Ula dala a) Mathematics 2 Edexcel AS and A Level Modular Mathematics , | y PaO omee ashy ays _ edexcel ‘advancing learning, changing lives Ua t=) mat) ELursuatel dew Edexcel AS and A-level Modular Mathematics Greg Attwood Lee Cope Bronwé Laurence Pateman Keith Pledger Geoff Staley Dave WilkinsContents About this book 1 Inequalities 1.1 Solving inequalities by manipulation 1.2. Solving inequalities graphically Series 2.1 Using the method of differences to sum simple finite series Further complex numbers 3.1. The modulus—argument form 3.2. Euler's relation 3.3. Multiplying and dividing two complex numbers 3.4 De Moivre's theorem 3.5. De Moivre's theorem applied to trigonometric identities 3.6 Using de Moivre’s theorem to find the nth roots of a complex number 3.7. Using complex numbers to represent a locus of points on an Argand diagram 3.8 Using complex numbers to represent regions on an Argand diagram 3.9 Applying transformations that map points on the z-plane to points on the w-plane by applying a formula relating z = x + iy tow =u + iv Review Exercise 1 First order differential equations 4.1. Solving first order differential equations with separable variables and the formation of differential equations and sketching members of the family of solution curves 4.2 Solving exact equations where one side is the exact derivative of a product and the other side can be integrated with respect to x 4.3 Solving first order linear differential equations of the type a + Py = Q where P and Qare functions of x, by multiplying through the equation by an integrating factor to produce an exact equation 4.4 Using a given substitution to reduce a differential equation into one of the above types of equation, which you can then solve iv iL 12 18 19 24 28 32 36 40 51 83 66 72 73 77 78 81Second order differential equations 5.1 Finding the general solution of the linear second order differential equation < + cy = 0, where a, b and care constants and where b? > 4ac 5.2 Finding the general solution of the linear second order differential equation Wee tip a +b a + ey = 0, where a, b and care constants and where b? = 4ac 5.3. Finding the general solution of the linear second order differential equation afd art bee oY 5. ¢y = 0, where a, band care constants and where b? < 4ac 5.4 Finding me aie solution of the linear second order differential equation af + of Y cy = fx), where a, b and care constants, by using ye ciaplenentaty function + particular integral 5.5. Using boundary conditions, to find a specific solution of the linear second order yo initial conditions to nis a soaane solution of the linear second order differential equation a ty +b 4 ex = f(0, where a,b and care constants differential equation a + cy = fia), where a, band care constants, or 5.6 Using a given substitution to transform a second order differential equation into one of the above types of equation, and solving it Maclaurin and Taylor series 6.1 Finding and using higher derivatives of functions 6.2. Expressing functions of x as an infinite series in ascending powers of x using Maclaurin’s expansion 6.3 Finding the series expansions of composite functions using known Maclaurin’s expansions. 6.4. Finding an approximation to a function of x close to.x = a, where a # 0, using ‘Taylor's expansion of the function 6.5 Finding the solution, in the form of a series, to a differential equation using the ‘Taylor series method Polar coordinates 7.1 Polar and Cartesian coordinates 7.2 Polar and Cartesian equations of curves 7.3 Sketching polar equations 7.4. Areas using polar coordinates 7.5 Finding tangents parallel and perpendicular to the initial line Review Exercise 2 Examination style paper Answers Index 87 88 90 1 93 97 100 105 106 108 12 1s 118 127 128 130 132 136 139 145 155 187 185About this book This book is designed to provide you with the best preparation possible for your Edexcel FP2 unit examination: Brief chapter overview and ‘links! to underline the importance of mathematics: to the real world, to your study of further units and to your career + This is Edexcel’s own course for the GCE specification. + Written by senior examiners * The LiveText CD-ROM in the back of the book contains even more resources to support you through the unit. Finding your way around the book a Every few chapters, a review exercise helps you consolidate your learning Detailed contents list shows which parts of the FP2 specification are covered in each section Contents Each section begins with a statement of what is covered in the section Past examination questions are marked 'E’ points Each section ends with an exercise Step-by-step worked examples ~ the questions are ~ they are model carefully graded so they increase in difficulty and gradually bring you up to standard solutions and include examiners hints Each chapter has a different colour scheme, to help you find the right chapter quickly Each chapter ends with At the end of the book there is a mixed exercise and a an examination-style paper. summaty of key pointsv “LiveText ) LiveText software a, The LiveText software gives you additional resources: Solutionbank and Exam café. Simply turn the pages of the electronic book to the page you need, and explore! Unique Exam café feature: * Relax and prepare — revision planner; hints and tips; common mistakes * Refresh your memory ~ revision checklist; language of the examination; glossary * Get the result! — fully worked examination-style paper with chief examiner's commentary Solutionbank * Hints and solutions to every question in the textbook * Solutions and commentary for all review exercises and the practice examination paperPublished by Pearson Education Limited, a company Incorporated in England and Wales, having Its registered office at Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex, CM20 2/E. Registered company number: 872828 Edexcel is a registered trademark of Edexcel Limited. Text © Greg Attwood, Lee Cope, Bronwen Moran, Laurence Pateman, Keith Pledger, Geoff Staley, Dave Wilkins 2009 131211 1009 10987654321 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Is available from the British Library on request. ISBN 978 0.435519 21.6 Copyright notice All rights eeserved. 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Disclaimer ‘This Edexcel publication offers high-quality support for the delivery of Edexcel qualifications, Edexcel endorsement does not mean that this material is essential to achieve any Edexcel qualification, nor does it ‘mean that this is the only suitable material available to support any Edexcel qualification. No endorsed material will be used verbatim in setting any Edexcel examination/assessment and any resource lists produced by Edexcel shall include this and other appropriate texts, Copies of official specifications forall Edexcel qualifications may be found on the Fdexcel website — wwweedexcel.com.After completing this chapter you should be able to: «manipulate inequalities «determine the critical values of an inequality «find solutions of algebraic inequalities. Inequalities In manufacturing or business you will want to know what level of price will ensure that vost acfilgtons of mathematics your profit is greater than your production require the solution of inequalities | costs ~ this means solving inequalities. at some stage.chapren 1 You can manipulate inequalities to solve them. In C1 you learnt how to solve simple quadratic inequalities by rearranging them. The inequality sign can be treated like an equals sign as long as you do not divide or multiply both sides of the expression by a negative number. There are three steps to solving inequalities. ae 1 | Solve 2a? and y = 4~ x. ve = 2%. = © Solve #7 <4 —x.a y= 4— xis a straight line crossing the axes at theses conta (4,0) and (0,4). ctions with the axes y sen hae a root at (0, 0). There is a vertical asymptote at x = —4 There is a horizontal asymptote at y So the sketch looks like this x= ari * Te = tex + 4— Sx? — Bx? — 4x -4=0-——————___ | __ (Bx + 2)(x — 2) = 0 ——___ —.. So the solution is =a pel x<-Zor-bex<2chapren 1 involves the modulus ‘The sketching approach is particularly useful if the inequali function. ” ‘Since there is a modulus function sketch y = |x? - 4x] and y = 3 on the same axes. To find the critical values, remember that there are two cases to consider when solving |x? ~ 42 To find the critical values, solve [x® — 4x] = y?- 4x =3x¢- 4r-3=0 Sometimes the quadratic formula may be required. Reel == 4p) =3 a 4x = 0 (x- 3-1) =0 You need to identify where the points of intersection are on the sketch. x=1ord Marking these values on the sketch: ¥ = 3is above the curve. So the golution ler Finally write down the solution to the Hantah apse aurea ea inequality ~ the points where the lineInequalities Sometimes a little simple rearranging first can make the sketching much simpler. Solve [3x| + 2<2 Rearranging gives: 7" Sketching y = [3x| + x is quite difficult so [Sx] < 2 — x +. itis usually simpler to rearrange and isolate 9 Sketching y = |Bx| and y = 2 — x gives the modulus function. ” Critical values are given by: Bx=2-x8 AN =e Find the critical values in the usual way. Remember the two cases. _———— er By considering the positions of the critical. So the line is above |x| for ——————_———__ values, identify the places where the line is a above the V-shaped graph. Sometimes care must be taken to identify the correct roots when solving the modulus equations.cHarren 1 ere Solve the inequality |x? — 19| = 5@ ~ 1) Sketching both graphe 0 19 = 5x (w= 7we+2=0 x=Tor-2 (x? = 19) «+ Oe =6 ord “The line Is above the curve when B 6x 2) t-3|>2 3) |@-2Qe@+o6<9 4) law+ile3 5) (2x +x >3 AED a +1 7 8] |-tal 1 10 a On the same axes sketch the graphs of y = ;—q andy = 4|x — al. 1 b Solve, giving your answers in terms of the constant a, < Aix —Inequalities Solve the inequality |x? — 7| < 3@@ + 1) Solve the inequality Find the set of values of x for which |x ~ 1| > 6x ~ 1 Find the complete set of values of x for which |x? ~ 2| > 2x Find the set of values of x for which Solve a b © <1 Fs xj +6 xt G@+DE+N 4 5 as Sketch, on the same axes, the graph with equation y = |2e equation y = Sx = 1 Solve the inequality |2x — 3| < 5x —1 3), and the line with Use algebra to find the exact solution of 2x? +x = 6 = 6 ~ 3x On the same diagram, sketch the curve with equation y = |2x? + x — 6| and the line with equation y = 6 ~ 3x Find the set of values of x for which |2x? + x ~ 6| > 6 ~ 3x On the same diagram, sketch the graphs of y = |x? — 4| and y = |2x — 1|, showing the coordinates of the points where the graphs meet the x-axis Solve |x? = 4| = |2x ~ 1), giving your answers in surd form where appropriate. Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which |x? — 4) > [2x — 1After completing this chapter you should be able to: sum simple finite series using the method of differences when © the differences do not involve fractions © the differences involve fractions which are given © you will use partial fractions to establish the difference. The following standard results from FP1 Yea art tit an y = = Do a1 4+243..¢0= 24) Yo = y PaPs2 +3. +P = B(nt IQn41) = © VM pape ae eee Zer ry ret 4 can be proved using the method of difference. y A AE wi tw» & : a» 2 ae iB This chapter continues the use of summation notation as introduced by Euler in finding the sum of a finite series. The method used in this chapter does not rely on the use of the standard results established in FP1.If the general term, u,, of a series can be expressed in the form f() - f+) then > w=) (-fr+)) so. uy = f(1) - f(2) u, = f(2) - £3) us = £(3) — (4) 5 uy = f(n) ~ fn +1) Then adding >> u, = f(1) - (0 +1) a a Show that 4r¢ = (r+ 1)? — (1°? bb Hence prove, by the method of differences that Ltn + 12 = hn + 1 ) F Start with RHS. = YP + 2r +1) - (P= 2 ATE tera __—| —— Expand brackets. = 4° = LHS ‘Simplify. b Consider HS D> [r+ 1)? - (r— 1°] rat take r=1 Sey — (0) (12-0 r=2 2B} — apet ——— PS ~ All the terms except two cancel out. a r=n So adding Then ae 50 Ss ieSeries 7 1 1__1_ Verify that pay > FET and hence find )> aay using the method of differences. Consider RHS 1 = Write as a single fraction. r+ ~ Simplify. All terms cancel except first and last. + Pat over common denominator. using the method of differences. 7 Use the difference of two squares Consider =a to factorise the numerator. —__1_ = _A_ 5 6B Split the fraction into partial @rFN@r—1) Arti Bri fractions. — Al@r= 1) + 6(2r + 1) Gre erat) Ad fractions. 1 = Ar = 1) + B(2r + 1) Set numerators equal.HAPTER 2 Let r Put values of rin to find A and B, Let r All terms cancel except first and _ jb last. ed a Express, in partial fractions. —_2 Fe DrF3) b Hence prove by method of differences that > ___ nan + b) Ly CF DFD OF Dent 3) where a and b are constants to be found. xo ¢ Find the value of 5 ~ to 5 decimal places.Series 2 A 6 FFIrF3) +N F+3) Ar +3) + Br +1) + Net 3) A(r +3) + Bir +1) Set up partial fractions. + Add the fractions. ‘Compare numerators. when r= —3 2B B=-1 when r= —1 2A>A=1 Therefore ~ (FNEFS) FFD) FS) Using method of differences whenr = 1 a7t r=2 =P Cancel terms. re =y = 6 =n- vo Poh RS ate r=n 4 Put these four terms over a pp ee ee common denominator. 3B nate nt3 B(n + 2)(n + 3) + An + 2m + 3) - Gln + 3) — O(n +2) Gn + n+ 3) Simplify. Te Bre + 15m +18 + 2n? + 10n + 12 — Gn — 18 - Gn 12 Gn + 2(n + 3) Sr? + 130 n(n + 15) (n+ 2)(n+3) Gln + 2)(n $0a=Bandb=15 5 7 e 20 5 4, Fr +3) Dy CF IFFD aie (FFD) 30(5 X30 +13) _ 206 x 20 +13) GGOF2AGOFS) B20+ 220+ 2 _ 815 _ 565 = 25, - 505 Evaluate. = 085 = 0.02738 t05 dp. Give answer to 5 4.p. © 242881) a Show that r= oir + 1) — rr - 1) b Hence show that )> r= Bn + 1) using the method of differences, 1 1 1 2 Glen Es D “B+ 30+ IEF 2 tnd) FD wing the method of differences. 