KEC GHAZIABAD

ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II
[Lecture wise-UNIT2]
KEC GHAZIABAD

14
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2014
Meissner Effect

Lecture-1

Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly

zero electrical resistance and expulsion of
magnetic fields occurring in certain materials
when cooled below a characteristic critical
temperature.

Figure: Meissner Effect

The Meissner effect is an expulsion of a magnetic

field from a superconductor during its transition to
the superconducting state.
If a magnetic field (B) is applied through a
superconductor above transition temperature (Tc),
magnetic field lines passes through it, however
below Tc magnetic field lines expel out from the
superconductor.

It was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike

Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Hg, which
has critical temperature of 4.2 K.

Critical Temperature
The temperature at which the transition from
normal to superconducting state occurs is known
as critical temperature.
It is well defined temperature and specific to the
particular element or material. It is not very
sensitive to the small amount of impurities. For superconductor, below Tc
It is denoted by Tc Example- B0  
Critical temperature for Hg and MgB2 are 4.2 and  B  o ( H  M )
38 K respectively.
 H  M  0
M
Properties of superconductors    1
1. Current in these materials persists for long time. H 
2. These materials lie in the inner column of the M
periodic table. Magnetic susceptibility is defined as,   
3. These materials exhibit Meissner Effect. H
4. Transition metals having odd number of Hence,   1
valence electron are favorable for This shows that superconducting state is a state of
superconductivity. perfect diamagnetism.

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Distinction between superconductor and  T 
2

perfect conductor H c  H co 1    
Both superconductor and perfect conductor have   TC  
zero resistivity, so distinction between them is an
Where, Tc is transition temperature.
issue. The only method which is used to
distinguish between these two is Meissner Effect.
For superconductor
When magnetic field is applied to a
superconductor flux lines are ejected from the
sample surface. i. e.
B=0
For Perfect Conductor
Maxwell’s IIIrd equation

 B
 E   (i )
t
If a potential difference V is applied across a
material of resistance R, then V  IR
V IR
E  
d d
For perfect conductor, R=0 Numerical:
I 0 1. The transition temperature for Pb is
E  0 7.2K. However at 5K it loses the
d  superconducting property if subjected to a
B magnetic field of 3.3×104 A/M. Find the
 From eq (i ) 0
t maxiumum value of H which will allow the
B  cons tan t metal to retain its superconductivity at 0K.
This shows that perfect conductor will allow to Ans.
pass flux lines through it. Given, Tc =7.2 K, T=5K, Hc=3.3×104 A/M
  T 2 
Assignments: H c  H co 1    
1. Show the superconducting state is state of   TC  
perfect diamagnetism.
Hc 3.3  10 4
2.How one can distinguish between a perfect  H co  
conductor and superconductor? Explain   T 2   5 
2

3.Define superconductivity and critical 1     1   

  C  
T  7 .2 
temperature.
4. Enlist the name of at least five superconductors
3.3  10 4 3.3  10 4
and their critical temperature.  H co  
 25  1  0.486
1  
Lecture 2  51.28 
Critical Magnetic Field (Hc)- 3.3  10 4
The minimum applied field necessary to destroy H co   6.42  10 4 A / M
0.514
superconductivity and further restore the normal
2.Along thin superconducting wire of a metal
resistivity is called the critical magnetic Hc. The
produces a magnetic field 105×103 A/M on its
value of crtical magnetic field changes with
surface due to the current through it at a
temperature of superconducting material.
certain temperature T. The critical field of the
metal is 150×103 A/M at absolute zero. The
If Ho is the critical magnetic field at absolute zero,
critical temperature Tc of the metal is 9.2K.
then
What is the value of T.

