Flood is a term used to denote an enormous amount of water.

When there is an outflow of water in a

place, it is said to be flooded.  The situation caused when the water becomes uncontrollable is said to be
flooded.  The flood may take different forms such as in the form of heavy rainfall when there is a
breaking of the dam. Furthermore, the melting of snow also leads to flooding. Floods lead to an overfull
and huge spread of water but are not considered safe for the purpose of drinking. Thus floods bring with
them a number of diseases such as typhoid, cholera and many others. Here, we shall discuss the various
causes of floods.

Causes of Floods

Flood is usually a result of natural causes. It may also be caused by man-made factors. It causes huge
damage to life and property. There are many different causes leading to flooding. Some prominent
among them include:

Massive Rainfall

Drainage systems and the effective infrastructure design aid during heavy rains. They help
the drainage of excess water into reservoirs in an easy way. But in cases of heavy rainfall, the systems
stop working. Thus flood is caused.

Overflowing of the Rivers

The people living along the river always have a risk of life from the overflowing of the Rivers. To prevent
such a situation, a string of dams are built. However, if these dams are not managed properly, they may
cause flooding and huge damage.

Collapsed Dams

In the event of huge rainfall, the dams built begin to collapse. Thus, causing the flood situation to
become even critical for the people living around.

Snowmelt
At the time of the high melting of snow due to heavy precipitation and other factors, the situation of
flooding arises. Adopting sustainable measures for heavy precipitation can help in dealing with the
flooding situation.

Deforestation

The cutting of trees in a reckless manner i.e. deforestation is also a major cause of man-made flooding.
Trees prevent soil erosion and also the loss of crops. The vegetation is also enriched as a result of more
and more trees. This also blocks the massive flow of rain, thus preventing flooding.

Climate change

The climatic changes caused due to human practices also add to the risk of flooding. Human beings cut
trees in a large number, thus affecting the process of photosynthesis. Thus increased level of carbon-di-
oxide in the atmosphere cause changes in climate posing threats of natural disasters like floods etc.

Emission of Greenhouse Gases

The burning of fossil fuels, the industrial influences, the pollution all is depleting the level of the ozone
layer and increasing the level of greenhouse gases, becoming a major cause of man-made flooding.

Other Factors

The broken supply lines cause the outflow of water but lead to less damage. Also, there is water flow
from the washing machines. Furthermore, overflow from dishwashers worsens the situation. Also, the
lack of proper sewage systems adds to the destruction of this natural disaster.

Thus, a flood can be caused both due to natural causes as well as it can be a human-made flood.

Flood causes a huge loss of life and property. Waterborne diseases spread as a result of Floods causing
health problems. Moreover, the destruction of roadways and infrastructure facilities, the disturbance
of ecosystems, improper sewage systems all demand serious efforts of adopting sustainable measures.

Taking steps such as afforestation, decreased the emission of harmful gases into the atmosphere could
help. Also, enrichment of vegetation, fewer deeds causing pollution and treatment of sewage could be
useful ways to combat the situation.

5.2.1 Open canals

An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water from one place
to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one or more farms. Field
ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance to the irrigated fields.

i. Canal characteristics

According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called rectangular (a), triangular (b), trapezoidal
(c), circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f) (see Fig. 73).

Fig. 73. Some examples of canal cross-sections

The most commonly used canal cross-section in irrigation and drainage, is the trapezoidal cross-section.
For the purposes of this publication, only this type of canal will be considered.
The typical cross-section of a trapezoidal canal is shown in Figure 74.

Fig. 74. A trapezoidal canal cross-section

The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It is
required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water level.

The side slope of the canal is expressed as ratio, namely the vertical distance or height to the horizontal
distance or width. For example, if the side slope of the canal has a ratio of 1:2 (one to two), this means
that the horizontal distance (w) is two times the vertical distance (h) (see Fig. 75).

Fig. 75. A side slope of 1:2 (one to two)

The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the
longitudinal section (see Fig. 76). It is commonly expressed in percent or per mil.

Fig. 76. A bottom slope of a canal

An example of the calculation of the bottom slope of a canal is given below (see also Fig. 76):

or

ii. Earthen Canals

Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed earth, as
illustrated in Figure 77a.

Fig. 77a. Construction of an earthen canal

The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the water loss due to
seepage. They also require continuous maintenance (Fig. 77b) in order to control weed growth and to
repair damage done by livestock and rodents.