1 r+ 2) 3) a Express in partial fractions. 1 +2) b Hence find the sum of the series > using the method of differences. 4 a Express, in partial fractions. 1 () 1 (r+ 3) Wsing the method of differences. b Hence find the sum of the series S~ rz 5 Use the identity 4r3 = r? (r+ 1? — (r- 1 to find) 6 Given that ft (eaSeriesAfter completing this chapter you should be able to: * write down a complex number, z, in modulus argument form as either z = r(cos @ + i sin 6) or z= re", where ris the modulus of z and dis the Y argument of z, and —7< 0= 7 + apply de Moivre’s theorem © to find trigonometric identities © to find the nth roots of a complex number ® represent loci and regions in an Argand diagram * apply transformations from the z-plane to the w-plane. i ae NUMmbder plotted on an Argand diagram to give an hose boundary forms a fractal. No matter how many times you magnify the boundary, you will nd new patterns, new Images and new rich geometrical 7 structures emerging continual In this chapter you will build on and develop further the work learnt on complex numbers in FPI. You will be applying complex numbers to both trigonometry and coordinate geometry.Further complex numbers 3 The modulus-argument form of the complex number z =x + iy is the form z You can express a complex number (cos 0+ = r(cos + isin where © 1,4 positive real number, is called the modulus and * 6, an angle such that when ~2 < @< =, #s called the principal argument. From the right-angled triangle, & =rcos 0,y = rsin Band r= |z| = \x? + y? = (cos 0+ isin 0) Note that @, the argument, is not unique. The argument of z could also be @ + 2, 0+ 4z, ete. So, z=x + ly = rcos + irsin To avoid duplication of 4, we usually quote @ in the range —=< 0< wand refer to it as the principal argument, ‘arg’, i.e. 0 = arg z. 7 = (00s 0 + i sin 0) is correct for a complex number in any of the Argand diagram quadrants, Bee Express 2 = v3 + iin the form r(cos @ + isin @), where —7 << 7. ‘ Tareecharrea 3. Express 7 ~ fin the form r(cos @ + isin #), where —7< 0 a, a-1,-1) = argz= —a+ tan (1) = —at 3a FB} + iain Therefore, z= v2 (cos ( In chapter 6, (and in your formula book), you will find the series expansions of cos @and sin 4. They are Cy e ee Gri . oy eee aa ni eri © Also, fora € R, the series expansion of e* is oye Bek It can be proved that the series expansion for e* is also true if x is replaced by a complex number. If you replace x in e* by id the series expansion becomes Go)? , oy, Gays (io sata a* 303, ito, i808 aS elit xt are a1 4 i9+ =1+i0 _ . & _ ie® = 1tie-~ Fr eo Tota otFurther complex numbers By comparing this series expansion with those of © and @ you can write e!” as, = cose + isn o_o oe amc ak) You can now use Euler's relation to rewrite z = r(cos @+ i sin @) as oe — Tikrroreneremetmecnies ) where r= |2| and @ = arg z. Express 2 = 2 ~ 31 in the form re’, where —7 < 0< rm. 0=argz=-tan! (3) = -0.98 (2dip,) : | Therefore, z = VIB 602% In Chapter 8 of Core 2, you learnt the following properties which will be helpful to you in this, chapter: cos(=6)=cos@| and | sin (-@) = -sing = + isin = T_isin™ \i 8, i“ a 2= v2 (cosa + isin 75) b z= 5 (cos § — isin gin the form re®, where 7 < 9 = 7. a 5°08 519 8) coments) $0, = V2 and O= 10 Therefore, 2 = V2 ol > Rep = ret)charrea 3. Therefore, z = Se oat Express z = v2 e* in the form x + iy, where x € Randy € R, Therefore, z= —1+i Express z = 2e > in the form r(cos @ + isin 6), where —7< 0< 7.Further complex numbers Bea Use el” = cos @ + i sin @ to show that cos @ e” = cos 0+ isin b ® 2) =e" = cos (-@) + isin (-6) 0, €" = cos 9— i sin O a-T SE it SELES oto" = 2 con | add 02nd) Hence, cos 0= 3 (e" + 6), ao required, Cat 1) Express the following in the form r(cos @ + i sin #), where 7 < #< 7. Give the exact values of rand @ where possible, or values to 2 d.p. otherwise. a? b-si ev +i 242i e1-i £-8 g3-4i h-8+6i i 2-31 2) Express the following in the form x + iy, wherex € Randy ER. a 5(cos F + isin 5) b F(cos Z + isin 2) © 6(cos 52 + isin 52) 4 3{cos (-22) + i sin (-22)) © 2y/2(cos (~J) + isin (~F)) £ —4(cos 28 + isin 22) 3) Express the following in the form re, where ~7 < 0< w. Give the exact values of r and 0 where possible, or values to 2 d.p. otherwise. a-3 bi © -2v3 - 21 d-8+i e 2-Si £ -2y3 + 2V3i x a) 2 isin & B[cos qt isin Z) hh 8{(cos Z isin ) 4) Express the following in the form x + iy where x € Randy € B. ad b 4c7 a -s a 8c © 3e7 <0 ge" h 3y2e 5) Express the following in the form r(cos 6 + i sin 6), where —7< 0 7. 167, Us, 9s, act bas ese 8 6) Use e”’ = cos # + i sin # to show that sin @ = 5 (e” — e"") a a3.3. You need to know how multiplying and dividing affects both the modulus and argument of the resulting complex numbei For the following proofs you need to apply the following identities found in the Core 2 and Core 3 sections of your formula book: sin (0; * #4) = sin @ cos @ * cos 8, sin # @ cS (0; + 0) = cos 8; Cos 4, ¥ sin A sin ® @ cos! d+ sin? 0 = 1 ® Multiplying complex numbers z, and z, If z; = r(cos 6 + isin @) and z, = r3(cos 6 + isin @), then 2\22 = (COS A + isin &) x F(cCoS A + isin &) rry{cos 6, + i sin 6,)(cos 0 + i sin 0) ryr{cos 6, cos @ + i cos 4 sin 6 + isin A, cos é + i sin 4, sin 04) Ff(cos 6, Cos @ + i cos 4 sin @ + isin &, cos 6, ~ sin 6 sin @) nr{(Cos 6, COS 5 ~ sin 6, sin 05) + i(sin B, cos 8 + cos 4, sin 05) = rr(cos(@, + 6) + i sin(#, + 6))), using identities ® and @. ‘Therefore the complex number 2,2) = ryr,(cos(4, + 0) + i sin(®, + 4,)) isin a modulus~ argument form and has modulus r,r, and argument 6; + ®. Also, if z; = re and z, = r,eM then tila = (re )(re') = nae i = ret Therefore the complex number 229 = rire! ryrzand argument 6 + @. *%is in an exponential form and has modulus Dividing a complex number z, by a complex number z, If z, = n(cos @ + isin 4) and z) = n(cos @ + isin 44), then 2 _ n(cos 6, + isin 0) 2 n{cos Or + isin &) — ncos 6, + isin 6) r{cos 0 + 6) {COS 4 COS Os = T3{€0S 02 608 02 — 1 608 Op in 6 COS Hy — i? sin 6, sin 03) in 0p + i sin 0 Cos @ — i sin @, sin 0,) y( (COS A COS H + sin sin 8) + i(sin @, COs & — cos 4, sin A) 1e(cos™ 0, + Sin? 83) =F (ox(dy ~ 62) + isin(#, ~ 63), using identities ®, @ and @Further complex numbers ‘Therefore the complex number 7+ form and has modulus 2 and argument 0, ~ 6. 2 (cos (@, ~ #2) + i sin(@, ~ 0) is in modulus-argument Also, if z; = rel and z, = rye“ then ‘Therefore the complex number 7! = eis in an exponential form and has modulus ‘! Anh n and argument 6; — 6). In summary, you need to learn and apply the following results for complex numbers 2; and z): lzvzal = lzillza] arg (2,22) = arg (z,) + arg (2) lal a arg (7!) = arg (a) ~ arg (2) Express 3{ cos 9 + isin $5) el x A(cos 75 = + isin =) in the form x + iy. 12) 3{coe SF + icin $2) x 4(coe -% + icin Z) 12 2 = 3(4) (co0( $# = 12 (cos F + tein 5) = 12 (0 + i(t)) = 121cuarren 3 Example EJ 2) Express 2(cos 7 + i sin 72) x 3{cos 27 ~ isin 2") in the form x + iy. 2 coe E+ iain B) x 8 cos 32 — i sin 22) = 2(coe Z + isin) x 8(cos (~22) + isin (-22)) = 28) (o00 ( - ZF) + isin (E- Z)) = ofas(-8) 159(-$) -af4=(-) =3-BvBi Example [J v2(cos 75 + isin 75] Express 12.121 in the form + i. 2 cos 52 + i sin 52) V2 (coo 5 + isin Br 2{ cos 8% + i sin 82 i) ra 5:1 Express the following in the form x + iy, a (cos 20 + i sin 20)(cos 36 + i sin 30) bb [cos 32 + i sin 32)(cos 87 + i sin $2) c 3(cos T + isin J) x 2(cos 75 + isin 4 12 9) £ 6 (cos 3% + isin 3%) x S{cos % + isin Z) x 4 (cos + isin | & (cos 48 + i sin 48)(cos 6 — isin 6) h 3(cos 5 + isin b Tg) X 2 (cos F ~ isin F 3) 2) Express the following in the form x + iy. cos $0+ isin 50 cos 20+ isin 20 Blcos® x v2 (co: s 5 + isin 5) by Yeos F + isin 4) 3{cos F + isin 3) 5 3 on cos 27 + isin 6 & cos 20 ~ isin 24 cos 34+ isin 30 3) zand w are two complex numbers where 2= —9 + 3vBi, |w| = v3 and arg w = a Express the following in the form r(cos 6 + isin 6), az bw, cm, az, where —7< = 7,charrea 3. 3.4. You need to be able to prove that [r(cos @ + i sin 6)]" = r"(cos né + i sin né) for any integer n. Ifz = r(cos @+ isin @), then B= 2X 2=r(cos 0+ isin 6) x (cos 0+ isin A) = re(cos (0 + 6) + isin (0+ 6) = P(cos 26 + isin 20), B= 2X 2= Pcs 20 + isin 20) x r(cos @ + isin 6) Pr(cos (26 + 6) + isin (20+ 6) r(cos 36 + isin 36) B= 2X 2= cos 30 + isin 36) x r(cos 6 + isin rr(cos (36 + @) + isin (34+ 4)) = r(cos 46 + i sin 40) ‘The above results show that © 2! = [r(cos 0 + isin 8}! = r(cos @ + isin 4) © 2= [r(cos 0+ isin #)]? = (cos 20 + i sin 26) © 2= [r(cos 0 + isin 6) = r(cos 36 + i sin 36) © 24= [r(cos 0 + isin 6) = r(cos 40 + i sin 46) ‘Therefore it follows that the general statement for any positive integer, n is ‘This is de Moivre's theorem. Itis important for you to remember this result. M 2'= [rcos 0+ isin J" = "(cos nd + i sin nfl) It will be shown that de Moivre’s theorem is true for any integer 1. Proof of de Moivre’s theorem when n is a positive integer You can use the method of proof by induction (found in FP1) to prove that [r(cos 6 + i sin 6)]" = r'(cos nd + i sin n6) is true for all positive integers. = 18 = Hons d+ 1506 = 4008 6+ Ian == RHS = r'(cos 16 + isin 1) = r(cos @ + isin 6) As LHS = RHS, de Moivre’s theorem is true for = 1. Assume tat de Moivre’ theorem is tue for =k kE2" C= ie. [r(cos @ + isin Mt = "cos ko + i sin kd) ti = 1 Mon Tar Re =D Ir(cos @ + isin @))**! = [r(cos 6 + isin 8)|* x r(cos @ + isin 6) (cos k# + isin k8) x r(cos @ + i sin G)-— By assumption step. r*\(cos kd + i sin ko)(cos @ + isin 6) rA1(cos (KO + 6) + i sin (K+ 6))- From section 3.3. rl(cos(k + 1)0+ isin (k + 1)8) ‘Therefore, de Moivte’s theorem is true when n = k + 1Further complex numbers If de Moivre's theorem is true for n = k, then it has been 4. Cometusion step shown to be true for m= k + As de Moivte’s theorem is true for n = 1, it is now also true for all n > 1 and n € Z* by mathematical induction. Proof of de Moivre’s theorem when nis a negative integer We will now prove that [r(cos @ + i sin 6)}" = r"(cos né +i sin n8) is true for all negative integers. If mis a negative integer, it can then be written in the form n = m, where mis a positive integer. LHS = [r(cos @ + isin @)]" = [r(cos @ + isin 6)" - 1 © [r(cos @+ isin 6)” a 1 4 (608 md ~ isin md) ~ Pi(cos me + isin mA) ~ (cos mé— isin md) = __cos mé = isin mé | = Fm cos? m0 — i? sin? m0)»——— —— 1 (cos m6 ~ i sin md) 7” (cost mo + sin? md): 1 (cos mo — i sin mo) (osm + isn 0)" eae) =F (co sn) = RAS pong Therefore, we have proved that de Moivre’s theorem is true when 11 is a negative integer. Also for, n= 0; LHS = [r(cos 6 + isin @)]° = RHS = 1? (cos 0 + isin 0) = 1(1) As LHS = RHS, de Moivre's theorem is true for = 0. 1 ‘Therefore we have proved that de Moivre's theorem is true for any integer 1. de Moivre's theorem can also be written in exponential form. Ifz = r(cos @ + isin @) = re", then [r(cos @ + isin 6)]" = [re'"]" (ey = re - Applying (x= 3%, F(cos no + i sin né) ‘This is de Moivre’s theorem, stated in an exponential form. Therefore [re"f" = Fecharren 3 (coe 92 + isin 92) (coe 2 — i ein 22)? Qn)? 25 «sin 98) 7 7 (ee = cos Sit Sin = c0e 7 + eins = coe Bat isin 3ae——— a De ei eae = -1+1(0) on on\? coe 27 + | oin 22 ‘Therefore, (olga. ton 2 (006 2 isin a) Bemaed 12) Express (1 + vi)’ in the form x + iy wherex € R 8 a S m zFurther complex numbers caver 4 (y a= tan (3 $0, 1 + vBi = 2( cos F + isin £)¢——_ (+ vei = [2(cos E+ isin a Z coe 2 2(coo FE + Iain )— = 128(cos ¥ + i sin 3) (3-2) i)’ = 64 + G4VBi. Therefore, (1 + VBI 1 Use de Moivre’s theorem to simplify each of the following: @ (cos 6 + isin 6)* b (cos 3¢ + isin 30)* © (cos Z + isin Z)° (cos F + isin F 5 © (cos 22 + isin 22) £ (cos ~ isin 37) g 008.50 isin 0 (cos 26 + i sin 26)? (cos 26 + isin 20)? (cos 46 + isin 4@)* i 1 i (cos 26 + i sin 26)* (cos 26 + isin 26)* (cos 30 + isin 36)° cos 50+ isin 58 1 £08 6. 4 (cos 36 — isin 34)? (cos 26 — i sin 24) (cos 2% + i sin 22)" 2) Evaluate 73 15. i a cos 4% — isin 42) 3) Express the following in the form x + iy where x € Randy ER. a (1+ b (-2 + 28 c(i a (1 ~ y3i)° e (3-331) £ (-2y3 - 2i)* 4) Express (3 + V3i)° in the form a + by3i where a and b are integers.charrea 3. 