Heriot -Watt University

Heriot-Watt
INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Possible
Exam Questions

Question: Chapter 2 – Section 3

z Q. Explain briefly what is meant by:
– (a) a normal pressured reservoir, and
– (b) an overpressured reservoir?

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Solution: Chapter 2 – Section 3

Question: Chapter 2 – Section 3

z With the aid of a diagram, comment on the fluid

pressures gradients in an oil reservoir with a gas
cap with a supporting aquifer for a normally
pressured reservoir?
z Illustrate the gradient for an overpressured
reservoir?

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 Solution: Chapter 2 – Section 3
Pressure
0

⎛ dP ⎞
⎛ dP ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.45 psi / ft
⎜ ⎟ gas = 0.08 psi / ft ⎝ dD ⎠ water
⎝ dD ⎠
Depth

Pressure
⎛ dP ⎞ 0
⎜ ⎟ = 0.35 psi / ft
⎝ dD ⎠oil
⎛ dP ⎞
⎜ ⎟ gas = 0.08 psi / ft
⎝ dD ⎠

Depth
⎛ dP ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.35 psi / ft
⎛ dP ⎞ ⎝ dD ⎠oil
⎜ ⎟ = 0.45 psi / ft
⎝ dD ⎠ water

Question: Chapter 3 – Section 4

z Explain briefly what you understand by:

– (a) The compositional model description for the
characterization of a reservoir fluid?
– (b) The black oil model description for the
characterization of a reservoir fluid?

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Solution: Chapter 3 – Section 4

Question: Chapter 4 – Section 3

z Methane is a significant component in reservoir
fluids.
z Using a sketch for a binary of methane and n-
decane (C10), illustrate the impact of methane on
the critical point loci of C1-C10 binary mixtures?
z What is the significant of this diagram?

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 Solution: Chapter 4 – Section 3

z Mixture of methane
and n-octane has a
critical point much
greater than pure
component values.
z Methane will tend to
make the mixtures to
be more volatile, i.e. of
lower Tc and higher
Pc.

Question: Chapter 4 – Section 5

z Draw a pressure temperature diagram of
retrograde-gas condensate fluid, indicating the
following key features:
– (a) Bubble point and dew point lines,
– (b) Critical point,
– (c) Cricondentherm,
– (d) Isovol lines of constant proportion of gas-
liquid,
– (e) Region of retrograde condensation?
z What is gas cycling and why in some cases is it
used?

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Solution: Chapter 4 – Section 5

Solution: Chapter 4 – Section 5

z Gas Cycling is the reinjection of separated gas

back into the reservoir – in some cases with gases
from other near reservoirs.
z It is used to keep the reservoir above the dew point
line – preventing condensation in the reservoir.

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Question: Chapter 6 – Section 3
z Define:
– Oil FVF
– Total FVF
– Solution GOR

S 3.2.1-R 4

Solution: Chapter 6 – Section 3

Above bubble point as
Oil FVF: pressure reduces oil expands
due to compressibility.

Below bubble point oil

shrinks as a result of
gas coming out of
solution.

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 Solution: Chapter 6 – Section 3
Total FVF:

B t = B o + B g ( R sb − R s )

Above Pb, Bt = Bo

Solution: Chapter 6 – Section 3

Gas Solubility
At bubble point Above bubble point
All gas in solution All gas in solution

Below bubble point

Free gas and solution gas

At surface conditions
No gas in solution

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Question: Chapter 6 – Section 9
z The dew point pressure of a condensate gas field is
6250 psia. The initial reservoir conditions are 240°F
and 8500 psia. When the reservoir was initially tested,
a condensate to gas ratio of 80 stb per million scf of
gas was obtained. The produced gas and condensate
composition were as follows:

S9 –R5

Question: Chapter 6 – Section 9

z The reservoir pore volume is considered to be 5x1011
ft3 with Swc = 0.17.
z Calculate the condensate fluids produced (stb) and the
gas produced (scf) in producing the reservoir down to a
pressure of 6750 psia.