Fig. 77b. Maintenance of an earthen canal

iii. Lined Canals
Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth of
weeds (Fig. 78).

Fig. 78. Construction of a canal lined with bricks

Lining canals is also an effective way to control canal bottom and bank erosion. The materials mostly
used for canal lining are concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or rock masonry and asphaltic
concrete (a mixture of sand, gravel and asphalt).

The construction cost is much higher than for earthen canals. Maintenance is reduced for lined canals,
but skilled labour is required.

5.2.2 Canal structures

The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this purpose, canal
structures are required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water to the
different branches of the system and onward to the irrigated fields.

There are four main types of structures: erosion control structures, distribution control structures,
crossing structures and water measurement structures.

i. Erosion control structures

a. Canal erosion

Canal bottom slope and water velocity are closely related, as the following example will show.

A cardboard sheet is lifted on one side 2 cm from the ground (see Fig. 79a). A small ball is placed at the
edge of the lifted side of the sheet. It starts rolling downward, following the slope direction. The sheet
edge is now lifted 5 cm from the ground (see Fig. 79b), creating a steeper slope. The same ball placed on
the top edge of the sheet rolls downward, but this time much faster. The steeper the slope, the higher
the velocity of the ball.

Fig. 79. The relationship between slope and velocity

Water poured on the top edge of the sheet reacts exactly the same as the ball. It flows downward and
the steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the flow.

Water flowing in steep canals can reach very high velocities. Soil particles along the bottom and banks of
an earthen canal are then lifted, carried away by the water flow, and deposited downstream where they
may block the canal and silt up structures. The canal is said to be under erosion; the banks might
eventually collapse.

b. Drop structures and chutes

Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom slope of canals lying on steeply sloping land
in order to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion. These structures permit the canal to be
constructed as a series of relatively flat sections, each at a different elevation (see Fig. 80).

Fig. 80. Longitudinal section of a series of drop structures

Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher section of the canal to a lower one. In a chute, the
water does not drop freely but is carried through a steep, lined canal section. Chutes are used where
there are big differences in the elevation of the canal.

ii. Distribution control structures

Distribution control structures are required for easy and accurate water distribution within the irrigation
system and on the farm.

a. Division boxes

Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more canals or ditches.
Water enters the box through an opening on one side and flows out through openings on the other
sides. These openings are equipped with gates (see Fig. 81).

Fig. 81. A division box with three gates

b. Turnouts

Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal. They divert part of the water from the canal to a
smaller one.

Turnouts can be concrete structures (Fig. 82a), or pipe structures (Fig. 82b).

Fig. 82a. A concrete turnout

Fig. 82b. A pipe turnout

c. Checks

To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often necessary to raise the water level in the ditch.
Checks are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily and to raise the upstream water
level. Checks can be permanent structures (Fig. 83a) or portable (Fig. 83b).

Fig. 83a. A permanent concrete check

Fig. 83b. A portable metal check

iii. Crossing structures

It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across roads, hillsides and natural depressions. Crossing
structures, such as flumes, culverts and inverted siphons, are then required.

a. Flumes

Flumes are used to carry irrigation water across gullies, ravines or other natural depressions. They are
open canals made of wood (bamboo), metal or concrete which often need to be supported by pillars
(Fig. 84).

Fig. 84. A concrete flume

b. Culverts

Culverts are used to carry the water across roads. The structure consists of masonry or concrete
headwalls at the inlet and outlet connected by a buried pipeline (Fig. 85).

Fig. 85. A culvert

c. Inverted siphons

When water has to be carried across a road which is at the same level as or below the canal bottom, an
inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. The structure consists of an inlet and outlet connected by a
pipeline (Fig. 86). Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across wide depressions.

Fig. 86. An inverted siphon

iv. Water measurement structures

The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit efficient distribution and application.
By measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is applied during each irrigation.

In irrigation schemes where water costs are charged to the farmer, water measurement provides a basis
for estimating water charges.

The most commonly used water measuring structures are weirs and flumes. In these structures, the
water depth is read on a scale which is part of the structure. Using this reading, the flow-rate is then
computed from standard formulas or obtained from standard tables prepared specially for the
structure.

a. Weirs
In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or concrete with an opening with fixed
dimensions cut in its edge (see Fig. 87). The opening, called a notch, may be rectangular, trapezoidal or
triangular.

Fig. 87. Some examples of weirs

A RECTANGULAR WEIR

A TRIANGULAR WEIR

A TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR
b. Parshall flumes

The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main sections: (1) a
converging section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or throat section and (3) a diverging
section at the downstream end (Fig. 88).