3,5 You can apply de Moivre’s theorem to trigonometric identi ‘You need to be able to apply the following binomial expansion found in the Core 2 section of your formula book. (4 by at MC Tb Ca PP + Cal be Express cos 3¢ in terms of powers of cos wien | (cos 6 + | sin 8)" = cos 30 + | 5in 30 = cos? @ + °C, cos? A (i sin 6) + °C; cos 8 (i sin 8)? + (icin OF = cos® 6 + Si cos* Asin 6 + Si? cos @ sin? @ + F sin? 6 = cos? @ + 31 cos @9in @ — 3 cos 8 ein® 8 — i sin® 8 Equating the real parts gives cos. 30 = cos® 6 ~ 3 cos Bein® 8 = cos? 6 — 3 cos 8 (1 — cos? 6) = cos® @— 3 cos 0+ 3 cos® 8 =4c0s° 8-3 cos 0 Therefore, cos 30 = 4 cos® @ ~ 3 cos 8. Express, 8 cos 60 in terms of powers of cos 0, sin 68 oe 0+ nz, n €Z, in terms of powers of cos 6. (cos 6+ | sin 6)° = cos G8 + 1 on 68 = cos® 6 + °C, cos? Ol sin 6) + °C, cost 6i sin 6)? + Cz cos? &{i sin 6)° + °C, cos? Ai sin 0)* + Cz 608 Ki ain 6)° + (isin 6° = cos® 6 + Gi cos? O sin 6 + 151° cos* 6 sin? 6 + 201 cos® @ sin @ + 15i* cos? @ein* B + Gi? cos Bein? @ + 1° sin? @ = cos® 6 + Gi cos® 8 ain 6 — 15 cos* O sin? 0 — 20) cos* @ sin® @ + 15 cos* @ sin* @ + Gi cos Asin? @— sin? 6a Equating the real parts gives cos 60 = cos® 6 — 15 cost Dein’ @ + 15 cos? @sin* @ — sin® 8 = cos® 6 — 15 cost O(1 — cos* @) = *—_____+ + 15 cos? 1 — cos* 6)? — (1 — cos? 6)* = cos® 6 — 15 cos {1 — cos” 6) + 15 cos? O(1 — 2 cos? 6 + cos* 6) = (1 = 3 cos? 0 + 3 cos" 0 — cos? 6) + SS = cos 0-15 cost 0+ 16cos°6 +—__ | + 15 cos? @ — 30 cos* § + 15 cos? 6 —1+3 cos? 6-3 cost 8+ cos? 6 = 32 cos® 0 — 48 cos" 8 + 18 cos* @— 1 Therefore, cos 68 = 32 cos? 6 — 48 cost 6 + 18 cos? # — b Equating the imaginary parte gives ein 68 = 6 cos® Asin 8 — 20 cos? Osin? 8 + 6 cos O sin? 0 G0 Sh. EF = 6 cos? 0 — 20 cos? O sin? 8 + 6 cos Bsin* 6 = 6 cos® 6 — 20 cos? HI — cos? 6) + 6 cos HI — cos? H+ = 6 cos? 6 — 20 cos? (1 — cos? 0) + 6 cos WI — 2 cos? 6 + cos* 6) Further complex numbers = 6 cos® 8 — 20 cos? 8 + 20 cos’ + 6 coo @— 12 cos? @ + Expandbrackets. +6 cos? @ 32 cos® @ - 52 cos 0+ 6cos@ +> Simplify. Therefore, ein 60. = 32 cos® 6 — 32 cos® 8 + 6 cos 0. eincuarren 3 Now we will investigate finding trigonometric identities for sin" and cos" @ where 1 is a positive integer. Fa! = (cos 0+ isin a = (cos(-10) + isin (-10) = cos 0 It follows that 241 cos 9+ isin 0+ cos @- isin @= 2cos 8 = cos @ + isin @~ (cos @— isin @) = 2isin @ Also, 1 = (cos @ + i sin" = (cos(—né) + i sin(-n#) = cos. no Nie yes x It follows that + T= cost + isin nd + cos no ~ isin 10 = 2 cos no 2 — J = cosnd + isin nd ~ (cos n6 ~ isin né) = 2i sin nd To summarise, you need to be able to apply these results: z-}a2isno 4 -J=2isinno a4 p= 2088 z+ = 2eosnd Zz sera 1 S| Express cos’ in the form a cos 50 + b cos 36 + ¢cos 8, where a, b and ¢ are constants. ~~ een bist = 2+ 2(1) +9, 2(L +°c,2(3)" + (3) =2Pt oz(4) + 10z" (e+ So, 32 cos® 0 = 2 cos 50 + 10 cos 30 + 20 cos ot ee ~ AULLHS = 32.85 @= RES!) £000 50+ 5 coe 30 + S.coo @—Further complex numbers Prove that sin’ @ sin 30+ 3sin @. = 21 sin 30 — 3(Zisin 6) So, ~Bi sin® @ = 21 sin 30 — isin and sin? @= —1 sin 30+ 25in @ ‘a Express sin‘ @ in the form d cos 40 + ¢ cos 26 + f, where d, e and fare constants. b Hence find the exact value of [ * sint ada. Y= (isin 0) = 16i" sin? @ = 16 sin? 8 =244¢2(-1) +46, 2(-1)° +46,2(-3) + (4) aera tae ane = 2.008 40 — 4{2 cos 26) + 6 So, 16 sin* @= 2 cos 40 - & cos 20+ 6 and sin* @= 2 cos 40 — 3cos 20+ 3charrea 3. =[7 ($008 48 ~ 3.005 26+ 3) ao So Ihe sint 040 = 32. ice Use applications of de Moivre’s theorem to prove the following trigonometric identities: 1) sin30=3sin 6-4sin’ 0 sin 50 = 16 sin’ @ — 20 sin’ @ + Ssin 6 2 3) cos 76 = 64 cos’ 6 — 112 cos’ # + 56 cos* #7 cos 6 . cost @ = 2 (cos 40 + 4 cos 20 + 3) 5) sin’ a= jh (sin $0 5 sin 30 + 10sin 0) 6) a Show that 32 cos’ # = cos 64 + 6 cos 40 + 15 cos 24 + 10. b Hence find fi cos* @ 40 in the form az + bv3 where a and b are constants. 7) a Use de Moivre's theorem to show that sin 4@ = 4 cos? @sin @~ 4 cos sin’ 4tan = 4 tan? 6 1 = 6 tan? 6+ tant @ © Use your answer to part b to find, to 2d.p., the four solutions of the equation at + 4x3 — 6x? — 4x +1 = 0, b Hence, or otherwise, show that tan 4 3.6 You can use de Moivre’s theorem to find the nth roots of a complex number. In this section we will apply the following results: 1 As the argument @is not unique, the complex number z = r(cos @ + isin 6) can also be expressed in. the form z= r(cos(@ + 2k) + isin(@ + 2km)), where k EZ, 2 de Moivre’s theorem states that (r(cos @ + i sin 6))" = r"(cos né + isin n6), where n € Q. Note that it can be proved (but is beyond the scope of the FP2 unit) that de Moivre’s theorem is also valid when n is a rational number (i.e. € Q).‘a Solve the equation z* = 1 Further complex numbers bb Represent your solutions to part a on an Argand diagram. a Simply r= 1and @= 0 So, 2 = 1(cos O + isin 0) 2 = (cos(O + 2km) + i sin(O + 2kx)) Hence, z = [(cos(2km) + isin(2kn))]> = ——______| 60, 2 coe (242) + en (242 D: | k=0, 4= 6030 +isinO=1 *—— =I, z5 = cos Therefore, z= 1, — | ) x We can also write the three cube roots of las 1, wand w, where Also note further that © w= oF and © itwt wait nicuarren 3 Example [J Solve the equation z# = 2 + 2v3i r=V(2y + (2/3) = vA ¥ 12 = 4 ———_ o= tan (28) = 2 So, z+ = A(cos F + isin 3) a= 4 (cos (3 + 24x) + iain (F + 2kz)) § + 2r))|'-— ak nt roct I) Hence, z= [4 (coo (F + kx) + i ain ( B+ 2k: = (4) (cco 4 i 2 2 2 + isin (=82)) ———— and V2 (co0 (=2) + 1m (=12)) ( isin 2), v2 (cos 22 + iain 22), ) De =on at mais or z= V2et, V2e%, V2e ® and v2e @ |Example Eq) Solve the equation z° + 4v2 + 4v2i = 0. Bt v2 + 4VZi = B= 4/2 — 4V2i (-4V3, ~4¥3) =v (42)? + (-4v2) = V82¥ BB = VO4 = 8 oe led) tes 80, 2° = 6(cos (~82) + 1 sin (-3#)), —_____ 2 = 6(cos (-82 + 2kn) Hence, z= [6(cos 324 2kn oa » a zney Go, 2 = 2{cos (—2 + 2k) + i in (— k=0, z= 2(cos (—Z) + isin (— )\- {+ kat, 2=2(cos SF + isin SE k=, 2=2(c00 (HZ) + iain ( $0 z= 2c0s (J) + isin (-F and 2(cos (=U) + 1 ain ( or 2= 26%, 22% and 22% | Further complex numbers |charrea 3. [aig 1) Solve the following equations, expressing your answers for z in the form x + iy, where x€ Randy ER. az-1=0 b2-i=0 © B=27 d7+64=0 e7+4=0 f 2+8i=0 2) Solve the following equations, expressing your answers for z in the form r(cos @ + i sin 0), where —7< 0< 2. azv=1 b+ 16i=0 © 84+32=0 da =2+21 © A+ W3i=2 f 2+ 32v3 + 321-0 3) Solve the following equations, expressing your answers for z in the form re", where r > 0. and ~7< 6 < 7. Give #to2d.p. at=3+4i b= ~4i © A= -v7+3i 4) a Find the three roots of the equation (z + 1)? = ~1 Give your answers in the form x + iy, wherex € Randy ER. b Plot the points representing these three roots on an Argand diagram, ¢ Given that these three points lie on a circle, find its centre and radius. 5. a Find the five roots of the equation z5 — 1 = 0. Give your answers in the form r(cos @ + i sin 6), where —7< @= 7. b Given that the sum of all five roots of 2 — 4n) 1 cos (2) + cos (47) = - = (is zero, show that 6 a Find the modulus and argument of —2 — 2v3i. b Hence find all the solutions of the equation z* + 2 + 2V3i = 0. Give your answers in the form re, where r > O and —7< #5 7. 7) a@ Find the modulus and argument of v6 + v2i. b Solve the equation z' = v6 + v2i. io Give your answers in the form re”, where r> 0 and —3 < 0< =. 3,7. You can use complex numbers to represent a locus of points on an Argand A locus of points is a set of points which obey a particular rule. Examples of loci are: * acircle ‘The Cartesian equation of a circle with centre (a, b) and radius ris (x — a)? + (y ~ b)?Further complex numbers « a perpendicular bisector Example i] If z = x + iy represents the variable point P(x, y) and z; =x, + iy represents the fixed point A(e,, 91), what does |z ~ z;| represent on an Argand diagram? |z — 2] 19 the modulus or length of the vector AP. Therefore |z — 2| represents the length of the line joining tthe fixed point A(x, ys) to the variable point P(x, y). Pub simply |z — 2] represents the distance between the fixed point A(xy yj) and the variable point P(x, y).- If|z~ 5 ~ 31) =3, a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which is represented by z on an Argand diagram, use an algebraic method to find the Cartesian equation of this locus.cuarren 3 b [e-5-3) > oa S |xtiy-5- 3) =3 2 APT STAIS Saptari) a Hence the Cartesian equation of the “eS Gigaset ten It follows that z~ 2) = ris represented by a circle centre (1, 9;) with radius r, where 2) = x, + iy). Give a geometrical interpretation of the locus of points z, represented by a |z-3i)=4 b iz - (2+ 3i) =5 © 2-34 Si 2 d \2-Si-2z=3 a z— 3 =4 isa circle centre (0, 3), radius 4, b [2 (2 + 3i)| = Sis a circle centre (2, 3), radius 5. 6 [2-3 +5i| = 2's a circle centre ( 4 [2 — 51 — 2| = 3 can be rewritten as (Me-2+ sn = 3 — Aol eel = lll.) = |Chie-2 5-3 + (2-245) ee ee Go [2 — 5i — 2| = 3 ie a circle centre (2, -5), radius 3. radius If z= |z ~ 6), a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which is represented by z on an Argand diagram, by use an algebraic method to find the Cartesian equation of this locus.Further complex numbers » [=|e- 4 + a nen a call 2 el-b+@-e)-— | > eta +(y-6F— | => P+ Pax+ ¥ -12y¥+ 367 => 12y=36-———____| Hence the Cartesian equation of the locus of P is y = 3.-———___| If|z- 3) =|z+ ij, a use an algebraic method to find a Cartesian equation of the locus of z, by sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagram, a [z-3|=|[z2+]] => |xtiy-3)=[et+iyti => |(e—3)+yl=+ yt (v#- BF + Par + yt Gxt 9+ ¥=es 7+ 2yt1 r+ 9=2y+1 -6r+B=2y Yuu Yd Hence the Cartesian equation of the lacus of zisy = -3x + 4.charrea 3. It follows that |z~ 2) = |z~ 2 is represented by a points 2 to 2). me If |z— 6| = 22+ 6-9), perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the a use algebra to show that the locus of z is a circle, stating its centre and its radius. b sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagram. a |z- 6|=2\z+ 6 - dij lx + ly - 6] = 2kr + iy +6 - oi] >|(e - 6) + iy| = 2x + 6) + ity - 9) =| - 6) + iy? = 2 |x + 6) + iy - Sr - 6) +y’ = 4[x + 6 + V- 9)'] Sx -2r+ 36+ fx? + 1x + 36 + y? - By + Start 36+ y I? + 48x + 144 + 4y? - 3x? + 60x + By? - 72y + 432 = 0 3x? + 20x + yf? - 24y + 144. =0 = (x + 10)? - 100 + (y - 12)? - 144 + 144 =0 (x +10)? + (y - 12)? = 100 Hence the lacus of zie a circle centre (10, 12), radius 10. It follows that if a tae batts) 2)? , "ey 585 nance toms) — | sean, |z~ 2) = Az ~ 2], where A> 0, A 1, then it may be more appropriate to apply an algebraic method to find the locus of points, z, represented by this equation.Example Ej Ifarg(z ~ 2) = J, sketch the locus of Pex, y) which is represented by zon an Argand diagram. Find the Cartesian equation of this locus. AGO) arg(z — 2) a > ara(x + y 2) = Be DF ye wat > an((e-2)+iy)=Ze Hence the Cartesian equation of the locus of Pis y = vBx — 2V3.*-F If arg(z + 3 + 21) = 32 sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagram. Find the Cartesian cauation of this locus. Further complex numbers 2 ~ 2is represented by the vector from the fixed point A(2, 0) to the point P(x, y) As arg(z — 2) = &, then the locus of P is the set of points where the vector AP makes an angle of Fin an anti-clockwise sense from the positive x-axis The locus of P is referred to as a half-line. zcan be rewritten as z= x + iy. Group the real and imaginary parts. Remove the argument. tan (3 {As the locus is a halfine, this equation is restricted forx > 2,y>0. 2 +3 + 2ican be written as z~ (-3 ~ 2i) and this represents the vector from the fixed point (~3, ~2) to the variable point (x, 1). Asarg(z + 3 + 2i) = 35, , then the locus cra the haline irom (-3, ~2) making an angle of Sin an anti-clockwdse sense froma line ithe same direction as the positive x-axis.charrea 3. arg(z + 3 + 21 + ets | TD > ara((x + 3) + ity + 2) +2) _ + — Reimove'the arguments) > &FS) + yt2=-x+3) Hence the Cartesian equation of the locus of Pis y = —x — 5. ™ It follows that arg(z — 2;) = 0 is represented by a half-line from the fixed point z, making an angle with a line from the fixed point z; parallel to the real axi You need to know and be able to apply the following circle theorems: ‘© Angles subtended at ‘The angle inasemi-circle «The angle subtended at the an arc in the same isa right angle. centre of the circle is twice segment are equal. the angle at the circumference. Ee A, @ OS a 8 B APB = AQB APB = 90° AOB = 2 x APB Beane a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which is represented by z on an Argand diagram, by find the Cartesian equation of this locus. a ato(Z=$) = ara(z — 6) — arate - 2) = Let L; be the hali-line satisfying arg(z — 6) and let Lz be the half-line satiefying ara(z — 2 ee g Sa ae 9-5)BUG, 0) From AABP, it follows that BPA + FAB = FBD => BPA d= (0) => BPA=0-6 | eee: > BPA= Fe 7 As @and ¢ vary, the angle BPA is constant and is a Further complex numbers All points on L, satisfy arg(z - 6) = @ All points on L, satisfy arg(z - 2) = &. ‘Therefore the point P is found lying on both l, and L,where 0-6 = 7 As Pllies on Ly and Ly, it is found where L; and Ly intersect. The exterior angle of a triangle is the sum of the two opposite interior angles. From diagram, PAB = # and PBD = 0, Using 0- 6= 2 @ P can vary but BBA must always be = From circle theorems, angles in the same segment of a circle are equal. Therefore as P varies, BPA will always be equal to Z. So, it follows that P must lie on an arc of a circle cut off at A(2, 0) and at &(6, 0). Fas the angle subtended at the centre of the circle is twice the angle at the circumference. ‘As CAand CB are both radii, then the radius, r= CA= CB, ‘This implies that AOAB is isosceles and AB = CBAAN | At x! AGO)" XG) BU.) wo, = Hence the Cartesian equation of the locus a ) ees Mersey ee Itarg(= z 29(5= Hence, 0-g= g Given that the complex number z = x + iy satisfies the equation |z ~ 12 ~ Sil = 3, find the minimum value of |2| and maximum value of |2\.Further complex numbers lzlnn = OC - CX = 13 - B= 10, zine = OC + CY =13 +3 =16, The minimum value of |2| is 10 and the maximum value of |z| is 16. rete 1) Sketch the locus of z and give the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: a (2-6 b i= 10 © |z-3)=2 a [z+ 3i/=3 e 2-4il=5 f iz+aj=1 giz-1- hiz+3+4i=4 i 2-S+6i)=5 j 22+6-4i-6 k [32 - 9 ~ 6i] = 12 1 [37-9 ~6i)=9 2) Sketch the locus of z when: b arg + 3) =F © arg — 2) =F angie + 2 + 21) = -F e arg(z-1 an £ arg(z + 3i) = 7 B arg(z— 1+ 3i) = 37 bh argiz~ 3 + 4) = -F i arg(z - 41) = 3) Sketch the locus of z and give the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: a |z- 6)=|2-2 b z+ 8/=|2-4) © [2 = \2+ 61 d |z + 3i] = 2 - 8! e |z—2- 2i) =|z+2+ 2i) f jz+4+il=|z+4 + 6i) g [z+ 3 - Sil =|2-7- Si] hh z+ 4-2i =|2-8 + 2 \z +3] , l2+6-i) _ iva? I-70 k |z+ 7+ 2i =|2- 4-31 1 z+1-6i/=|2+3i-2 4 Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: az-7=0 bz+2=0 5) Sketch the locus of z and give the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: a |2-2)=3 b |si-2=4 € |3-2i-2)=3 6) Sketch the locus of z and give the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: a [z+ 3) =3)2- 5] b z-3)= 42+ 1) © |z- i= 22 +i di z+2-7ij = 22 - 10+ 23] e [z+ 4 -2i| = 22-2 - Si] f |= 22-2)charrea 3 Sketch the locus of z when: a an(rea)-F © ag(-25)-2 © argz ~ arg(z - 2 + 3i) = 2 Use the Argand diagram to find the value of z that satisfies the equations |2| = Sand arg(z + 4) = % ~ 2il Given that the complex number z satisfies |z ~ a sketch, on an Argand diagram, the locus of z. Given further that arg(z — 2 - 2i) b find the value of z in the form a + ib, where a € Rand be R. Sketch on the same Argand diagram the locus of points satisfying a |z- 2i| =|z- Bil, b arg(z - 2-1) ‘The complex number z satisfies both |z ~ 2i| = |z ~ 8i| and arg(z ~ 2 ~ i ¢ Use your answers to parts a and b to find the value of z Sketch on the same Argand diagram the locus of points satisfying 4 a |z- 342i b argz ~ 1 4and arg(z — 1) = Ff ‘The complex number z satisfies both |z ~ 3 + 2i Given that z= a+ ib, where a © Rand b ER, © find the exact value of a and the exact value of b. On an Argand diagram the point P represents the complex number z. Given that |z ~ 4 ~ 3i| = 8, a find the Cartesian equation for the locus of P, bi sketch the locus of P, ¢ find the maximum and minimum values of |2| for points on this locus. Given that arg(z.