S9 –R5

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Solution: Chapter 6 – Section 9

S9 –R5

z The

0.9809 = 0.07*11.01+0.21 0.8159 = 9.8013/12.0127

S9 –R5

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Possible Exam Questions
z The

S9 –R5

Possible Exam Questions

z The

S9 –R5

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Question 2: Chapter 6 – Section 9

S9 –R5

Question 2: Chapter 6 – Section 9

S9 –R5

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Question 3: Chapter 6 – Section 9

S9 –R5

Question 3: Chapter 6 – Section 9

S9 –R5

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 Question: Chapter 7 – Section 4

z For a low permeability rock, the measured permeability

of the rock, using gas as the fluid is more than it is using
a liquid. Comment briefly on this and how the
permeability of a rock can be obtained using a gas as
the fluid.

Solution: Chapter 7 – Section 4

z Measurements on gas compared to liquid give higher values
than the liquid for low perm rocks.
z The phenomena is attributed to Klinkenberg.
z Klinkenberg effect is due to the slippage of gas molecules
along grain surfaces.
z Occurs when the diameter of the pore throat approaches
mean free path of the gas.
z Darcy’s law assumes laminar flow and viscous theory
specifies zero velocity at the boundary.
z Darcy’s law is not valid when mean free path approaches
diameter of pore.

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 Solution: Chapter 7 – Section 4

z Smaller the molecule ,

the larger the effect
z Gas permeabilty is
plotted versus
reciprocal mean
pressure

Question 2: Chapter 7 – Section 4

z The system below represents the common arrangement for

measuring the permeability of the core plug using a gas.

z Derive an equation to calculate the gas permeabilities of a rock

using the above system?

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Solution: Chapter 7 – Section 4

Flow rate, Qb, measured at ambient pressure, Pb

Q in the core at P,
For ideal gas:

Q b Pb
QP = Q b Pb Q=
P

Solution: Chapter 7 – Section 4

kA ∆P
Q=−
µ dx

Q b Pb kA ∆P L
kA
P2

=− Q b Pb ∫ dx = − ∫ PdP
P µ dx o
µ P1

Q b Pb ( L − 0 ) = −
(
kA P2 − P1
2 2
) Qb =
(
kA P1 − P2
2 2
)
µ 2 2µLPb

2µQ b Pb L
k=
(
A P1 − P2
2 2
)

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 Question: Chapter 7 – Section 5

z Draw a graphical, normalized, representation of the

results would expect to see for sandstones with high,
medium, and low permeabilityies at ambient
conditions?

Solution: Chapter 7 – Section 5

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 Question - Solution: Chapter 7 – Section 7

z In the context of Pc define the

FWL?

z It is the shallowest depth in the

reservoir at which Sw=100% and
Pc =0.
z It lies below the OWC.

Question – Solution : Chapter 7 – Section 7

z Explain briefly why, because of Pc, it is possible to have Sw of

large values, up to 100%, above the OWC and above layers with
lower Sw?

z Each rock type has a different Pc curve.

z At the same level in the reservoir the Pc curve of a lower quality
reservoir rock shows higher Sw than a higher quality reservoir
rock.
z Then it is possible to have Sw of large values, up to 100%, above
the OWC and above layers with lower Sw, when we have
reservoir layers of lower rock quality on top of layers of good rock
quality.

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 Question – Solution : Chapter 7 – Section 8

z Explain briefly the reason for significant oil saturation

remaining in the water swept zones of a reservoir after
natural water drive or water injection?
z As water rises capillary forces
move ahead of natural level,
more in narrow pores than in
larger pores. The capillary
forces then isolate oil in larger
pore which is then held by
capillary forces in the swept
position of the reservoir.

Question – Solution : Chapter 8 – Section 4

z Briefly explain how the permeability sensitivity of rocks to

stress can be measured in the lab?

z It could be measured in the lab by using permeability

measurement tools with simulating stresses.
z This is done by using high pressure core holder for biaxial
loading.
z Use tubes running parallel along confining rubber sleave that
are pressured to simulate the stress distribution of interest.