Fig. 88. A Parshall flume

Depending on the flow condition (free flow or submerged flow), the water depth readings are taken on
one scale only (the upstream one) or on both scales simultaneously.

c. Cut-throat flume
The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has no throat section, only converging and
diverging sections (see Fig. 89). Unlike the Parshall flume, the cut-throat flume has a flat bottom.
Because it is easier to construct and install, the cut-throat flume is often preferred to the Parshall flume.

Fig. 89. A cut-throat flume

Flooding

Throughout history humans have found it desirable to construct cities along

streams.  Streams are sources of water for consumption, agriculture, and industry.
Streams provide transportation routes, energy, and a means of disposal of
wastes. Stream valleys offer a relatively flat area for construction. But, human
populations that live along streams also have the disadvantage that the flow of
water in streams is never constant. High amounts of water flowing in streams
often leads to flooding, and flooding is one of the more common and costly types
of natural disasters.

A flood results when a stream runs out of its confines and submerges surrounding
areas.

 In less developed countries, humans are particularly sensitive to flood

casualties because of high population density, absence of zoning
regulations, lack of flood control, and lack of emergency response
infrastructure and early warning systems.

 Bangladesh is one of the most susceptible countries to flood disasters. 

About one half of the land area in Bangladesh is at an elevation of less
than 8 meters above sea level.  Up to 30% of the country has been
covered with flood waters.  In 1991 more 200,000 deaths resulted from
flooding and associated tropical cyclones.

 In industrialized countries the loss of life is usually lower because of flood

control structures, zoning regulations that prevent the habitation of
seriously vulnerable lands, and emergency preparedness.  Still, property
damage and disruption of life takes a great toll, and despite flood control
 structures and land use planning, floods still do occur. 

Causes of Flooding

From a geological perspective, floods are a natural consequence of stream flow in

a continually changing environment.  Floods have been occurring throughout
Earth history, and are expected so long as the water cycle continues to run. 
Streams receive most of their water input from precipitation, and the amount of
precipitation falling in any given drainage basin varies from day to day, year to
year, and century to century.

The Role of Precipitation

Weather patterns determine the amount and location of rain and snowfall.
Unfortunately the amount and time over which precipitation occurs is not
constant for any given area.  Overall, the water cycle is a balanced system.  Water
flowing into one part of the cycle (like streams) is balanced by water flowing back
to the ocean. But sometimes the amount flowing in to one area is greater than the
capacity of the system to hold it within natural confines. The result is a flood.
Combinations of factors along with exceptional precipitation can also lead to
flooding.  For example, heavy snow melts, water saturated ground, unusually high
tides, and drainage modifications when combined with heavy rain can lead to
flooding.

Coastal Flooding

Areas along coastlines become subject to flooding as a result of tsunamis,

hurricanes (cyclonic storms), and unusually high tides.  In addition, long term
processes like subsidence and rising sea level as a result of global warming can
lead to the encroachment of the sea on to the land. 

Dam & Levee Failures

Dams occur as both natural and human constructed features.  Natural dams are
created by volcanic events (lava flows and pyroclastic flows), landslides, or
blockage by ice.  Human constructed dams are built for water storage, generation
of electrical power, and flood control.  All types of dams may fail with the sudden
release of water into the downstream drainage.  Spectacular and devastating
examples of dam failures include that resulting in flooding downstream include:

 The St. Francis Dam, near Saugus, California, failed in 1929 killing 450
people.

 The Johnstown, Pennsylvania dam, built of earthen material (soil and rock)
collapsed after a period of heavy rainfall in 1889.  2,200 people were killed
by the flood.

 The Vaiont Dam in Italy (discussed in a previous lecture on mass-wasting)

did not fail in 1963, but the landslides that moved into the reservoir
 behind the dam caused water to overtop the dam killing over 3,000
people.

As we have seen during Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, levee systems designed
to prevent flooding can also fail and lead to catastrophic flooding and loss of life. 

Stream Systems

A stream is a body of water that carries rock particles and dissolved ions and flows
down slope along a clearly defined path, called a channel. Thus streams may vary
in width from a few centimeters to several kilometers. Streams are important for
several reasons

 Streams carry most of the water that goes from the land to the sea, and
thus are an important part of the water cycle.

 Streams carry billions of tons of sediment to lower elevations, and thus

are one of the main transporting mediums in the production of
sedimentary rocks.