+ 4) = %, a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which represents zon an Argand diagram, b find the minimum value of |z| for points on this locus. ‘The complex number z = x + iy satisfies the equation |z + 1 + ij = 2\z + 4 ~ 2i) ‘The complex number z is represented by the point P on the Argand diagram. a Show that the locus of P is a circle with centre (~5, 3). b Find the exact radius of this circle.Further complex numbers 15. If the complex number z satisfies both arg z = gand arg(z - 4) a find the value of z in the form a + ib, where a € Rand b ER. bb Hence, find arg(z ~ 8) ‘16 The point P represents a complex number z in an Argand diagram. Given that |z + 2 — 2v3i| = 2, a sketch the locus of P on an Argand diagram. b Write down the minimum value of arg z. ¢ Find the maximum value of arg z. 17) The point P represents a complex number z in an Argand diagram. Given that argz~ arg(z + 4) = Fis a locus of points P lying on an arc of a circle C, a sketch the locus of points P, b find the coordinates of the centre of C, © find the radius of C, d find a Cartesian equation for the circle C, € find the finite area bounded by the locus of P and the x-axis, 3,8. You can use complex numbers to represent regions on an Argand diagram. el a Shade in, on separate Argand diagrams the region represented by i [z-4-2i<2, ii |z- 4|<|z- 6), iii O< arg - 2 - 21) < F ‘b Hence on the same Argand diagram shade in the region which satisfies je-4-2i)<2, je- 4) <|z- 6 and 0 < arg(z ~ 2-2) <3 ai |z-4-2) <2,cuarren 3 6 F iii O 2 fl<(+4ij<4 © z+ 7|=|2-1 g3<[e-345i<5 diz + 6)>|z+2+8i) hh 2\z > |2- 3)Further complex numbers 2) The region R in an Argand diagram is satisfied by the inequalities |z| <5 and |z| = |z ~ 6i|, Draw an Argand diagram and shade in the region R. 3) Shade in on an Argand diagram the region satisfied by the set of points Px, y), where jer ~ i] wt2-4i + lw+2-4) =| — = lwt2-4)=2 at = Wwl= [4 > |S |l4) ——__ > |wl=@@) -e—_ 6 0 je Rearrange to make z the subject. Apply the modulus to both sides of the equation. Apply |z\ = 2. The image of P under T,is |w + 2 — 4i This is represented by a circle centre (—2, 4), radius 2. Therefore the transformation T, w= 2~2+4i, represents a translation of 2 by the vector (2) Apply the modulus to both sides of the equation. Apply 12:22| = |2ill22!. Apply [3] = 3 and |2\= 2. The image of P under T,is |w| = 6. This is represented by a circle centre (0, 0), ra 56. ‘Therefore the transformation Ty: w = 32, represents an enlargement of z by scale factor 3 about the point (0, 0). Rearrange to make 32 the subject. Apply the modulus to both sides of the equation, Apply [2:22] = |zillz2\- Apply || = 3 and |z| = 2, The image of P under T,is |w ~ i] = 1. This is represented by a circle centre (0, 1) radius 1 ‘Therefore the transformation Ty: w represents an enlargement of z by scale factor $ about the point (0, 0), followed by a translation by a translation vector (9) l+i,Further complex numbers It follows that w= z+ a+ ibrepresents a translation with translation vector (), where a, b ¢ R. w= kz represents an enlargement scale factor k centre (0, 0), where k> 0 and k ER. Mm w= kz + a+ ibrepresents an enlargement scale factor k centre (0, 0) followed by a translation with translation vector (j), where k> Oand a, b, ke R. ae For the transformation w = 2, where z = x + iy and w = w + iv, find the locus of w when z lies ona circle with equation x? + y? = 16. j= 4} aD w= = [ol =[2]-———-— te hems of ech oft equi.) a ee ee me => |wl=16 ——— Hence the locus of wis a circle centre (0, 0), radius 16. Seta S| ‘The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = w + iy, to the w-plane where w =u + iv, +i is given by w= S244 yp i, Show that the image, under T, of the circle |z] = 1 in the z-plane isa line / in the w-plane. Sketch | on Argand diagram. eon > zt) =5i2 +1 > wet+w= Sirti = = 4charren 3 2s jeca w- Si obo sls I> pearangings => |w- Si] = |(-N@ - => (w= Si] = [Dil — dL > w= Si] = Jw — | ——__1 (0, 5) 1 0,1) op. Therefore the image of |z| = 1, under T, jo the line [with equation v = 3, ee is given by w= The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + jy, to the w-plane where w =u + iv, 32-254 rae Show that the image, under T, of the circle with equation x? + y? = 4 in the z-plane is a circle C in the w-plane. State the centre and radius of C. Ee wz+1)=32-2 wetw= 32-2 wt2=23-W) wt2 3-w x2 +? = 4 can aloo be written as | = = > wt2=3z2-wz = os ZiFurther complex numbers lw 2] = 2|-tI]w— w+ 2| = 2|w— 3] lot te 2] = 20+ 3] ———__)- _ re \u+ 2) + =2\u-3) +4 —— ee : t2e%+v=4u-3P+ 4] —__| + 4ut 44% = 4[u2—- Gut 9tv] w+ 4u +4 + v? = 4u? — 24u + 36 + 4 Bu? — 26u + Sv? + 32 =0 eS Bitte B=0 | nonin 4 +t B= (f+ Therefore the image of x° + y = 4, under T, ie a circle Cwith centre (#, 0), radius ¥. HJYQuU He YUH HE YY A transformation T of the z-plane to the w-plane is given by w Show that as z lies on the real axis in the z-plane, then w lies on the line / in the w-plane. Sketch Jon an Argand diagram. > Wi 2)=i2-2 > wrowz=iz-2 3 wt2=utiz > wt2=awt) = whe wicuarren 3 pe edivataey Se utivti _w+2+u ~ utivet a lut2 +i, wit) > 2" TF wrt) © p= ere _ uu + 2) =u + vt) + iw + vv tN) Fawr he TOT So, xty= vut 2) + v4) | Jus (wt 2) +1) w+ (vt Ne | Pr wt ip ‘Ae z lies on the real axie then y = O. So, ut 2) +vv+t)) f= (ut 2+) ee | are | w= (+ 2\v+t) ett ie Hence, O = a = > S w-(ut2vett=o w— (w+ u+ 2v+2)=0 w-w-u-2v-2=0 -u-2=2 So wlies on the line | with equation v= —Lu — 1, z eee a Ea eee) +(e a | : iifFurther complex numbers For the transformation w = z + 4 + 3i, sketch on separate Argand diagrams the locus of w when a zlies on the circle |z) = 1, z b zlies on the half-line argz = 5, ¢ zlies on the line y = x. A transformation T from the z-plane to the w-plane is a translation with translation vector ( 3 in the form w = az + b, where a, bEC. followed by an enlargement scale factor 4, centre O. Write down the transformation T For the transformation w = 32 + 2 — Si, find the equation of the locus of w when z lies on a circle centre O, radius 2, For the transformation w = 2z ~ 5 + 3i, find the equation of the locus of w as z moves on the circle |z - 2) = 4. For the transformation w = z~ 1 + 2i sketch on separate Argand diagrams the locus of w when: a zlies on the circle |z ~ 1 b zlies on the half-line arg(z ~ 1 +i) = Z © lies on the line y = 2x. 1 For the transformation w = 5, z # 0, find the locus of w when: a zlies on the circle |2) = 2, bz lies on the half-line with equation arg z =F, ¢ zlies on the line with equation y = 2x + 1 For the transformation w = 7, a show that as z moves once round a circle centre (0, 0), radius 3, w moves twice round a Circle centre (0, 0), radius 9, b find the locus of w when z lies on the real axis, with equation y = 0, € find the locus of w when z lies on the imaginary axis. If zis any point in the region R for which |z + 2i| <2, a shade in on an Argand diagram the region R. Sketch on separate Argand diagrams the corresponding regions for R where: bw=z-2+5i, ce w=42+2+ 4i, d [aw + 2in) =charren 3 a 13 15 For the transformation w = 71, z + 2, show that the image, under T, of the circle centre , radius 2 in the z-plane is @ line lin the w-plane. Sketch / on an Argand diagram. ‘The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w = 1+ iv, is given by w= 18,2 40. ‘a The transformation T maps the points on the circle z ~ 4) = 4, in the z-plane, to points on alline in the w-plane. Find the equation of J. b Hence, or otherwise, shade and label on an Argand diagram the region R which is the image of |z — 4) < 4 under T. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z= x + iy, to the w-plane where w 3 pipete Show that under T the straight line with equation 2y = x is transformed to a circle in the w-plane with centre (3, $ +iv, is given by w= |, radius 4V5, ‘The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + siz+ z+ ‘a The transformation T maps the points on the circle with equation x? + y? = 1 in the z-plane, to points on a line | in the w-plane. Find the equation of I. is given by w= Ze b Hence, or otherwise, shade and label on an Argand diagram the region R of the w-plane which is the image of |z| = 1 under T. ¢ Show that the image, under T, of the circle with equation x? + y? = 4 in the z-plane is a circle C in the w-plane. Find the equation of C. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z= x + ly, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, 42-3 is given by w = tet, zd Show that the circle |2| = 3 is mapped by T onto a circle C. Find the centre and radius of C. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z= x + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, ga 4 is given byw= 124-1. a Show that the image, under T, of the real axis in the z-plane is a circle C, in the w-plane. Find the equation of C, b Show that the image, under T, of the line = 4 in the plane isa Find the equation of C,. le Cz in the w-plane, ‘The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w +h, sara oxo Show that the transformation T maps the points on a circle |2, = 2 to points in the interval [-k, k] on the real axis. State the value of the constant k.Further complex numbers 16 The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w= u + iv, it ., re Show that the line with equation 2x — 2y + 7 = 0 is mapped by T onto a circle C. State the centre and the exact radius of C. is given by w= 124-3. Mixed exercise Eq coproge (008 3k + i sin 3x)? - : ; I) Express €05 3* + 1 Sin 35), she form cos me + i sin me where m is an integer to be determined. cosx — isinx 2 Use de Moivre’s theorem to evaluate a(-1+i 3) a Ifz= cos 6 + isin é, use de Moivte's theorem to show that z+ 4, = 2.cos né. i" bb Express (2? + 4)" in terms of cos 69 and cos 26. € Hence, or otherwise, show that cos? 20 = a cos 60 + b cos 24, where a and b are constants. Hence, or otherwise, show that [ cos? 264 = kv3, where k is a constant. 4) a Use de Moivre's theorem to show that cos 58 = cos (16 cost @ ~ 20 cos? @ + 5). S4+V5 a b By solving the equation cos 54 = 0, deduce that cos” (70) ¢ Hence, ot otherwise, write down the exact values of cos? (3), cos? (2) anaceast (2%). 5 a Express 4 ~ 4i in the form (cos @ + i sin 6), where r > 0, —< @% 7, where rand @are exact values, b Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation 2° = 4 ~ 4i leaving your answers in the form z= Re™, where R is the modulus of z and k is a rational number such that -1< k= 1. © Show on an Argand diagram the points representing your solutions. 6) a Find the Cartesian equations of i the locus of points representing |z — 3 + i) = jz — 1 - ii the locus of points representing |z ~ 2| = 2/2. b Find the two values of z that satisfy both |z ~ 3 + ij = |z ~ © Hence on the same Argand diagram sketck il and |z ~ 2] = 2/2. ithe locus of points representing |z ~ 3 + i) = |z— 1 - il, ii the locus of points representing |z ~ 2) = 2V2. The region R is defined by the inequalities |z — 3 + i] = |z — 1 ~ij and |z ~ 2| = 2y2. On your sketch in part ¢, identify, by shading, the region R.charren 3 7) a Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points representing |z + 21 = I2z ~ 11. 2 Mand arg z= F © Hence shade in the region R on an Argand diagram which satisfies both |z + 21> lz ~ 11 b Find the value of z which satisfies both |z + 21 I2z Zeagz< and F< argz.< x. 8) The point P represents a complex number z in an Argand diagram. Given that |z + 1- iJ =1 a find a Cartesian equation for the locus of P, b sketch the locus of P on an Argand diagram, € find the greatest and least values of |2\, d find the greatest and least values of |z ~ 1). 9) Given that arg a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which represents z on an Argand diagram, b deduce the exact value of |z — 2 ~ 4il 10. Given that arg (z — 2 + 4i) P a sketch the locus of P(t, y) which represents z on an Argand diagram, b find the minimum value of |2| for points on this locus. 11) The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv is givenbyw=4, 240. ‘a Show that the image, under T, of the line with equation x = in the w-plane. Find the equation of C. in the z-plane is a circle C b Hence, or otherwise, shade and label on an Argand diagram the region R of the w-plane which is the image of x = 3 under T. 112) The point P represents the complex number z on an Argand diagram, Given that |z + 4i] = 2, a sketch the locus of P on an Argand diagram. b Hence find the maximum value of |2. T,, Ts, Ty and T, represent transformations from the z-plane to the w-plane. Describe the locus of the image of P under the transformationsFurther complex numbers 13) The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w= u + iv, fe att a4 is given by w= 242, 24-1. a Show that the image, under T, of the imaginary axis in the z-plane is a line !in the w-plane, Find the equation of I. b Show that the image, under T, of the line y = x in the z-plane is a circle C in the w-plane. Find the centre of C and show that the radius of Cis } V10. 