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 Question – Solution : Chapter 8 – Section 6

List the rock properties that should be determined in

a rock-mechanical oriented, special core analysis
programme?

z Special Core Analysis

Ê Detailed mineral description
Ê Relative permeability studies
Ê steady state/ unsteady state
Ê Capillary pressure
Ê Resistivity measurements
Ê Studies under reservoir conditions

Question 2: Chapter 8 – Section 6

z Core samples have been obtained from a well and air-mercury capillary
pressure curves generated for an oil reservoir system.
z The lowest limit of 100% Sw was found at the bottom of the well in rock
type A as shown in the following figure.
– (a) determine the FWL and indicate it on the well diagram?
– (b) Construct the Sw profile in the space provided?
– (c) Calculate the oil-in-place per unit cross-section over the
thickness of the reservoir?
z Data:
– Specific gravity of Water = 1.03
– Specific gravity of oil = 0.80
– Density of water = 62.4 lb/ft3
– PcAir-Hg = 10 PcW-O
– Oil FVF = 1.22 bbl/stb

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Question 2: Chapter 8 – Section 6

S7.2 – R5

Solution 2: Chapter 8 – Section 6

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Solution 2: Chapter 8 – Section 6

S7.2 – R5

Solution 2: Chapter 8 – Section 6

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 Question 3: Chapter 8 – Section 6

z Capillary pressure data are obtained from core samples

which represent a small part of the reservoir. Leverett
derived a “J” Function using the Poiseuille equation for
laminar flow:

to relate Pc to permeability and porosity.

z Derive the J Function and comment on one of its limiting
assumptions?

Solution 3: Chapter 8 – Section 6

z Based on flow through a core as represented by a
bundle of capillary tubes.

πr 4 ∆P
Poiseuille's equation q =
8µLcap

nπr 4 ∆P
For n tubes q n =
8µLcap

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 Solution 3: Chapter 8 – Section 6

nπr 2 A
Porosity of bundle of tubes φ =
A

q µ L core Lcore
Permeability k =
A∆ P
Combining equations gives:

8k Lcap Lcap
r2 = is the 'tortuosity' of the bundle of tubes
φ Lcore Lcore

If in the reservoir rock the tortuosity remains constant

then

Solution 3: Chapter 8 – Section 6

8k Lcap
r2 =
φ Lcore k
r = constant
φ
2σCosθ
Substituting in capillary pressure equation Pc =
r
2σCosθ
Pc =
k
constant k
φ Pc
1 φ
= =J
constant σCosθ
Sometimes J function written without σCosθ term

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 Question: Chapter 9 – Section 2
z Derive an equation for the average permeability, resulting
from radial circular flow into a well from layers of different
permeabilities and thicknesses?
z From where would such an average be obtained?

Solution: Chapter 9 – Section 2

z Case of several layers flowing

simultaneously in a well

2πh i k i ( Pe − Pw )
Qi =
r
µ ln e
rw

2πh T k ( Pe − Pw ) 2π ( Pe − Pw )
Q = ∑ Qi = = ( k 1h 1 + k 2 h 2 + k 3 h 3 )
re re
µ ln µ ln
rw rw

k=
∑h k i i The value to be compared
hT through well flow tests

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 Question: Chapter 9 – Section 3
z Explain briefly the importance of characterizing the
permeability variations in a reservoir in relation to the
prediction of the behaviour of natural and injected water
drive systems.
z The answer should be limited to the behaviour in the vertical
plane rather than the areal plane.

Solution: Chapter 9 – Section 3

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 Question: Chapter 10 – Section 3
z Briefly explain the need for the development of
transient flow solutions to the diffusivity equation in
reservoir engineering?

Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 3

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 Question: Chapter 10 – Section 3

Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 3

z Briefly

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 Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 3
z Briefly

S7.2 – R5

Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 3

z Briefly

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 Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 3
z Briefly

Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 3

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 Question: Chapter 10 – Section 3
z Describe the method by which the line source solution may
be adapted to accommodate a zone of reduced permeability
around a wellbore (a skin)

Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 3

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Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 3

Question: Chapter 10 – Section 4

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Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 4

Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 4

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Solution: Chapter 10 – Section 4

Question 2: Chapter 10 – Section 4

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Solution 2: Chapter 10 – Section 4
Possible Exam Questions

S7.2 – R5

Solution 2: Chapter 10 – Section 4

S7.2 – R5

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Solution 2: Chapter 10 – Section 4

Solution 2: Chapter 10 – Section 4

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 Question: Chapter 11 – Section 2
z Describe briefly the drive mechanisms associated with
producing an under-saturated oil reservoir, without a
supporting aquifer, down to a pressure well below the bubble
point.