 Streams carry dissolved ions, the products of chemical weathering, into

the oceans and thus make the sea salty.

 Streams are a major part of the erosional process, working in conjunction

with weathering and mass wasting. Much of the surface landscape is
controlled by stream erosion, evident to anyone looking out of an airplane
window.

 Streams are a major source of water and transportation for the world's
human population. Most population centers are located next to streams.
   

Geometry and Dynamics of Stream Channels

The stream channel is the conduit for water being carried by the stream. The stream
can continually adjust its channel shape and path as the amount of water passing
through the channel changes The volume of water passing any point on a stream is
called the discharge. Discharge is measured in units of volume/time (m 3/sec).

 Cross Sectional Shape - varies with position in the stream and discharge. The
deepest parts of a channel occur where the stream velocity is the highest.
Both width and depth increase downstream because discharge increases
downstream. As discharge increases the cross sectional shape will change,
with the stream becoming deeper and wider.
 Long Profile - a plot of elevation versus distance. Usually shows a steep
gradient near the source of the stream and a gentle gradient as the stream
approaches its mouth.

 Velocity - A stream's velocity depends on position in the stream channel,

irregularities in the stream channel caused by resistant rock, and stream
gradient.

Friction slows water along channel edges. Friction is greater in wider,

shallower streams and less in narrower, deeper streams. In straight
channels, highest velocity is in the center.

Deepest part of the channel is called the thalweg - meanders with curve
 the of the stream.  Flow follows a spiral path.

In curved channels - maximum velocity traces the outside curve where the
channel is preferentially scoured and deepened. On the inside of the curve
were the velocity is lower, deposition of sediment occurs. 

Stream flow can be either laminar, in which all water molecules travel
along similar parallel paths, or turbulent, in which individual particles take
irregular paths. Turbulent flow can keep sediment in suspension longer
than laminar flow and aids in erosion of the stream bottom.

Stream flow is characteristically turbulent, with flow being chaotic and erratic,
with abundant mixing, swirling eddies, and high velocity. The turbulence is caused
by obstructions and shear in the water. Turbulent eddies scour the channel bed,
and can keep sediment in suspension longer than laminar flow and thus aids in
erosion of the stream bottom.

 Discharge - The discharge of a stream is the amount of water passing any

point in a given time.

Q=AxV

Discharge (m3/sec) = Cross-sectional Area (width x average depth) (m 2) x Average

Velocity (m/sec)

As the amount of water in a stream increases, the stream must adjust its velocity
and cross sectional area in order to form a balance. Discharge increases as more
water is added through rainfall, tributary streams, or from groundwater seeping
into the stream. As discharge increases, generally width, depth, and velocity of the
stream also increase. Increasing the depth and width of the stream may cause the
stream to overflow is channel resulting in a flood.

 Load - The rock particles and dissolved ions carried by the stream are the
called the stream's load. Stream load is divided into three parts:
 o Suspended Load - particles that are carried along with the water in
the main part of the stream. The size of these particles depends
on their density and the velocity of the stream. Higher velocity
currents in the stream can carry larger and denser particles.  The
suspended load is what gives most streams their muddy looking
appearance and brown or red color. When the velocity of the
stream is decreased, that particles in the suspended load that can
no longer be suspended are deposited.
 

o Bed Load - coarser and denser particles that remain on the bed of
the stream most of the time but move by a process of saltation
(jumping) as a result of collisions between particles and turbulent
eddies. Note that sediment can move between bed load and
suspended load as the velocity of the stream changes.

o Dissolved Load - ions that have been introduced into the water by
chemical weathering of rocks. This load is invisible because the
ions are dissolved in the water.Dissolved load consists mostly of
HCO-3 (bicarbonate ions), Ca+2, SO4-2, Cl-, Na+, Mg+2, and K+.  These
ions are eventually carried to the oceans and give the oceans their
salty character.  Streams that have a deep underground source
generally have higher dissolved load than those whose source is
on the Earth's surface.

The maximum size of particles that can be carried as suspended load by the
stream is called stream competence. The maximum load carried by the stream is
called stream capacity. 
Competence and capacity increase with increasing discharge. At high discharge
boulder and cobble size material can move. At low discharge - larger fragments
become stranded and only the smaller, sand, silt, and clay sized fragments move. 

 Changes Downstream - As one moves along a stream in the downstream

direction:

o Discharge increases, as noted above, because water is added to

the stream from tributary streams and groundwater.

o As discharge increases, the width, depth, and average velocity of

the stream increase.

o The gradient of the stream, however, will decrease.

o The size of particles that make up the bed load of the stream
tends to decrease.