14 The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy to the w-plane where w = u + iv, 4 4 Soe 24 Hi 1 is mapped by T onto a line J. Show that / can be written in the form, ), where a, b and c are integers to be determined. is given by w= ‘The circle |z| au + bv + ¢ 15| The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, = 3iz +6 i ae Show that the circle |z| = 2 is mapped by T onto a circle C. State the centre of C and show that the radius of C can be expressed in the form k v5 where k is an integer to be determined. is given by w 16 A transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane is defined by w where a, b, cER. Given that w = 1 when z = O and that w= 3 ~ 2i when z= 2 + 3i, a find the values of a, b and c, find the exact values of the two points in the complex plane which remain invariant under the transformation, 17| The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w = w+ iv, is given by w=231 240. a The transformation T maps the points on the line with equation y = x in the z-plane other than (0, 0), to points on the /in the w-plane. Find an equation of I. b Show that the image, under T, of the line with equation x + y + 1 = 0 in the zplane is a Circle C in the w-plane, where C has equation 1? + v?— w+ v= 0. © On the same Argand diagram, sketch land C.YD charrea 3. Summary of key points 1 A complex number, z, can be expressed in any one of three forms: e z=xtiy * 2= (cos 0+ isin é) o z=re" where r= |z) = a" + 9 and 0= arg z. For complex numbers z; = (cos @; + i sin @,) and zp = 13(cos @ + i sin @), © 242, = rurfcos (0, + 6) + isin (0, + @)) F. (Cos (0, ~ 0) +i sin (0, ~ 0) © [eizal = |2ill2o| © arg (2, x 25) = arg (2)) + arg (22) 2 | tail al ~ (zal @ arg (2) ~ Z) = arg (z\) ~ arg (2) Ifz = r(cos 8 + isin @), then de Moivre's theorem states form € Q that [r(cos @ + isin @)]” = "(cos nd + i sin nd). To express either sin" @ or cos’ @in terms of either cos k@ or sin k@ you need to be able to apply the following identities: il. ay Le z+}=2c086 2+ J = 2eos nd ee pide z-}=2ising 2 X= tisinnd You need to recognise the following loci: o e-al=r© arg(2~2)= 0 ” for the fixed points z, = x; + iy, 2: = x2 + iypand variable point z = x + jy.Review Exercise Find the set of values of x for which Léx < 8x? = x, Find the set of values of x for which 2 21 x-2 x41 eo eo 68 Find the set of values of x for which Cal de, e-2 e Find the set of values of x for which 2 as 24 Find the set of values of x for which =5>3. dw -S5>z xtkyk x for which 2 > &. a Sketch the graph of y = t + 2). b Use algebra to solve the inequality 2x > |x + 2) Given that k is a constant and that k > 0, find, in terms of k, the set of values of © a Sketch the graph of y = |x - 2a, given that a > 0. b Solve jx ~ 2a] > 2x + a, where a > 0. © a On the same axes, sketch the graphs of y= xandy = [2 ~ 1), bb Use algebra to find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the two graphs. © Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which |2r — 1| > x. @ a On the same axes, sketch the graphs ofy = | - S| andy = [3¢ - 2| distinguishing between them clearly. b Find the set of values of x for which be - §| < 3x - 2). @® Use algebra to find the set of real values of x for which |x ~ 3) > 2x + 1),© Find the set of real values of x for which a Usealgehee ile tie Scab, =1i ag aetd cy jeez 30-*- ‘b Hence, or otherwise, find the set of Js e values of x for which wo <3 -2). ©® Solve, fora, the inequality e+ 2) i) |Sx + a| < |2x|, where a > 0. oe 4 a Express yay partial @) a Using the same axes, sketch the curve factions. with equation y = (x? ~ 6x + 8| and the b Hence, or otherwise, show that line with equation 2y = 3x ~ 9. State ieee Meaoeeaiae uabiiiiaa the coordinates of the points where the — 2 in oe curve and the line meet the x-axis, Ler iesy a2 b Use algebra to find the coordinates of 2 the points where the curve and the (r+ Ir + 3) line intersect and, hence, solve the b Hence prove that inequality 2\x? — 6x + 8) > 3x — 9. a 2 __n(Sn + 13) Do GF HOF y “has Ws ° a Express in partial fractions. ® a Sketch, on the same axes, the graph of (@ — 2) — 4), and the line with a Show that y equation — m. Lo 1 Zz himatten ovale iorabods r4+2 F410 @s rea "S2- Find the exact values of x for whict He hi fi ee - 2) - 4) =6 — 2x »b Hence, or otherwise, find 1 : © Hence solve the inequality DY eras ay Biving your answer m= |@ ~ 2) - 4) <6 - 2x. ® asa single fraction in terms ofn. = @. 2 {OG et ETD ‘a Express f(x) in partial fractions, b Hence find >> (0. e @®) a Express as a simplified single fraction ry b Hence prove, by the method of The figure above shows a sketch of the differences, that curve with equation = | ee 2. 7” pe 2I The curve crosses the x-axis at = 1 € Find the sum ofthe series and x = —1 and the line x = —2 isan 154 Bin 1d i asymptote of the curve. Ing + Ing + Ing +... + In e od1 a Express + 5 in partial fractions a Show vhs , B b Hence prove, by the method of, ose sea differences, that Rermd, =i Py 4g _ AGN 8) rina 41 : 2. wD "G+ DUD Find )> Tfy1 expressing your 466 answer as a single fraction in its 4 , ¢ Find the value fDi $5 simplest form. 4 decimal places. oe a Express a a in partial fractions. i > 2r+3 1 @ a By expressing 5525 in partial b Hence ind) ry e Teactins, abotnierwalse, prave that ® a Sketch, in an Argand diagram, the curve y 2 -_,__1 with equation |z ~ 2i] = 1 ZH mnt {aro Given that the point representing the b Hence find the exact value of complex number z lies on this curve, 20) b find the maximum value of |z) oe Lar e Solve the equation 25 = i, giving your answers in the form cos @ + isin 6. Given that for all real values of r, (2r +1)? = @r- 18 = Ar? +B, e where A and B are constants, €®D show that a find the value of A and the value of B. cos 2x + isin 2x cos Ox — isin x b Hence show that can be expressed in the form 1 cos nx + i sin mx, where nis an integer gna + 12h + 1). to be found. Ly The transformation T from the z:plane to the w-plane is given by z+ 7 Find the image in the w-plane of the circle a Show that \z| = 1, 2# 1 under the transformation. ff k {0-H + De heEay stating the value of k. c Cateuate S> Gr- 17. oe zl 1 w are iy "© * fe) © a Express z = 1 + iv3 in the form b Hence show, by the method of 1{cos 0+ isin 0), r>0,—7<0< am, differences, that b Hence, or otherwise, show that the two iy 1 inn + 3) _ solutions of Aare DEF D MF DAN +1) wa(+wD e are (2V2)i and (—2v2)i. eoThe transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane is given by 22-1 z-2° Show that the circle |z| = 1 is mapped onto the circle |w) = 1 w a Solve the equation B=444i giving your answers in the form z= rel, where ris the modulus of z and k is a rational number such that O 0, —7< 057, bb Show that your solutions satisfy the equation P+=0, for an integer k, the value of which should be stated. ‘a Use de Moivre’s theorem to show that sin 58 = sin @ (16 cos! @ ~ 12 cos? 4 + 1). b Hence, or otherwise, solve, for Os0 O-— intchapren 4 The graphs of x= (555), t= 0, form the family of solution curves for this differential equation. These are parts of parabolae. In questions 1-8 find the general solution of the differential equation and sketch the family of solution curves represented by the general solution. dy _ 1 yy _ 3) ge dy _2y 5) 7 rE 7 Gee x>0 9 &- cosz O = lfferential equation = 3 a Sketch the members of the family of solution curves for which a= 4, 1 and 4 b Find also the particular solution, which passes through the point (1, 3), and add this curve to your diagram of solution curves. {14) Given that k is an arbitrary positive constant, show that 2 + kx? = 9k is the general solution " dy | Hy = of the differential equation 3 = 575 al = 3. a Find the particular solution, which passes through the point (2, 5) b Sketch the family of solution curves for k = j, 3, 1 and include your particular solution in the diagram,First order differential equations = You cannot separate the ee) variables in this example, but Find the general solution of the equation ft + 3x¥y = sin x, yeaa ee ay oi 2 Set ec a $0 442%) = sin x ox _t vaty = face xy = —cosx+c¢e-——] 05x + & Soy = 4 ¥ In general, note that a Use this result to begin to solve an exact + 12 + rey= Ley) differential equation like the one in Example 5 (] e@+y=cosx (2) eM —eryazet sine © + ycose=3 12-dy-¢ 5 ve ® + oem x [6] ary @ + 292 (7) a Find the general solution of the differential equation x a + day = 2041 b Find the three particular solutions which pass through the points with coordinates (-4,0), (-4, 3) and (~4, 19) respectively and sketch their solution curves for x < 0. 8| a Find the general solution of the differential equation ayy 1 ine Dp de ina ety ae ee Dy 1 wt b Find the specific solution which passes through the point (2, 2). reechapren 4 sing x ae You can multiply this equation a oy = eine by x to make it into an exact i ax x x ‘equation. \ Multiply this equation by x2 __ 34y Es + xis called an integrating factor. i we + Sx2y = in xe ax Se 4 r This an exact equation which The solution is y= ~1 cos x + &-—____—=—_ was solved as Example 5 in the x previous section. = dy Solve the general equation 2 + Py = Q where P and Q are functions of x. You do this te ike the ti Multiply the equation by the integrating factor f(x). +— grec 4 Then f(x) a + F(x) Py = fa o a ———— ‘Compare the left hand side of The equation is now exact and 90 the left hand your diferential equation with the format for an exact differential equation, side is of the form a : me +F'(xy — 4 ay. e, 60 f(x) & + ayry = fy B+ Peay : F(x) = H)P Dividing by f(x) and integrating I of dx = [Pax ‘Compare the coefficients of y and put them equal, This is a In integral as the numerator is the derivative of the denominator. aa Inlf(x)| = JPax You need to learn this formula for the integrating factor. foor= Equation © becomes This will lead to a solution provided that these integrals can be found, a et 5 ore ry = PQ — a ™ The left hand side will always be (oir y) = elreQ _—_y x integrating factor. This is the solution to the a elt ery = fel Qdx + C differential equation.First order differential equations For the general equation 2 + Py = Q where P and Qare functions of x, you obtain the integrating factor by finding e!”¢ You obtain the general sol 1n to the differential equation by using e!”*y = je”dxQdx + C ‘nd the general solution of the equation Z ay =e, The integrating factor feel = @l-+4t = g-4r «L —Find the integrating factor.) ay 4A y= oF, Fen te ty = ete (9-4 y) = 9 we ge lowry) sere ety = Jo dx So e** Een Find the general solution of the equation cos. 2 + 2y sin x = costa Divide through by cos x dy. equation is in vs Gy t 2y tan x = cos x. oO The integrating factor is el? = g[ttansdr = g2lnscox Py=Q nsoo's = geg? x oy ay 2 2 x cost sec? x 7 + 2y 9¢c? x tan x = sec x coo? x A ly sec? x) = cos x y sec? x = Joos xdx y 80% x=sinxto y = cos? x(sin x + c)-—___1charren 4 ic In questions 1-10 find the general solution of each linear differential equation. T) Braye dz <— 2) Vs ycotx=1 a ¥ 3) Vsysine =e gty dy oe 4| B-y=e +ytanx =x cosa yl4 dy 7 ax . wy l1 dex x? dy x 7) eBay hy e>-2 4 2 yy 8) 30 +yse ay 9] @ +2 -y= +2) yy pie aol xe tay=S {11] Find y in terms of x given that 4 * = + 2y = ef and thaty = 1 whenx = {12 Solve the differential equation, giving y in terms of x, where 2% _ py = andy =1atx 13) a Find the general solution of the differential equation LY yoy = a2 4 19 (e+2}at 2y = 2? + 12, giving y in terms of x Find the particular solution which satisfies the condition that y = 1 atx 114) a Find the general solution of ‘the differential equation wy = z cosa ty l ~F<2 0, intoa differential equation in z and x. By first solving this new equation, find the general solution of the original equation, giving y? in terms of x. Sketch the particular solution curves passing through (0.5, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0) and (3, 0) respectively. z re @ x dy _ x2 + By? late to give Substituting nto SL =~ =F : ae y aay) ae : x dl t , “inl + 24) = Ine +e — ————— (1 + 2) = Ax, where A to a positive constant ++—— Take exponentials and let A=es | & (1 +(E))aa oa xt (Ar-1)eat ‘cranren 4 a Use the substitution 7 = differential equation in z and x. “| to transform the differential equation s + ay = xy’, into a ~- by Solve the new equation, using an integrating factor. ¢ Find the general solution of the original equation, giving y in terms of x. a Asza=y y= . Weide aE ax Substituting into Cs ¢ Butasy=z" 1 y= 1+ ce:First order differential equations Bema Use the substitution 1 = y ~ x to transform the differential equation ct +2 de y—at3 into a differential equation in w and x. By first solving this new equation, show that the general solution of the original equation may be written in the form ( — a)? + 6y ~ 4x — 2c = 0, where c is an arbitrary constant. Letu=y-x du 4y _ isferentiate to aive 2! i dy Then au = Differentiate to give Min terms of Subetituting into SE du 2 Make 9 the subject ofthe formula and a substitute. Rearrange and simplify your equation. Separate the variables and integrate. Substitute back to give your result in terms of x and y. In questions 1-4 ,use the substitution z = % to transform the given homogeneous differential equation into a differential equation in z and x. By first solving the transformed equation, find the general solution of the original equation, giving y in terms of x. yy yx Ter ytp FPOy>0 2 oy _y e- 5] Use the substitution z = y~? to transform the differential equation dy eews = z Qsecayy!, —F Let y =e", then Ee = me™ and ot o. 2irer™ + Sme™ + Be™ = 0 “(2nf + 5m +3) =0 As et™ > 0, (2m? + 1. (@m + 3)(m +1) Substitute into the differential equation. — Find the auxiliary equation. Solve to give the two values of m. a , A ee Write the general solution as a sum poe ea he aie ioe crrmuuples ofthe two independent where A and B are arbitrary constants. ‘solutions, using two constants as shown. gn \d the general solution of each of the following differential equations: @y | ody _ Py ody ay Set no 2| Gr 8a, t y= 0 Xy ody 3 +25 Isy=0 4 28y = 0 . 