Solution: Chapter 11 – Section 2

‹ Two stages of drive:
z Above the bubble point: Fluid production is driven by
compressibility drive.

z Effective compressibility of the system:

Ê Oil
Ê Water
Ê Pore space
Ê Compressibility drive

z Below the bubble point: Fluid production is caused by

solution gas drive or dissolved gas drive:
– Expanding gas provides force to drive oil.

37
 Question: Chapter 12 – Section 4

z Derive two equations in terms of composition and

equilibrium ratios to determine the dew point and
bubble pint pressure of a reservoir fluids.
z Explain briefly how the equations are used, when the
temperature of the reservoir and composition of the
fluid are known.

Solution: Chapter 12 – Section 4

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Solution: Chapter 12 – Section 4

Solution: Chapter 12 – Section 4

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 Question 2: Chapter 12 – Section 4

z Derive an equation in terms of equilibrium ratios and

composition to predict liquid and vapour ratios and
compositions resulting from the flash separation of a
reservoir fluid.
z Explain briefly the application of the equation when the
reservoir fluid composition, temperature and the
pressure of separation are known?

Question: Chapter 14 – Section 3

Explain briefly why surface samples from a wet or
condensate reservoir can be unrepresentative if collected
too early after a shut down or major well disturbance. What
suggestions would you give to get more representative
samples?

40
 Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 3
Surface samples from a wet or condensate reservoir can be
unrepresentative if collected too early after a shut down or major well
disturbance, because in these incidents:
– Well acts as a separator
– Liquid rains down & accumulates at bottom of well.
– Pressure builds up in the well & disturbed formation
– Some gas goes back into solution.
– Large variations in compositions of produced fluids.
– Early period lean gas produced. High GOR
– When fluids produced from bottom of well. Liquids much lower
GOR.
– Then fluids from disturbed reservoir zone
– Eventually fluids from undisturbed reservoir

Question: Chapter 14 – Section 6

Explain briefly the three following tests carried out on
reservoir fluid samples in relation to a PVT study, and
comment on their application.
– Relative Volume (Flash Vaporization Test)
– Separator Test
– Differential Test

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Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 6

Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 6

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Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 6

Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 6

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 Question: Chapter 14 – Section 12
Table below gives the results for a volume/ pressure
investigation of a reservoir fluid at reservoir temperature.
The system composition remained constant throughout the
test

Question: Chapter 14 – Section 12

In another test on the fluid a sample of oil at its bubble point
pressure and reservoir temperature in a PVT cell were
passed through a two stage spearator at 100 psig and 75°F
and 0 psig and 60°F. 34 cc of oil were displaced from the PVT
cell and 27.4 cc of oil were collected from the last separator
stage. 4976 cc of gas were collected at standard conditions
during the test.

In a further test the pressure in a PVT cell at reservoir

temperature was reduced in stages and the gas produced at
each stage removed and the remaining oil volume measured.
The totoal gas produced at standard conditions was
recorded and is presented in the table below:

44
 Question: Chapter 14 – Section 12

(a) Determine the bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid at reservoir
temperature.
(b) the oil FVF at 3650 psig
(c) the solution GOR at 3650 psig and 2700 psig
(d) the solution GOR at 1200 psig
(e) the total FVF factors at 3650 psig and 1200 psig.

Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 12

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Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 12

Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 12

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Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 12

Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 12

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Solution: Chapter 14 – Section 12

Question 2: Chapter 14 – Section 12

Similar to Question 1, above

48
Question 2: Chapter 14 – Section 12

Question 2: Chapter 14 – Section 12

49
 Question 2: Chapter 14 – Section 12

Question 3: Chapter 14 – Section 12

A laboratory cell, contained 290 cc of reservoir liquid at its
bubble point of 2100 psia at 145°F. 21cc of Hg were removed
from the cell and the pressure dropped to 1700 psia. Mercury
was then re-injected at constant temperature and pressure
and 0.153 scf of gas was removed leaving 270 cc of liquid in
the cell. The process was repeated reducing the pressure to
14.7 psia and the temperature to 60°F. Then 0.45 scf of gas
was removed and 207.5 cc of liquid remained in the cell.
Determine:
z (i) Bo and Rs at the bubble point?
z (ii) Bo, Bt, Bg, Rs and z at 1,700 psia and 145°F.
z (iii) Bt at 2100 psia and 145°F.