Even though the velocity of the stream increases downstream, the bed load
particle size decreases mainly because the larger particles are left in the bed load
at higher elevations and abrasion of particles tends to reduce their size.

It may seem to be counter to your observations that velocity increases in the

downstream direction, since when one observes a mountain stream near the
headwaters where the gradient is high, it appears to have a higher velocity than a
stream flowing along a gentle gradient. But, the water in the mountain stream is
likely flowing in a turbulent manner, due to the large boulders and cobbles which
make up the streambed. If the flow is turbulent, then it takes longer for the water
to travel the same linear distance, and thus the average velocity is lower.

Floods occur when the discharge of the stream becomes too high to be
accommodated in the normal stream channel. When the discharge becomes too
high, the stream widens its channel by overtopping its banks and flooding the low-
lying areas surrounding the stream. The areas that become flooded are
called floodplains.

Channel Patterns

 Straight Channels - Straight stream channels are rare. Where they do

occur, the channel is usually controlled by a linear zone of weakness in the
underlying rock, like a fault or joint system. Even in straight channel
segments water flows in a sinuous fashion, with the deepest part of the
channel changing from near one bank to near the other. Velocity is highest
in the zone overlying the deepest part of the stream. In these areas,
 sediment is transported readily resulting in pools. Where the velocity of
the stream is low, sediment is deposited to form bars. The bank closest to
the zone of highest velocity is usually eroded and results in a cutbank.

 Meandering Channels - Because of the velocity structure of a stream, and

especially in streams flowing over low gradients with easily eroded banks,
straight channels will eventually erode into meandering channels. Erosion
will take place on the outer parts of the meander bends where the velocity
of the stream is highest. Sediment deposition will occur along the inner
meander bends where the velocity is low. Such deposition of sediment
results in exposed bars, called point bars. Because meandering streams
are continually eroding on the outer meander bends and depositing
sediment along the inner meander bends, meandering stream channels
tend to migrate back and forth across their flood plain.
If erosion on the outside meander bends continues to take place, eventually a meander
bend can become cut off from the rest of the stream. When this occurs, the cutoff
meander bend, because it is still a depression, will collect water and form a type of lake
called an oxbow lake.

     

 Braided Channels - In streams having highly variable discharge and easily

eroded banks, sediment gets deposited to form bars and islands that are
exposed during periods of low discharge. In such a stream the water flows
in a braided pattern around the islands and bars, dividing and reuniting as
it flows downstream. Such a channel is termed a braided channel. During
periods of high discharge, the entire stream channel may contain water
with the islands covered to become submerged bars. During such high
discharge, some of the islands could erode, but the sediment would be re-
deposited as the discharge decreases, forming new islands or submerged
bars. Islands may become resistant to erosion if they become inhabited by
vegetation.
Erosion by Streams

Streams erode because they have the ability to pick up rock fragments and
transport them to a new location. The size of the fragments that can be
transported depends on the velocity of the stream and whether the flow is laminar
or turbulent. Turbulent flow can keep fragments in suspension longer than laminar
flow. Streams can also erode by undercutting their banks resulting in mass-
moveement processes like slumps or landslides. When the undercut material falls
into the stream, the fragments can be transported away by the stream. Streams
can cut deeper into their channels if the region is uplifted.  As they cut deeper into
their channels the stream removes the material that once made up the channel
bottom and sides.

Although slow, as rocks move along the stream bottom and collide with one
another, abrasion of the rocks occurs, making smaller fragments that can then be
transported by the stream. Because some rocks and minerals are easily dissolved
in water, dissolution also occurs, resulting in dissolved ions being transported by
the stream. 

Stream Deposits

Sudden decreases in velocity can result in deposition by streams. Within a stream

we have seen that the velocity varies with position, and, if sediment gets moved to
the lower velocity part of the stream the sediment will come out of suspension
and be deposited. Other sudden changes in velocity that affect the whole stream
 can also occur. For example if the discharge is suddenly increased, as it might be
during a flood, the stream will overtop its banks and flow onto the floodplain
where the velocity will then suddenly decrease. This results in deposition of such
features as levees and floodplains. If the gradient of the stream suddenly changes
by emptying into a flat-floored basin, an ocean basin, or a lake, the velocity of the
stream will suddenly decrease resulting in deposition of sediment that can no
longer be transported. This can result in deposition of such features as alluvial fans
and deltas.