5 - 129 =0 6 ay , oy = 7 a = 7) Saat Tay tno 8 ry — 2y = 0 9) 682 Wy 9 ‘de? deay dy Show that y = (A + Bx)e™ satisfies the equation 9 ~ 65% +9 =0. Let y = Ae* + Bre*, then a YY = BAc% + BBxe™ + Be™ and — ax ee 2Y = one + OBxe™ + BBe% + BBE = 9Ac% + 9Bxe% + 660% 50 24 — 6 + gy = ore + 9Bre™ + OBe™ dx ax ~6BAee + BBxe% + Be®) +9(Ae% + Bre) =0 y= (A + Brje* is a solution of the equation. When the auxiliary equation has two equal roots a, the general solution of the differential equation is * and xe™ are independent solutions of the differential equation when the y= (A+ Bae, auxiliary equation has repeated roots. where A and B are arbitrary constants, dy Find the general solution of the differential equation oF +e + ley = 0. 4 moran 8Y = rt Fe™ + Bme™ + 1Ge™ =O eo (mm? + Bm + 16) = O—_—— Aoe™ >0, (m+ 6m +16)=0 (m+ 4% =0-—_——_ [| m= —4 only Let y =e", then Sol find the re The general solution in this case is y = (A + Bx)e~*Second order differential equations Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations: (a) $3 + 10% + asy =o 2) #3 siy-0 ay oy 8 os dy [3] gat 2g ty=0 4 ~ 8 + 16y=0 ay yd = a ye [5] gat Mg + 49y = 0 16g + 8G, t= 0 ay @y dy (7) 3 -4gty=0 8) 4g + 209, + 25y=0 dx? Gea: ay Find the general solution ofthe differential equation 3 + 16y = 0 ay * then <2 = me" and jon Se me a Let mel + 1Ge"™ = 0 . o(m? + 16) = 0 Ase™>0, (mt +16)=0 m=-16 and m= +4) The general solution is y = Fe** + Qe-*, where P and @ are constants. This may be written as y= Plcos 4x + isin 4x) + Q(cos 4x — iin 4x) = (P + Q cos 4x + i(P — Q) sin 4x or y= Acos 4x + Bain 4x, where A and Bare constants and A = F + Qand B= i(P — Q) When the auxiliary equation has two imaginary roots ~io, the general solution of the differential equation is y= Acos wx + Bsin wx, where A and B are arbitrary constants. 10 £24 5¥ 4 ay=0 ‘You may quote this result after finding imaginary roots of the auxiliary equation,warren 5 Se Find the general solution of the differential equation ¢ = er then Y= mer ana ty Levy =e" then 7 = me" and 5 me™ — Eme™ + B4e"* = O e™(n? — 6m + 34) = 0 Ase™>0, m?— 6m +34=0 6+ V36- 16 _6+ 2 m= 3+ Si The general solution is y = Fe@*5! where P and Q are constante. Thie may be written ae + Qen®) So y = &* (A cos Sx + B sin Sx), —_ 5 y= or where A and B are constants and A= F + Qand B= i(P — Q). When the auxiliary equation has two complex roots p + ig, the general solution of the differential equation is y =e (Acos qx + Bsin qx), where A and B are arbitrary constants. + gee, af iy 6s syy=0 ix? = miter Find the auxiliary equation and solve to obtain conjugate complex values for m. Give the general solution using a ~ similar approach to Example 6 where the roots were imaginary. ‘Take out the real factor e*. —___ Rewrite eas cos 6 + isin 6 as you did in Example 6. You may quote this result after finding conjugate complex roots of the auxiliary equation Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations: ay I] gat =o 3 Bey=0 5 #3 + 13y=0 72 + sy 0 9 of 6s sy 0 as dy 4) 953 + ley =0 ay Besa ry=0 dy. _ + 20% + 109y = 0Second order differential equations ion ot” + bY. = When you are given the equation a5 + bo + cy = f(x), dy dy = Wi m " you need first to solve a5 + bc + cy = 0, as you did in the previous sections. The solution, which you obtain, is called the complementary function (abbreviated C.F.). ey 2 have one of the forms ke", A + Bx, A+ Bx + Cx? or mcos wx + nsin wx. You then need to find a solution of the equation a, + ow + gy = f(x), where f(x) will You find this by using an appropriate substitution and then comparing coefficients. The solution is called the particular integral (abbreviated P.l.) Find a particular integral of the differential equation * - se + 6y = f(x) when f(x) = a3 ‘b 2x o Be de e 13 sin 3x. - ay _ ay _ a lety = Athen 5 = O and 5 = #y _ gay Substitute into 5 — 55 + Gy ee Ot ON 2) eee waAah So a particular integral io 1 ee 4 b Levy = Ax + then B= A and 4 ay ae off + Gy = ar x Substitute into ax O-SX A+ Olax + p) = 2x1 — . (Gu — 5A) + GAx = 2x *, @@-5A=0 and GA= 20 =i A=3 and pas 1 eaters $0 a particular integral is tx + 3chapren 5: ay As f(x) = 3x2, which isa © Lety = Ar? + px + vthen Y= Zax + ‘quadratic function of x ax let Pl. = Ax? + px + », Ape also a quadratic function. A 2 Substitute as you did i Substitute into 24 — 6% + Gy = a2 _ eae ax? “de _L . 3x2 . 2A — B(2Ax + p) + O(Ax® + px + v) . te juate the constant (2h Bust Ot (Cie (BA OES Se “s @l ane we cenaereet . (2A = 5p + Gv) = O.and (6m - 104) = 0 and the coefficients of and GA =3 ~~ to give simultaneous equations, which you can solve to find A, wand v. =1 = A= Sand m= and v S0 a particular integral is 3 ay ay AS fx) = e*, whi = jctthen Y= Ae ona oo exponential function of aa eal x let Pl. = Ae%, also an exponential function. ay od Substitute into <4 — 69! + Gy = eF ae Pax Ae Dhci ts GAS ce Differentiate, substitute 2det = and solve to find the ae value of A. od $0 a particular integral fs As f(x) = 13 sin 3x, which is a trigonometric e Lety=Asin3x + pcos 3x function of x let ay Pl. = Asin 3x + pcos 3x, then ae BA cos 3x — Su sin 3x also a similar trigonometric function. a and —QA sin 3x — Sp cos 3x ax? ei at ai Substitute into 2Y — 5! + Sy = 13 oin Sx ax ax ~GA sin Bx — Op cos 3x —9(BA cos x — By sin Bx) +6(A cin Bx + coe Sx) = 13 ein Bx . (-9A + 15 + Ga) oin Bx + (-9p — 15A + Gy) cos Bx = 13 sin Bx Equate coefficients of Poe = Ea = sin 3x and of cos 3x So gs a 2 AS He and solve simultaneous A= HS and =e ‘equations. So a particular integral is —L sin 3x + 2 cos Sx You can find the general solution of the differential equation Y ya + bee + = fe), ing: y = complementary function + particular integral.Second order differential equations Bema Find the general solution of the differential equation ay ae a3 b 2x © 3x? de © 13 sin 3x y + 6y = fl) when f(x) = First cove 2Y — 54Y + Gy = 0 ae dx First find the complementary function by setting the right tet y = em, then Y + mem and hand side of the differential ax equation equal to zero and enn? — 5m + 6) =0 solving the resulting equation. Ase™>O, then m=3 or m=2 So the complementary function is y = Ae®* + Be, where A and B are arbitrary constants, The particular integral were found in Example 8 and £0 the general solutions are a y= Act Be 3, y = Act + Be + ox + ie ‘Then use general solution = y = Ae + Be + be? + Bx + 3 ‘complementary function ya Ae + BE + + particular integral. y= Ac + Bee — 2 enos sin Bx + 2cos 3x, Find the general solution of the differential equation © += As in Example 9, the complementary function is Perens at _ eee ee aiferenial equation ‘The particular integral cannot be Ae*, aS st @ + 6y = 0, soit a6 this ie part of the complementary function anact: a rey (cometimes abbreviated c-) ey si + 6y =e. oun 4 : So let y = Axe* then SY = 2axe* + det a . ia - and <4 = Adxe* + Zhe + Zhe = AAxe* + Ade ax #y _ av . Let the Pl be Axe® and Substitute into 2 — 53° + Gy =o “differentiate, substitute and Ahn! + ANCE — B(BANO™ + he) + Ode = solve to find A. -Ae = So a particular integral is —xe™ Then use general solution = The general solution is y = Ae* + Be* — xe*.._|__ complementary function + particular integral.warren 5 Se Find the general solution of the differential equation s oe Ase™> 0, m(m— m=Oorm=2 oo 2 So, the complementary function io y= A+ Be%, ea The particular integral cannot be A, a6 tiie ie part of the complementary function. ——— ay bstitute into <2 — Substitute into O-Pk = 3 an A= So a particular integral is Cr Find the complementary function by putting the right hand side of the differential equation equal to zero, and solving the new equation. Then try to find a particular integral. ‘The right hand side of the original equation was 3, which was a constant and usually this would imply a constant P. ‘As the complementary function includes a constant term ‘A’, the Pl. cannot also be constant. A value 3 pi Awouklentsy =e 10 dae “dx ey _ ty rather than G5 ~ 2G, = 3. ~ Multiply the ‘expected’ particular integral by x and try Ax instead. Then use general solution = ‘The general golution is y = A + Be — 1Lx.-———_ complementary function + particular integral. You may find this table helpful when trying particular integrals. Form of f(x) ee k a ke A+px kx? Atpx +yx2 ker Aor m cos wx eos wx tysin ox nsin ox Acos wx +msin ox moos wx + sinox | Acoswx +psin ox You should learn these particular integrals, When the Pl. is non standard the question ‘will probably suggest the form. of PA. to you, (See question 11 in Exercise 5D.)Second order differential equations - dy _ gay - SY + 62 + sy = 10 [2] G2 ~ 8g, + 12y = 36x a ey, ody ~ Ly = 12e" [a] $3 +2 - sy =5 + ley = Bx + 12 — ay (7) 53+ Bly = 15e* YY 5 — o5q2 Ma Age + 99 = 28-7 [11] a Find the value of a for which Ax%e* is a particular integral for the differential equation ay 4 yk aia te b Hence find the general solution. Find y in terms of x, given that © — y = 2e, and that ® = 0 andy = 0 atx 0. a & : ‘on A Firet consider the equation — Pee tees Leby = e™, then 2 = me™ and 2 aree’ ° "(n= 1) =0 Ase™>0, (m+ i)(m-1)=0 m= 1 So, the complementary function is y= Aet + Be>warren 5 ay As Act Sh - y= 0, it cannot ‘The particular integral cannot be Ac*,-——____|_- i os cannes a8 this is part of the complementary function also satisly 55 — y = 2e". So let y = Are* ay d then So = Axe + Aet and 5 + Instead try Ave* as a PA. Buber nie eae ax Axe* + Aeé + Aet — Are = 2e* nal So a particular integral is xe" ‘The general solution Is y= Act + Be* + xe. ‘Substitute the boundary condition, Sj = = ee y= Oat.x = 0, into the general CEN aaa ae solution to obtain an equation relating => A+B=0 Aand 8 Differentiating y = Ae* + Be + xe* with reopect to x gives Ee = Act — Be* + et + xe* ‘Substitute the second boundary x concition, 2 = 0 at x = 0, ito the dx a Since =O atx=O10-=A-B+1 > A-B=-1 derivative of the general solution, to ‘obtain a second equation relating A and 8. Solving the simultaneous equations gives Solve the two equations to find values for Aand B. io the required solution. en, that a a particular integral is of the form A sin 2f, find the solution of the differential re) Gi equation © + x = 3 sin 21, for which x = 0 and & = lwhen t= 0. a 2, First consider the equation 2% + x = 0 ‘Again find the complementary een function by putting the right hand side of the differential equation equal mie™ + om =O to zero, and solving the new equation. em(m? +1) = Ase™>0, m= So, the complementary function is x= Acost + Bsint,Second order differential equations ‘The particular integral is A sin 2t, SST So let x = Asin 2¢- inthe question, so use this in your d solution, then & = 2A cos 2t dt & and #% = —4) oin 2¢ Substteute into 22 + x = 3 in 2¢ at? J. TAA gin 2t + Asin 2t = 3 sin 2t al So a particular integral is —sin 2t Then use general solution = _ complementary function ‘The general solution is + particular integral. x = Acos t+ Bsin t — sin 26-— Since x= Oat t=0:0= A ‘Substitute the initial condition, x = => A=0 at t = 0, into the general solution to Differentiating x = B ein t — ein 2¢ with obtain A)=10: reepect to t gives % = +B cos t — 2 coe 2t Substitute the second initial oa condition, SF = 1 at t= 0, into the Since F |= B ~ 2+ derivative of the general solution, a ‘to obtain a second equation leading to B And sox = 3 sin f— ein 2tie the required solution. In questions 1-S find the solution subject to the given boundary conditions for each of the following differential equations. 1 +584 gy = 128 y=1and® =oatx=0 2 fy 2 <1 3) 2B gaya 4) 2 + oy = 16 sing 5 a +4 + Sy =sinx + 4 cosa y= and ® = oatx=0In questions 6-10 find the solution subject to the given initial conditions for each of the following differential equations. ae a 4 Be = 2-3 x=2and = 4whent=0 7) SX 9x = 10 sine x =2and = -1 when t=0 ry) x 4s gy — apert = oana tte - [8] PF 48 4 ax = ate x =0and 4 — 1 whent = 0 Hint: let PI. = Ate" (9) 25EE + 36x = 18 x= Land 4 = 0,6 when t= 0 a9 & x= 1and 4 = 3when t= 0 Given that x = e“, where w is a function of x, show that dy _ dy ody _ dy _ dy Oe” du eae die de ¢ Hence find the general solution of the differential equation a dy 28 Pry-0 a Aex= du From the chain rule dy a6 requiredSecond order differential equations ¢ Substitute the results of a and b into the differential equation This is a second order differential equation with constant coefficients which you know how to solve. Let y = e™, then me™ + e™ =O em me? + 1) = 0 Aoe™>0, me m= +i So, the general solution of the differential equation ay Solve the linear differential +y=Oisy=Acosu+ Bsinu, aut equation to give y in terms of u. where A and B are arbitrary constants. > u = Inx and the general solution of the ‘Then use u terms of differential equation x°> + y = 0 ig-——-— y = Acos (Inx) + Bin (In.x) In questions 1-6 find the general solution of each differential equation using the substitution x = e", where wis a function of x 1) 2% a s4y-0 2 eed 0 3 vs a®sey-0 4 OY gy y= 0 5 6 + ae +2=0 7 $ to transform the differential equation 8 2 af 4y = 0 into the equation ee ae 0. ~ ae oY _ 4y = 0, giving in terms of xchapren 5: 2 to transform the differential equation 282 4 rege + 8 + 208 + Wy = ion £5 + 22 + Da = et 2t’y a ji Hence solve the equation x° 75 + 2x + 2 + 2(¢ + 1Py = e~, giving y in terms of x. 9| Use the substitution z = sin x to transform the differential equation @y a 7 ty 2 PY sin alll =20-2 cos a3 + sin ag® ~ 2y costar = 2 cos* x into the equation 5 ~ 2y = 2(1~ 2%). &y dy bn Sofie Hence solve the equation cos x7 + sin. — 2y costa = 2 cos‘, giving y in terms of x WT temo Csa hy cont ont. Y 1) Find the general solution of the differential equation 7 + Ge ty = 0 oe 2. Find the I soh i i dy = dy y= general solution of the differential equation £2 ~ 12% + 36y = 0 3) Find the general solution of the differential equi wy rr and Y= 1 atx=0. e ay _ ty ae “ar 4 pi in terms of k and x, given that <> + ky = 0 where kis a constant, andy = 1 5 | Find the solution of the differential equation <> + 10y = 0 for which y = 0 ana & = Satx= 0. yay dee “de the form ke’, determine the value of the constant k and find the general solution of the equation. 