FDF, freeze dried flour, ODF50, oven-dried flour at 50 °C, ODF80, oven-
dried flour at 80 °C, ODF110, oven-dried flour at 110 °C.
peel [4]. The values of Tp found in this study were higher than those
found in corn starch (67.88 °C) [57], potato (64.48 °C) [58] and cassava
(71.08 °C) [59]. This trend was similar in T0. Almost the same results
were reported in previous studies with different banana varieties but
same drying conditions [60,61], except for Musa paradisiaca Macho,
which showed a Tp value of 77 °C [62]; and the freeze-drying method
exhibited a higher Tp than other methods such as ultrasound treatment
[20] and pulsed-fluidized bed agglomeration [28].
The required energy for breaking the molecular interactions within
the starch structure during gelatinization defines the ΔH [62]. Lower
values of ΔH would indicate either a fractional melting of amylopectin
branches or a possible variance in the crystals' stability related to the
size of the starch granules [61]. For that reason, the control samples
had the least amount of ΔH (5.41 J/g), while FDF and ODF50 showed a
dramatically higher temperature amongst GBF samples. Also, as seen
in Table 6, the R value of WF was the highest (11.95 °C), while ODF50
represented the smallest gelatinization range amongst all GBF samples.
This can be explained by the presence of the large amount of amylose
per unit mass in flour.
Compared to the results acquired from the oven drying for produc-
ing GBPF and GBPeF [58,63], the freeze-dried sample and ODF50 pre-
sented higher values which means that these flours can potentially be
useful in products which delayed pasting is favorable. Also, the current
results suggest that the incorporation of peel flour into pulp flour may
increase the gelatinization temperature positively.
4. Conclusion
Considering that the largest banana producers are developing coun-
tries and that thermal processing is the most common preservation
treatment, optimizing a feasible drying method that has least negative
effects on green banana components, especially its RS2 content, is very
useful for streamlining production of banana flour. Further, banana
peel is rich in dietary fibers, minerals and RS2 and the production of
whole green banana flour was made from whole green banana can
add nutritional and economic incentives to process. The present study
report for the first time, investigated the effects of drying conditions
on the properties of whole green banana flour.
Color analysis showed that FDF had a bright greenish-like flour with
the closest browning index to wheat flour and the ODF50 treatment
may contribute to a better consumer acceptancy amongst heat-treated
green banana samples. The emulsifying properties showed that FDF
and ODF50 can act as an emulsifier in oil-containing food products
and they are better than ODF80 and ODF110 samples. Additionally,
the high WHC of all GBF samples, especially the FDF, suggests that
they can be applied in food products as a thickening agent.
High drying temperatures decreased the percentage of RS starch and
increased the percentage of digestible starch. These findings, which
were in accordance to high crystallinity and gelatinization temperature
of starch, showed that 50 °C is the best temperature for hot-air oven
drying that can be applied with the least possible effect on RS content.
Further, the ODF50 samples were the closest properties to the non-
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the University of
Otago for their support of this study.
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