 Floodplains and Levees - As a stream overtops its banks during a flood, the
velocity of the flood will first be high, but will decrease as the water flows
out over the gentle gradient of the floodplain. Because of the sudden
decrease in velocity, the coarser grained suspended sediment is deposited
along the riverbank, eventually building up a natural levee. Natural levees
provide some protection from flooding because with each flood the levee
is built higher and discharge must be higher for the next flood to occur.
(Note that the levees we see along the Mississippi River in New Orleans
are not natural levees, but human-made levees, built to protect the
floodplain from floods).

 Terraces - Terraces are exposed former floodplain deposits that result

when the stream begins down cutting into its flood plain (this is usually
caused by regional uplift or by lowering the regional base level, such as a
drop in sea level).
  Alluvial Fans -
When a steep
mountain
stream enters
a flat valley,
there is a
sudden
decrease in
gradient and
velocity.
Sediment
transported in
the stream will
suddenly
become
deposited
along the
valley walls in
an alluvial fan.
As the velocity
of the
mountain
stream slows
it becomes
choked with
sediment and
breaks up into
numerous
distributary
channels.

  
 Deltas -
When a
stream
enters a
standing
body of
water the
sudden
decrease
in velocity
causes
deposition
of
sediment
in a
deposit
called a
delta.
Deltas
build
outward
from the
coast, but
only
survive if
the ocean
currents
are not
strong
enough to
remove
the
sediment.
As the
velocity of
a stream
decreases
on
entering
the delta,
the stream
becomes
choked
with
sediment
 and
conditions
become
favorable
to those of
a braided
stream
channel,
but,
instead of
braiding,
the stream
breaks
into many
smaller
streams
called
distributar
y streams.

Drainage Systems

Steamflow begins when water is added to the surface from rainfall, melting snow,
and groundwater.

 Drainage Basins and Divides - Drainage systems develop in such a way as

to efficiently move water off the land. Streamflow begins as moving
sheetwash.  Water moves down the steepest slope and starts to erode the
surface by creating small rill channels.As the rills coalesce, deepen, and
downcut into channels larger channels form.

Rapid erosion lengthens the channel upslope in a process called headward

erosion. Over time, nearby channels merge with smaller tributaries joining
a larger trunk stream.The linked channels become a drainage
network. With continued erosion of the channels, drainage networks
change over time.
 
Each stream in a drainage system drains a certain area, called a drainage
basin. In a single drainage basin, all water falling in the basin drains into
the same stream. Drainage basins can range in size from a few km 2, for
small streams, to extremely large areas, such as the Mississippi River
drainage basin which covers about 40% of the contiguous United States.  A
divide separates each drainage basin from other drainage basins.
 Drainage Patterns - Drainages tend to develop along zones where rock
type and structure are most easily eroded. Thus various types of drainage
patterns develop in a region and these drainage patterns reflect the
structure of the rock.  

Dendritic drainage patterns are most common.  They develop on a land

surface where the underlying rock is of uniform resistance to erosion. 
Radial drainage patterns develop surrounding areas of high topography
where elevation drops from a central high area to surrounding low areas. 
Rectangular drainage patterns develop where linear zones of weakness, such as
joints or faults cause the streams to cut down along the weak areas in the rock.

 Permanent Streams - Streams that flow throughout most of the year are
called permanent streams. Their surface is at or below the water
table. They oOccur in humid or temperate climates where there is
sufficient rainfall and low evaporation rates.  Water levels rise and fall with
the seasons, depending on the discharge.

 Ephemeral Streams - Streams that only occasionally have water flowing

are called ephemeral streams or dry washes. They are above the water
table and occur in dry climates with low amounts of rainfall and high
evaporation rates.They flow mostly during rare flash floods and are
dangerous because people forget that they are indeed stream channels
when water is present.

Examples of questions on this material that could be asked on an exam

1. What are the main causes of floods?

2. Define the following: (a) stream long profile, (b) stream gradient, (c)
stream discharge, (d) suspended load, (e) bed load, (f) stream
 competence, (g) stream capacity, (h) drainage basin, (i) drainage divide

3. What happens to a stream's discharge as one moves down stream? 

Explain why this occurs.

4. List and give a brief description of the various types of stream deposits.

5. What conditions are necessary for a stream to be meandering stream and

a braided stream?

6. How do streams erode?

7. What is the difference between a permanent stream and an ephemeral

stream?