6) Given that the differential equation + 13y = e has a particular integral of Hy 7) Given that the differential equation {> ~ y = 4c has a particular integral of the form kxe*, determine the value of the constant k and find the general solution of the equation. e. a + dy = 4e2"is to be solved. a Find the complementary function. b Explain why neither Ae” nor Axe* can be a particular integral for this equation, A particular integral has the form kx?e™. ¢ Determine the value of the constant k and find the general solution of the equation. 8) The differential equation10 a 12 13, 14 15, Second order differential equations dy 6 Given that the differential equation Es + 4y = 5 cos 3¢ has a particular integral of the form k cos 3¢, determine the value of the constant k and find the general solution of the equation. dy at Find the solution which satisfies the initial conditions that when ¢ = 0, = 1 and ay | de? dy Given that the differential equation + 2y = 4x + e has a particular integral of the form A + yur + kve*, determine the values of the constants A, 4 and k and find the general solution of the equation. p Find the solution of the differential equation 168% + + Sy = Sx + 23 for which y = 3 and Y= 3x = 0. show thaty = 2+ 3 forge ues of fi i ' i ion 22 — _ 3 i Find the solution of the differential equation —* — “ — @y = 3 sin 3x — 2 cos 3x for which & y = Latx = O and for which y remains finite for large values of x. " . ion @2 4. ode i Find the general solution of the differential equation {°F + 297 + 10x = 27 cost ~ 6 sin t. The equation is used to model water flow in a reservoir. At time ¢ days, the level of the water above a fixed level is am. When t = 0, x = 3 and the water level is rising at 6 metres per day. a Find an expression for x in terms of t. b Show that after about a week, the difference between the lowest and highest water level is approximately 6m. a Find the general solution of the differential equation 289. lds oy PEt ag tvs ing, x >0, 1g the substitution u e!, where wis a function of x. b Find the equation of the solution curve passing through the point (1, 1) with gradient 1. 2 c Solve the equation 2 + tan a + y cos?.x = cos? x e"4, by putting z = sin x, finding the ae wy ution for which y = 1 and solution for which y = 1 and ¢ 3atx=0.charrea summary of key points For the second order ferential equation ay + ro + = 0 the auxiliary quadratic equation is an? + bm + = 0. «If the auxiliary equation has two real distinct roots @ and (ic. when b? > 4ac) , the general solution of the differential equation is y = Ae“ + Be, where A and B are arbitrary constants. «Ifthe auxiliary equation has two equal roots a (i.e, when b* = dac), the general solution of the differential equation isy = (A + Bxje"*, where A and B are arbitrary constants. + Ifthe auxiliary equation has two imaginary roots “ic, (i.e, when b = 0 and ac > 0) the general solution of the differential equation isy = A cos an + B sin aw, where A and B are arbitrary constants. * Ifthe auxiliary equation has two complex roots p ~ ig (i.e, when D” < 4ac), the general solution of the differential equation is y = e” (A cos qx + B sin gx), where A and B are arbitrary constants. + For the differential equation afd so + y= fay: « Fist solve aS + 5 Y + oy =0. cnt The solution, which you obtain, called the complementary function. © Then you need to find a solution of the equation a + of + cy = fix). The solution is called the particular integral. 2 1 + oy =e, is y = complementary function + particular integral. © The general solution of the differential equation a> « You can use a given substitution to change the variables and transform a second order differential equation into one of the above types of equation, which you can then solve.After completing this chapter you should know how to: * find and use higher derivatives «derive and use Maclaurin’s series for simple functions «derive and use Taylor's series for simple functions * use the Taylor series method to find a series solution to a differential equation. Maclaurin and Taylor Series = -%) In this chapter you will see that under certain conditions a wide range of functions of x can be expressed as an infinite series in ascending powers of x; these are often referred to as power series. The series form of a function is used by a computer to evaluate a particular value of the function; for example, sin 10° is calculated by substituting (a) 10° in radians, into the series -_= Integrals of many common functions, for example e*", familiar to students of statistics, cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions, but approximations, to any required degree of accuracy, can be found by integrating a finite number of terms of the series expansion of the function. So, apart from being mathematically interesting, there is a real practical importance, and many problems in science and engineering can only be solved by approximating a function by its series expansion.Fora function f given by the equation y = f(x), the first and successive derivatives are given by wy dy dy oy de’ de?” de® or £'(), F(x), PG), Use the chain rule. r da a 4 = 1 1 A (W)o 4 Hg + See dee as gee) a eect te) wears A (AH) Sede ay ee eee eee ae aed] ag O09 = Fa OD = Ga Substitute x=h ‘The following example illustrates a method of finding values of derivatives without first finding an explicit algebraic expression for the derivative. Some functions lend themselves to this Process, which can be neat, particularly when successive derivatives become rather cumbersome. fx) = a Show that f'(x) = 2xf(2). b By differentiating the result in a twice more with respect to.x, show that i £"(e) = 2x) + 2x), i f(x) = 2uf"(x) + AF). ¢ Deduce the values of f'(0), £"(0), and £”(0) Te SS pad 2 fq) = ev Se, ax“ = 2xf(x) ————_—_____——-—- As fa) =e”. Use the product rule. So i F(x) = 2x) + 2xF"(x) and Hh (x) = 2f'(x) + {2xf"() + 2F'(x)}-———_iifferentiate again. giving F"(x) = 2xf"(x) + 44")Maclaurin and Taylor Series xOxe=0 20) +2xOXxF'O) + Substitute x = Oin at 2f(0) = 2 =2x0 x f"(0) + 4f'(0) Substitute x = 0 in aii, 4F'(0) 1 For each of the following functions, f(x), find f(x), f(a), f"(@) and f(x). ae b (1 +2)" © xe In(l +x) a’y 2. a Given thaty = °°, find an expression, in terms of y, for 5. b Hence show that %) hl) 3. Given that y = sin? 3x, dy. a show that 3 = 3 sin 6x. by ody b Find expressions for se an a’ © Hence evaluate 4 fo) =x, @ Show that f"(x) = (6x — 6 — xje", ‘b Show that f""(2) = 0. 5 Given that y = sec x, show that ay am 12. = 2 secix — secx, 6 Given thaty isa fon of x, show that «aly ey bb Find an expression, in terms oty, & Y and tor £0 yf 7 Given that f(x) = In {x + VT + 2”), show that a vite fw) =1, b (1 +22) £'@) + af'@) = 0, © (1 +x?) f(x) + 3xf"(x) + f'@) = d_ Deduce the values of f'(0), £"(0) and £"(0).6,2 You can express many functions of x as infinite series in ascending powers of x using Maclaurin’s expansio You have seen that functions such as \(T ¥ 2) and (1 ~ 2x)~! can be expressed, using the binomial expansion, in the form ay + aa + aya? + aya +... + a2" + ..., providing. is in a suitable interval, We shall now see how a wider range of functions can be expressed in this way. The following Example illustrates the process by which the series is constructed for a particular function. Given that f(x) = e* can be written as an infinite series in the form f(t) =e = ag ax + age? + asx? + taal ty and that it is valid to differentiate an infinite series term by term, show that we eye ealtet Ftd The coefficient. a, can be found immediately by setting x = 0, $0 as f(0) = (0) =1 Successively differentiating Sa ataxt art art... tax t ..., gives tea ae a eee ee oe f(t) = of = 2 X tag t BX Bax + ... + r(e—ta, E #"(x) = = SBX2!X1 at... tr — Nr 2)a,x > +. and ¢0 differentiating r times F(a) = e* = er — 1)(r— 2) X 1a, + terms in powers of x The coefficients a, a:, as... a,.can be found by substituting x = O into each result. (0) = & =a, = a=f(0)=1 #0) 2X1 = ao.then a #(0) =P = 2X lay #"(0) =P =3X2X tas > as and, in general, => 0 #09(0) =e? = ra, po) = Pe Be ee Soe’ Sata cc substituting the values for a, into * This shows that e* can be expressed as an infinite series in ascending powers of x. The expansion for e* is valid for all values of x.Maclaurin and Taylor Series In this process, a polynomial in powers of x is being formed step by step. The process focuses on x = 0; substituting x = 0 into successive derivatives increases the power of the polynomial. For example, if you stop the process after finding f'(0) the polynomial is linear, 1 + x, after (0) it is quadratic, 1 +x + s, after f"(0) it is cubic, 1 +2 + zg + x and so on. You should, if possible, use a computer to generate the graphs of these successive polynomials and compare with the graph of €*. You will see that the graph of 1 +2 is very close to that of e* in a small interval of x around x = and that successive graphs get closer and closer to that of e* for increasingly wider intervals of x. In the first half of the eighteenth century the Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin generalised the process of finding a series expansion of a function: For the continuous function f, given by ren fain), xeR, tihat does not satisfy - this condition is Inx. then, providing that f(0), f'(0), £"(0), ..., (0) all have finite values, i comer fee) =10) +x + Ware. a PO are. See howe has this This is known as Maclaurin’s theorem, and the power series is known as the Maclaurin expansion, or series, for f(x). The polynomials f(0) + f'(O)x, (0) + FO) + “oO Bi sae i ro) ee Uh 7! are known as the Maclaurin polyoma of degree 1,2, Some functions have a series expansion that is valid for all values of x, as e* does, but others are only valid for a restricted interval of x. At this level these validity intervals for.x will just be stated, as conditions for convergence are beyond the Specification, but generating the graphs of the successive Maclaurin polynomials of a function and comparing with the graph of the function, will give a good insight into the convergent properties of the series, In all the work in this Chapter, if no validity interval for x is stated, you may assume that it is valid to express relevant functions as infinite series. Bene a Express In(1 + x) as an infinite series in ascending powers of z. by Using only the first three terms of the series in a, find estimates for i In 1.05 ii In 1.25 iii In 18. a Ao f(x) = In(l + 2), #0) =n =0 F(x) #(0) (a) = —(1 +3), #"(0) (x) = (-1)(-2)(1 + x #0) = 2Substitute the values for #%x) = (-1)(-2)(-3)...f-(r - YEA + I {(), £"@), (0) etc. into HO) (1)-"(e— 1)! __-—~ the Maclaurin expansion — for f(x) . = 1 - So in(t + x)= 0+ x + ye 4 Oy 4. 2 al Cyr 0 IFyou use a computer to op ae a fie re generate the graphs of oe A the successive Maclaurin 2 ee een xd polynomials you will see te) ons it that they converge to This expansion is valid for 1 4 may be neglected, use the series for e* and sin x, to show that 2H snteTte+E—2, e lent 5-F ‘Only two terms are used as the next term is kx’.1 Use the series expansions of ef, In(1 + x) and sin x to expand the following functions as far as, the fourth non-zero term, In each case state the interval in.x for which the expansion is valid, 1 xo ad box celts di In( x) e sin (3) £ In(2 + 3x) Hint for f: write 2 + 3x = 21 + 3 a Using the Maclaurin expansion of In(1 + x), show that wea) -afeo ge 315 -10. = 2 fa)= 14245 b Show that using x = 0.1 in the result in a gives an approximation for f(0.1) which is correct to 6 significant figures. 6.4 You can find an approximation to a function of x close to x where a #0, The conditions of the Maclaurin expansion mean that some functions, for example In x and cannot be expanded as a series in ascending powers of x. The construction of the Maclaurin expansion focuses on 4 =O and for a value of x very close to 0, afew terms of the hain tn tine sees for series may well give a good approximation of the function. Ia (1-+-4) to find In9; thousands For values of 2 further away from 0, even if they are of terms of the series are in the interval of validity, more and more terms of ~~ required to reach a 4 significant the series are required to give a good degree of accuracy. EL UMELSE To overcome these problems, a series expansion focusing on x = a can be derived. Consider the functions f and g, where f(x + a) then £%a + a) = g(x), r= 1, 2, 3.45 in particular (a) = g%(Q), r= 1, 2, 3.. (x), a 0, + Example: fix) = In, glx) = Inéx-+1) So the Maclaurin expansion for g, g(a) = g(0) + g'O)x + ea 7 a ‘The Taylor series i on fo +a) = fa) + Fax + Oe + POs 4 «OO, allows you to 2 BI approximate the value of f(x) Replacing x by x ~ a, gives a second useful form close tox =a . i 7 f(x) = f(a) + F(a) — a) + Fie -ajt Behe mat oe aot Fe atu. @ These are two forms of Taylor’s expansion, or series. When a = 0, they both become the Maclaurin expansion.Find the Taylor expansion of e~* in powers of (& + 4) up to and including the term in (x + 4)? Using the Taylor series @ with f(x) = e* and a = —4, f(x) =e = #(-4) + F(-4)(x + 4) + (w+ 4yet* f(x) =e = f(-4) = et You need to find 7 ax Hs (4), #4), (4) F(a) = f(-4) = - “ea #"(x) = f"-4) r x) = -e* = #"(-4) Substituting the values in * gives B= gt — Aly fie 2 _ of 3 orate tat Se tae—- Oat aps met eee at 2— ley 3 ei @+ayt hora) weap ..