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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2014
Ans. Crtical magnetic field of superconductor is
given as (ii)Type –II superconductors- In these
 T   2 superconductors from superconducting state to
H c  H co 1     normal state to normal state occurs in the range of
  TC   magnetic field. The transition starts from Hc1 and
ends at Hc2. Below Hc1. Below Hc1 sample is in
Hc   T  
2
superconducting and above Hc2, it is in normal
  1    
H co   TC  
state. Between Hc1 and Hc2, the state of material is
  known as Vortex state.
2
T  H
    1  c
 TC  H co

T  H 
  1  c 
TC  H co 
Given, Hc=105×103 A/m, Hco=150×103 A/m,
Tc=9.2K
Thus,
T  H   105  10 3 
 1  c   1  
3 
Meissner Effects in Type-I and type-II
TC  H co   150  10  superconductors- Magnetic field through type-I
superconductor is completely expelled out,
T  105  10 3   105 
 1    1 
3   however through type-II superconductor the
TC  150  10   150  behavior is different. Below Hc1 the magnetic
field is completely expelled out and above Hc2 the
T  45  3 magnetic field penetrates through material. In the
    0.55 range of Hc1 and Hc2, the magnetic field penetrates
TC  150  10
partially. The state between Hc1 and Hc2 is
T  0.55Tc  0.55  9.2 therefore known as mixed state or vortex state.
T  5.06K
Difference between type-I and tye-II
Types of superconductors superconductors
Superconductors are classified in two categories: Effect/Parameter Type-I Type-II
(i)Type-I superconductors- In these Meissner Effect Complete Partial
superconductors transition from superconducting Transition Sharp at Hc Between Hc1
state to normal state in presence of magnetic field and Hc2
occurs sharply at the critical value Hc. Critical Field Low (~100- High (50T)
1000G)
Other Name Soft Hard
Example Hg, Nb Ceramic,
Alloy
Applications Magneitc Permanent
coils Magnets

Assignments:
1.The transition temperature for Pb is 7.26K. The
maximum critical filed for the material is 8 ×
105A/m. Pb has to be used as superconductor
subjected to a magnetic field of 4 × 104A/m. What

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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2014
precaution will have to be taken in terms of the diameter 10-3 m at a temperature of 4.2K.
temperature? Given the critical temperature for the sample
2.A superconducting material has a critical is 7.18K and critical magnetic field is 6.5×104
temperature of 3.7K in zero magnetic field of A/m
0.306 Tesla at 0K. Find the critical field at 2K. Solution:
3.Calculate critical temperature of a  T 
2

superconductor when no magnetic field is present H c  H co 1    
is Tc. Find the temperature at which the critical   TC  
field becomes half of its value at 0K.
Given, Tc=7.18 K, Hc(0)=6.5×104 A/m, T=4.2 K,
4. For a certain specimen, the critical fields are
diameter=10-3m
and for 14K and 13K respectively. Calculate the
critical field at 5.0K.   4.2  2 
5. Describe Type-I and type-II H c  6.5  10 1  
4
 
  7.18  
superconductors.

 6.5  10 4 1  0.585
2

Lecture 3  6.5  10 1  0.342
4

Critical Current  6.5  10 4  0.658

The maximum current that can be passed in a  4.2  10 4 A / m
superconductor without destroying its The critical current is given by
superconductivity is called critical current. This is  10 3 
denoted by Ic. If superconducting current is I c  2rH c  2  3.14     4.28  10 4
passing through a semiconductor wire of radius r,  2 
then I c  134 .3 A
I c  2rH c The critical current density, Jc=Ic/area
Ic 134.4
Where, Hc is critical magnetic field for Jc  
superconductor. r 2  10 3 
2

Silsbee’s rule 3.14   

If a magnetic field is applied in transverse  2 
direction to the total magnetic field, then critical 134.4
current Ic is given by Jc  6
A / m2
0.785  10
I c  2r H c  2 H 
J c  171.6  10 6 A / m 2
This is known as Silsee’s rule.
Persistent Current- J c  1.72  108 A / m 2
If an electric current is set up in a perfect 2.How much current can Pb wire, 1.0 mm in
superconductor, it can persist for a very long time diameter, carry in its superconducting state at
without any applied e.m.f. A current can be 4.2K? Given Bc= 0.0548T
induced in a ring of superconducting material by Ans. Critical current is given by
cooling it in a magnetic field below a transition I c  2rH c
temperature and then switching off the field;
when the field is off, the magnetic field outside We know that Hc=Bc/µo
the ring disappear but the flux inside the entire and r=diameter/2=1/2mm=0.5 mm
ring is trapped. Bc 0.0548
I c  2r  2    0.5  10 3 
Such a steady current which flows with 0 4  10 7
undiminshing strength is known as persistent
0.0548
current. I c  2  0.5  10 3 
4  10 7
Numerical: 0.0548 548
1. Determine the critical current and the critical Ic   10 4 
current density for a superconducting rings of
4 4