50
 Solution 3: Chapter 14 – Section 12
(i) Bo and Rs at the bubble point?

290 bbl
Bo = = 1 .4
207 .5 stb
(0.153 + 0.45) scf scf
Rsi = = 462
in 3 ft 3 stb stb
207.5cc * * *
2.54 3 cc 12 3 in 3 5.615 ft 3

Solution 3: Chapter 14 – Section 12

(ii) Bo, Bt, Bg, Rs and z at 1,700 psia and 145°F.

270 bbl
Bo = = 1 .3
207 .5 stb
(0.45) scf scf
Rs = 3 3
= 345
in ft stb stb
207.5cc * 3
* 3 3* 3
2.54 cc 12 in 5.615 ft
No data to determine z, so assumed to be equal 1.
zT 1 * (145 + 460 ) bbl
Bg = = 0 .00504 = 0 .0017936
P 1700 stb
bbl scf bbl bbl
Bt = Bo + ( Rsi − Rs ) Bg = 1 .3 + ( 462 − 345 ) * 0 .00179 = 1 .509
stb stb scf stb

51
Solution 3: Chapter 14 – Section 12

(iii) Bt at 2100 psia and 145°F.

290 bbl
Bt = Bo = = 1 .4
207 .5 stb

Question: Chapter 15 – Section 5

52
Solution: Chapter 15 – Section 5

Solution: Chapter 16 – Section 5

53
 Solution: Chapter 16 – Section 5

Solution: Chapter 16 – Section 5

Solution gas drive above bubble point.
z MB equation above bubble point simplifies to:-

⎡ ( B − B oi ) ( c w S wc + c f ) ⎤
N p B o = NB oi ⎢ o + ∆p ⎥
⎣ B oi 1 − S wc ⎦

z No gas cap
z Aquifer small in volume We = Wp =0
z Rs=Rsi=Rp all gas at surface dissolved in oil in reservoir

54
 Solution: Chapter 16 – Section 5
z Oil compressibility - co =
( B o − B oi )
B oi ∆ p
z Replacing oil term in MB equation gives

N p B o = NB
⎡) ( c w S wc + c f ) ⎤ ∆ p
oi ⎢ c o +
( ( )
⎥
⎡ B −cBS + c f ⎤
c ooi =⎢ c o +o w oiwc
N p B o = NB ⎥ ∆p

⎣ 1 − S wc
⎣ B oi ∆ p1 − S wc ⎦
⎦
⎡ c S + c w S wc + c f ⎤
So + Swc = 1 N p B o = NB oi ⎢ o o ⎥ ∆p
⎣ 1 − S wc ⎦
or
N p B o = NB oi c e ∆ p

Solution: Chapter 16 – Section 5

⎡ c S + c w S wc + c f ⎤
N p B o = NB oi ⎢ o o ⎥ ∆p
⎣ 1 − S wc ⎦
or
N p B o = NB oi c e ∆ p

1
( c o So + c w S wc + c f )
1
( coSo + c wSwc + cf )
ce =
ce =
1 − Swc

1 − S wc

ce is the effective saturation weighted compressibility of the reservoir

system
Np B oi
Recovery at bubble point = c e ∆p
N B ob

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 Question 2: Chapter 16 – Section 5

Solution 2: Chapter 16 – Section 5

Table
C

56
 Solution 2: Chapter 16 – Section 5
Table

Solution 2: Chapter 16 – Section 5

Instantaneous Gas- Oil Ratio
B o k eg µ o
R = + Rs
B g k eo µ g
z 1. Above Pb, no free gas.
Keg is zero, R=Rs=Rsi.
z 2. Short time when gas
saturation below critical
value, keg still zero but
R=Rs<Rsi

57
 Solution 2: Chapter 16 – Section 5
Instantaneous Gas- Oil Ratio
B o k eg µ o
R = + R
B g k eo µ g
s

z 2-3. Gas reached critical

saturation, keg increases as
keo decreases. Gas very
mobile compared to oil. Free
gas produced from oil still in
reservoir.
z 3. Maximum GOR value
z 4. Bg is increasing with
decreasing pressure.