} Express tan(x + q) as a series in ascending powers of x up to the term x°. You need to use Taylor Let. f(x) = tan x, then tan (x +Z)= A(x + Fa) series @ with f(x) = tan x 4 4 a #(x) = tan x = 4(Z)= _ Wag) = 2x 1( TY = F"(x) = sec? x tat) #"(x) sec x (9e0 x tan x) = £"( ee Ne (2)(1) sec* X tan x £'"(x) = 2 sec? x sect x + > (3) 2(2)(2) + 2(4) 2 tan x (2 sec x tan z] =16 Using f(r + a) = f(a) + #(a)x +f tan (x + Z) = 14 2x +5 =1t 2x4 2x2 + scl 1} a Show that the Taylor expansion of sin x in ascending powers of (2. é) up to the term (x ~ #)*issine =2+°3 (x - 8) -1 (2-2) bb Using the series in a find, in terms of x, an approximation for sin 40°Maclaurin and Taylor Series a f(x) = ein x, F(x) = co x, #"(x) = —sin x, Find f(a), f'(a) and f"(a) where a = 2. 6 "SA Substitute into Taylor series with a= = 1a Find the Taylor series expansion of y in ascending powers of (x — 1) as far as the term in @ - 1), b Use your answer in a to obtain an estimate for v1.2, giving your answer to 3 decimal places. 2. Use Taylor's expansion to express each the following as a series in ascending powers of (& ~ a) as far as the term in (x ~ a), for the given values of a and k. a Inx (a=¢,k=2) b tanx (a= 3 k=3 © cose (a= k=4) 3 a Use Taylor’s expansion to express each of the following as a series in ascending powers of sx as far as the term in at i cos(x +7) ii In@w +5) iii sin (x ~ 7) b Use your result in ii to find an approximation for In5.2, giving your answer to 4 significant figures. 4 Given that y = xe", a Show tna 22 =(txe b Find the Taylor expansion of xe* in ascending powers of (@ + 1) up to and including the term in @& + 1)4, 5 a Find the Taylor series for x? In « in ascending powers of (v — 1) up to and including the term in (x — 1)', b Using your series in a, find an approximation for In 1.5, giving your answer to 4 decimal places.6 Find the Taylor expansion of tan (x ~ a), where a = arctan (3), in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x2, 7 Find the Taylor expansion of sin 2x in ascending powers of (x — a) up to and including a the term in (x ~ Z)* ~ 1 8 Given that y = ——, ° Ta a find the values of (2) and (2). I b Find the Taylor expansion of —1_, * ¥ the term in @ ~ 3). ie , in ascending powers of ( — 3) up to and including 6,5 You can find the solution, in the form of a se ifferential equation using the Taylor series method. In Chapters 4 and 5 you were introduced to some of the techniques required to solve first and second order differential equations. Many differential equations that we will now meet cannot be solved by those techniques; some cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions. However, a series solution can be found as follows: Suppose you have a first order differential equation of the form <> condition that at x = xy, y= yo, then you can calculate (2) by substituting 9 and_yq into the andthe netauon) dvs, replaces x = a, ¥o = f(a) and original differential equation. "(a used previously. ive df Lit ay) By successive differentiation of the original differential equation, the values of (2) and \dx? ls, ing previous results into the derived equations, (2) and so on can be found by sub: as shown earlier in Example 2. The series solution to the differential equation is found using the Taylor's series in the form @= x0)? (dy), & or la? welt d Y=Yo+ (&— Xp) (z Ey Inthe very common situation where x, = 0, then this reduces to the Maclaurin series @ Second order, and higher differential equations can be solved in the same manner,Maclaurin and Taylor Series Example [ Use the Taylor method to find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3, of given that when. x =0,y =1 ana & The given conditions are: Xp Substituting ay ' gives (<2) = yo — sinxy = ax? lo Differentiate the given differential dy _ ay . equation with vicars anaes respect to x. Substituting x, = 0 and (& \ax. gWvee (2) =( Substituting the results into ig Use the Taylor Y=Yotx expansion @. So y=1+x(2) 2 8 Si+2re¥e" 40, Whertotsecoven nat 22 +2 ayant naty 1 and ® 27 Nae a powers of (x ~ 1) up to the term and including the term in (x ~ 1)*, = 2, ata = 1, express y as a series in ascending ‘You need to find (ae), (a) 2m ae) Given conditions are Xo = 1, Yo Sai zy) Substituting Xo = 1, Yo = 1and es 2 into y ay ay _ e ¥\ __ + 25h = xy gives @ =-3 Differentiate given equation with respect tox. ax? Substituting x = 1, ree ax* Differentiate a with respect tox. Substituting x ae dh and (2) = 9 into b gives (2 , Then use the Taylor Substituting all the values into Balers a) S28 +P yee Meeps =1h2(x-)-B@- 9 +319 - Bayt.Maclaurin and Taylor Series Given that y satisfies the differential equation w = y?—xand thaty = 1 atx = 0, find a series solution fory in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in 2° The given conditions are xp = 0, Yo = 1. ay Substituting x) = O and yo = linto So = ye — x Tan WE ——— 2) (es es aR — (28) [28 anal gives (44) - YoY — Xo — bes’ \a 4) (2 Vax], dy _ 5 4y ae Yas —| a Substituting yo = 1 and (ie) =lintoa ay’ aves (#4) Yo oft «of FY _ yt, ov ae Mae las 1 242 sttrtivt+2et.. guesyattxt diet Be original differential equation. Differentiate a. Use Taylor expansion @.HAPTER 6 1. Find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x, for the differential equation > © _ x + 2y, given that atx = 0,y = Land 2 =} 2) The variable y satisfies (1 + x2) 2 4 +x = and atx =0,y = Oana & Use Taylor's method to find a series expansion for y in powers of x up to and including the term in x, 3. Given that y satisfies the differential equation a +y- "= 0,and thaty = 2 atx = 0, find a series solution for y in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in 2°. 4 Use the Taylor method to find a series solution for @y dy = dy Sa fay $Y =O given that = 0,y = Land (= giving your answer in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in 2° 2 5. The variable y satisfies the differential equation {2 + ot = 3xy, andy = Land Yate = 4 « Zi -laz- Express y as a series in powers of ( ~ 1) up to and including the term in (@& — 1)8. 6 Find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term x, to the ay dy ay art Bag 19° = 1 + given that atx =0,y = Land Gr = 1 ra (14 2 Mans 292 ay a Show that (1 + 2x) 55 + 4(1 —y) b Given thaty = 1 atx = 0, find a series solution of (1 + 2x) a powers of x up to and including the term in x* x + 2y?, in ascending 8 Find the series solution in ascending powers of (a — D ) up to and including the term s dh z 2)? for the differential equation sin x + y cosa = y? given that y = v2 atx = mle % ar 9 The variable y satisfies the differential equation © DH y= a Show that , Py 4d ty ey ofa g ~ ay - 24 = 0, nB-yS- a 2 b Detivea similar equation involving = Panay. € Given also that atx = 0, y = 1, express y as a series in ascending powers of x in powers of x up to and including the term in xMaclaurin and Taylor Series dy & show that, close to x = 0, so that terms in xt and higher power can be ignored, yr 2x + Ye 10 Given that cosx > + y sinx + 2y* = 0, and thaty = 1 at x = 0, use Taylor's method to 1 Using Taylor's series show that the first three terms in the expansion of (a F)eot x,in _m)\_ oem ms 4 } 22 4) * 24x 4) . 2) powers of (x ~ 2), ate 2. a For the functions f(x) = In(1 + e'), find the values of f(0) and f"(0). bb Show that f”"(0) = 0. ¢ Find the series expansion of In(1 + e%), in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x, and state the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid. 3. a Write down the series for cos 4x in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in.x* b Hence, or otherwise, show that the first three non-zero terms in the series expansion of sin? 2x ane 4x? — Set + 128 4 a Given that terms in x’ and higher power may be neglected, use the series for e* and cos x, 2 xs} to show that e' ~¢i-% =| 5 Ba a4x+sinywithy=Oatx=0. Use the Taylor series method to obtain y as a series in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x, and hence obtain an approximate value for y at x = 0.1. 6 Given that |2x| <1, find the first two non-zero terms in the expansion of In|(1 + x)(1 — 2x)] ima series of ascending powers of x. oe 7. Find the solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in 2°, of the ay 40 & 8. Use differentiation and the Maclaurin expansion, to express In(sec.x + tan x) as a series in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in 2% differential equation ¥ — (x + 2) a + 3y = 0, given that atx = 0,9 =2 ana5 10 uw 12 13 ry 15 16 Show that the results of differentiating the following series expansions i 2.2 = ee1tteE et Ee, wae det plete CD wt sinx=2-dat4 dx ape ai 13 cosx = 1 Ge + Hye agree with the results atejce b 4 ing) = cose ¢ 4 (cosx) = -sinx & & & ay gy yar =e ate= Ly Find a series solution of the differential equation, in ascending powers of (x ~ 1) up to and including the term in (& ~ 1)°. x 2 24 ~ v1 find the first 1g powers of x, for tan a. a Given that cos sss) Show that see.x = 1 + att, b Using the result found in a, and given that sin.x = a — three non-zero terms in the series expansion, in ascen By using the series expansions of e* and cos, or otherwise, find the expansion of cos 3x in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in.x* @y ad ae de a Use the Taylor series method to express y as a polynomial in x up to and including the term ina’. +y =Owithy =2atz=Oand Latex =0. b Show that atx = 0, 2% Find the first three derivatives of (1 + x)? In(1 +x). Hence, or otherwise, find the expansion of (1 +)? In(1 +) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x", a Expand In(1 + sin x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x*, bb Hence find an approximation for [ In(1_ + sin x) dx giving your answer to 3 decimal places. 3 a Using the first two terms, x + = in the expansion of tan x, show that eit emt start tats 2°72 'b Deduce the first four terms in the expansi n of es, in ascending powers of x. eMaclaurin and Taylor Series ¢ a7 yh (& (2 Peyso dy a Find an expression for [3 dy Given that y = 1 and =latx=0, b find the series solution fory, in ascen 1g powers of x, up to an including the term in ¢ Comment on whether it would be sensible to use your series solution to give estimates fory atx = 0.2 and atx = 50. 18 a Using the Maclaurin expansion, and differentiation, show that In cosa = ~3° — 45 + b Using cosx = 2 cos? (3) — 1, and the result in a, show that cos) =In2-%- In(1 + cosay=In2-3- E+ 19 a Show that 3" = e*!"3. b Hence find the first four terms in the series expansion of 3*, © Using your result in b, with a suitable value of x, find an approximation for v3, giving your answer to 3 significant figures. 20. Given that f(x) = cosee x, a show that i f(x) = cosec x (2 cosec? x ~ 1) ii £" (x) = —cosec x cot x(6 cosec*x ~ 1) b Find the Taylor expansion of cosec x in ascending powers of (x ~ ' m3 the term (x ~ Z)'. D up to and including Summary of key points 1 ify = fe), . aes differentiation with respect to x gives ave o BY _ ge 2 =F) Gr = MO Gan = FM) «the value Le the n'® derivative, when x = a is denoted by (e = or f"(a). 2. Maclaurin’s expansion for a function f of z is given by £0) £0) + fe) =10) + 70+ Oey... OO at AEE For some functions the series is valid for all values of x, but for others it is only valid in a particular interval of x.‘The Maclaurin expansion for some common functions, with their interval of validity for x are: eo eaiteee a . .., all values of x eo ind +y-2- F484 tyes. -1

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 7D (Solution)

  

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  Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 7D (Solution)

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Chapter Review 7 (Solution)

  

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 7A (Solution)

  

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 6D (Solution)

  

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 5D (Solution)

  

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 5B (Solution)

  

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• Ial Maths Pure 2 Ex3d PDF

  

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 5C (Solution)

  

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• Exercise 3E: 1 Log Log

  

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 2D (Solution)

  

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  Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 2D (Solution)

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 3A (Solution)

  

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  Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 3A (Solution)

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 2C (Solution)

  

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  Edexcel IAL P2 Exercise 2C (Solution)

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• Ial Maths Pure 2 Ex4c PDF

  

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  Ial Maths Pure 2 Ex4c PDF

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Review Exercise 2

  

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• Edexcel IAL M3

  

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  Edexcel IAL M3

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• Edexcel IAL P2 Chapter Review 2 (Solution)

  

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  Edexcel IAL P2 Chapter Review 2 (Solution)

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• S3 (Old) PDF

  

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  S3 (Old) PDF

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• Edexcel A2 Physics PDF

  

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