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I c  137 A

Parameters affecting the superconducting

property of materials
Following parameters may destroy the
superconductivity of any material
(i) Temperature
(ii) Magnetic field
(iii) Current density
For a superconductor to retain its superconducting
state, the critical values of these parameters are
required. A diagram for superconducting state can
be obtained for these parameters.
For x=λ,
H ( x)  H o e 1
H
 H ( x)  o
e
Hence, the penetration depth characterizes the
distance to which a magnetic field penetrates into
a superconductor and becomes equal to 1/e times
that of the magnetic field at the surface of the
superconductor.
Typical values of λ range from 50 to 500 nm.
The penetration depth is determined by the
superfluid density, which is an important quantity
that determines Tc in high-temperature
superconductors. At a temperature T, penetration
depth is given by
1 / 2
 T 
4

Jc, Hc and Tc are the critical values of current
 T    (0) 1    
  Tc  
density, temperature and magnetic field.
It is clear from the phase diagram that Where, λ(0) is penetration depth at 0K. It is given
superconducting region appear below the critical by
1/ 2
values of these parameters also a proper  mo 
combination of these parameters is required. 0   

  0 ns e
2

London Penetration depth Where, mo is the mass, and e is the charge on the
Applied magnetic field through a superconductor electrons, and ns is the number of super electrons.
does not suddenly drop zero at the surface but
decays exponentially to zero according to Assignments
equation 1.What is Silsbee’s rule?
H ( x)  H o e   x /   2. Calculate the critical current which can flow
Where, Ho is the field at the surface, x is the through a long thin superconducting wire of
distance from the surface, and λ is characteristic aluminium of diameter 10-3m. Critical magnetic
length and known as the London Penetration field for Aluminium is 7.9 10 3 A / m .
depth. 3. Calculate the critical current density for 1mm
diameter wire of lead at 4.2K. A parabolic
dependence of critical filed Hc on T may be

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assumed. Given Tc(Pb) = 7.18K and Hc(Pb) = 6.5
Where, mo=9.1×10-31 Kg, µo=12.56×10-7SI units,
× 104A/m.
4. State and explain London’s Equation of e=1.6×10-19 C, ns=1028 m-3
1/ 2
Superconductivity.  9.11031 
0   
 
 12.56 107 10 28  1.6 10 19  2 

Lecture 4 1/ 2
 9.1  10 31 
0   
Numerical:
1.The penetration depth λ of Hg at 3.5 K is
 
 12.56  10 7  10 28  1.6  10 19 2 

about 750Ǻ. Find the penetration depth at 0.85  10 26
0 
0K. Given Tc for Hg = 4.153K. 1.6  10 19
Solution: 0  0.53  10 7 m
The penetration depth at temperature T is o
given by 0  530 A
1 / 2
 T 
4

 T    (0) 1     BCS theory
  Tc   This theory is given by Bardeen, Cooper and
Scheffer in 1957.
1 / 2
 T 
4
 This theory propose attractive interaction between
 (0)   T  1     two electron through lattice vibration i. e..
  Tc   phonon. The attractive interaction proceeds when
one electron interacts with the lattice and deforms
4 1/ 2
 T   it. A second electron sees the deformed lattice and
 (0)   T 1     adjusts itself to take the advantage of deformation
  Tc   to lower its energy. Thus second electron interacts
4 1/ 2
with first via the lattice deformation. The pair of
 T 
1/ 2
   3.5  4 
 (0)   T 1  
these two electrons is known as copper pair. Since
   7501     quanta of vibration is known as phonon. Hence,
  Tc     4.153   this interaction is also known as electron-phonon-

 (0)  750 1  0.854  1/ 2 electron interaction.