Question 3: Chapter 16 – Section 5

58
 Solution 3: Chapter 16 – Section 5
Solution Gas Drive-Tarner’s Method
z Similar approach to Schilthuis procedure
z Above Pb use effective compressibility equation

Np B oi
= c e ∆p
N B ob

z Below bubble point pressure use MB, Instantaneous

GOR and Oil Saturation equations

Solution 3: Chapter 16 – Section 5

z Tarner’s method uses MB equation rearranged to calculate gas
production Gp.
z Procedure is a trial & error approach using independently MB
and Instantaneous GOR eqns.

N ( Bo + ( R si − R s ) Bg − Bob ) − N p ( Bo − R s Bg )
NpR p = = Gp
Bg
z Step1
z 1. Start at bubble point pressure
z 2. Select a future pressure and assume a value of Np at that
pressure. Sometimes express Np as a function of N.
z 3. Solve MB eqn.
eqn. For NpRp, ie.
ie. Gp.

59
 Solution 3: Chapter 16 – Section 5
z 4. Using assumed Np solve oil saturation equation for So.
This enables keg/keo to be determined.

⎛ N ⎞B
So = ⎜ 1 − p ⎟ o (1 − Swc )
⎝ N ⎠ Bob
z 5. Calculate instantaneous GOR. B o k eg µ o
R= + Rs
B g k eo µ g
z 6. Calculate gas produced during pressure drop over
period. R i + R i +1
N p1
2
Ri = instantaneous GOR at start of period
Assumption R vs Np linear
Ri+1 = instantaneous GOR at end of period
Therefore use small pressure
Np1= cumulative oil produced at end of period
drops

Solution 3: Chapter 16 – Section 5

z 6. Total gas produced from MB eqn. and IGOR eqn. Compared
and assumed value of Np adjusted and steps 2 to 6 repeated until
MB and IGOR values for Gp match.
z Step 2
z 1 Second pressure selected and new Np assumed.
z 2. Solve MB for Np2. This is cumulative gas at end of second
pressure.
N ( B o + ( R si − R s ) B g − B ob ) − N p 2 ( B o − R s B g )
G 2 = N p 2 R p 2 − N p1R p1 = − N p1R p1
Bg

z 3. Calculate gas produced during 2nd step by removing from

cumulative gas from step 1.
z 4. With assumed value of Np2 from sat’
sat’n eqn.
eqn. determine So.
z 5. Calculate IGOR

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 Solution 3: Chapter 16 – Section 5
z 6. Calculate gas produced during second step

( R i+1 + R i+ 2 )
2
(N p2 − N p1 ) = G 2

z 7. G2 from MB compared with G2 from IGOR and new assumed

value of Np2 until convergence achieved.
z By plotting these two values vs Np a convergence point can be
determined.
z Further steps as for step 2.

Question: Chapter 17 – Section 1

Water drive reservoirs are said to be rate sensitive. Explain

briefly this statement with respect to different aquifer
characteristics.

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Solution: Chapter 17 – Section 1

Solution: Chapter 17 – Section 1

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 Question: Chapter 17 – Section 3

Explain briefly how the constant terminal pressure solution

of the Hurst and van Everdingen unsteady state theory can
be used to predict water influx into an oil reservoir with a
declining reservoir pressure.

Solution: Chapter 17 – Section 3

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 Solution: Chapter 17 – Section 3

Question 2: Chapter 17 – Section 3

Explain

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Question 2: Chapter 17 – Section 3

Solution 2: Chapter 17 – Section 3

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 Solution 2: Chapter 17 – Section 3
Explain

Solution 2: Chapter 17 – Section 3

66
Question 3: Chapter 17 – Section 3

Question 3: Chapter 17 – Section 3

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Question 3: Chapter 17 – Section 3

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