 (0)  7501  0.521 / 2  7500.481 / 2

 (0)  7500.481 / 2  750  0.69
0
 (0)  520 A
2. For a superconductor, the number of super
electrons is 1028 m-3 and Tc=3K, find the
penetration depth at OK.
Ans. The penetration depth at OK is given as When an electron with wave vector K, destroyed
1/ 2 the lattice, the lattice gain momentum as a result
 m  the momentum of electron decreases. So, a
0   o

2 

 0 s 
n e phonon of wave vector q is emitted. When another
electron with wavevector K1 observes the energy
from phonon its gets moementum. Therefore due
to interaction occurs between two electrons with

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wave vector K-q and K+q. These electrons forms generally contain fractional numbers to describe
cooper pairs. the doping required for superconductivity.

Assignments There are several families of cuprate

1.Write a short note on BCS theory. superconductors and they can be categorized by
2.Define cooper pairs. the elements they contain and the number of
3.The penetration depth  (T ) of Hg at 3.5K is adjacent copper-oxide layers in each
0
superconducting block. For example, YBCO and
about 750 A . Find the penetration depth at 0K. BSCCO can alternatively be referred to as Y123
Given Tc for Hg = 4.153K and Bi2201/Bi2212/Bi2223 depending on the
4.Determine the penetration depth in mercury number of layers in each superconducting block
at 0K, if the critical temperature of mercury is (n). The superconducting transition temperature
4.2K and penetration depth is 57nm at 2.9K. has been found to peak at an optimal doping value
5. Calculate the London penetration depth or (p =0.16) and an optimal number of layers in each
Tc = 3.7K, superconducting electron density superconducting block, typically n = 3. Below is
(ns) = 7.3 × 103kg/m3, Atomic Weight = 118.7 the list of few cuprates.
and effective mass = 1.9m0
No. of Cu-O
Tc
Lecture 5 Formula Notation planes
(K)
High-temperature superconductors (HTS) in unit cell
Materials that behave as superconductors at
unusually high temperatures are known as High Tc YBa2Cu3O7 123 92 2
superconductors. HTS have been observed with
transition temperatures as high as 138 K
(−135 °C). There are two categories of these Bi2Sr2CuO6 Bi-2201 20 1
superconductors
(i) Compounds of copper and oxygen (so- Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 Bi-2212 85 2
called "cuprates")
(ii) iron-based compounds (the iron pnictides) Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O6 Bi-2223 110 3
The cuprate superconductors adopt a perovskite
structure. The copper-oxide planes are
Tl2Ba2CuO6 Tl-2201 80 1
checkerboard lattices with squares of O2− ions
with a Cu2+ ion at the centre of each square. The
unit cell is rotated by 45° from these squares. Tl2Ba2CaCu2O8 Tl-2212 108 2
Chemical formulae of superconducting materials

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Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 Tl-2223 125 3
TlBa2Ca3Cu4O11 Tl-1234 122 4
HgBa2CuO4 Hg-1201 94 1 an insulating barrier placed between two
HgBa2CaCu2O6 Hg-1212 128 2
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 Hg-1223 134 3
Applications of Superconductors
1.Superconducting Transmission Lines
Since 10% to 15% of generated electricity is
dissipated in resistive losses in transmission lines,
the prospect of zero loss superconducting
transmission lines is appealing. High Current
densities above 10,000 amperes per square
centimeter are considered necessary for practical
power applications, and this threshold has been
exceeded in several configurations.
2.Superconducting Motors and Generators
Superconducting motors and generators
could be made with a weight of about one tenth
that of conventional devices for the same output.
This is the appeal of making such devices for
specialized applications. Motors and generators
are already very efficient, so there is not the
power savings associated with superconducting
magnets. It may be possible to build very large
capacity generators for power plants where
structural strength considerations place limits on
conventional generators.
3.Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
Superconducting magnetic energy storage
(SMES) stores electricity for long periods of time
in superconductive coils. SMES will be used by
electrical utilities some day.
4.Computers
If computers used
superconducting parts they would be much more
faster than the computers today. They would
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much smaller because no space for heat would be
required. Computers of today need a great deal of
space for cooling.Computers are being developed
today that use Josephson junctions. The Josepson
effect states that electrons are able to flow across
superconducting materials. Josephson junctions
have a thin layer of insulating materials squeezed
between superconductive material. Josephson
junctions require little power to operate, thus
creating less heat.
5.Josephson Devices
Devices based upon the characteristics of a
Josephson junction are valuable in high speed
circuits. Josephson junctions can be designed to
switch in times of a few picoseconds. Their low
power dissipation makes them useful in high-
density computer circuits where resistive heating
limits the applicability of conventional switches.
6.SQUID Magnetometer
The superconducting quantum interference
device (SQUID) consists of two superconductors
separated by thin insulating layers to form two
parallel Josephson junctions. The device may be
configured as a magnetometer to detect incredibly
small magnetic fields -- small enough to measure
the magnetic fields in living organisms. Squids
have been used to measure the magnetic fields in
mouse brains to test whether there might be
enough magnetism to attribute their navigational
ability to an internal compass.
7.Magnetically Levitated Trains
Perhaps the most famous and fascinating
superconducting invention is magnetically
levitated trains, or "maglev" trains. Maglev trains
have no wheels and friction. The trains float
silently on a magnetic field due to diamagnetic
behaviour.
Assignments
1.What are High Temperature superconductors?
2. Name few High Temperature superconductors
and list out the characteristics of such type of
materials.
3. Discuss the characteristics of superconductors
in superconducting state.
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4. Discuss the application of superconductors.
Lecture 6
Nanomaterials
The materials whose particle size lie in the range
1-100 nm , known as nanomaterials. Examples-
Nanoferrite, Fulleren, Carbon nanotube
These properties have properties very much
different from bulk materials (particle size >100
nm). For example
1. Paramagnetic materials becomes super
paramagnetic when approaches to
nanoregime.
2. Gold nanoparticles appear deep red to
black in solution.
Nanoparticles exhibit anomalous behavior due
following reasons
1. Large surface (S) to volume (V) ratio
These materials has large S/V ratio, which leads
to significant changes in chemical or surface
related properties.
2. Optical Confinement- Due to optical
confinement the energy levels of nanoparticles
are discrete. This gives rise to change in optical
properties of nanomaterials.
3. In these materials generally mean free
path is comparable to the particle size, which
leads to change in electrical properties.
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4. Exchange length lax is comparable to the
particle size which leads to modification in
magnetic properties of these materials. Exchange
length lax is defined as the distance between two
neighboring spin.
Production of nanomaterials-
Generally two approaches are used for producing
nanoparticles
(i) Bottom-up approaches-The
nanoparticles are synthesizing by staring from
molecular/atomic level. Chemical reaction
methods are falls in this category. Follwing
methods comes in the bottom-up approach
(a)Hydrothermal method
(b)citrate precursor method
(c) micro-emulsion method
(d)Nitrate method
(ii) Top-down approaches-This methodology
involves production of nanomaterials starting
from bulk precursor. Bulk precursor is crushed
into nanopartcles using various methods. Few of
them are
(a)Mechanical Milling
(b)Electron-beam evaporation
(c)rf sputtering
(d)Pulsed Laser Deposition
Buckyballs or Fullerene
A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of
carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid,
tube, and many other shapes. Spherical fullerenes
are also called buckyballs, and they resemble the
balls used in football (soccer).
The first fullerene molecule to be discovered, and
the family's namesake, buckminsterfullerene
(C60), was prepared in 1985 by Richard Smalley,
Robert Curl, James Heath, Sean O'Brien, and
Harold Kroto at Rice University. In this molecule
each carbon atom is bonded to three adjacent
carbon atoms are arranged in sphere about a
nanometer in diameter. In this structure carbon
atoms are situated at 60 chemically equivalent
vertices that are connected by 32 faces. Out of
which 12 are pentagonal and 20 are hexagonal.
In this structure
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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2014
Figure: Arrangement of carbon atom in a C60
molecule.
The ball like molecules binds each other in solid
state to form a crystal having face centered cubic.
Figure: Arrangement of C60 in a crystal
The buckyballs has two categories:
(a) Larger molecules: C70, C82, C60
(b) Smaller molecules: C22
Assignments
1.What do you mean by Nanotechnology?
2.What is naoscience?
3.What is nano particle ?Explain
4.Write down the bottom up and top down
approach?
5.Why the properties of naoparticle differ from its
bulk materials?
6.How to visualize nanoscale?
[UNIT-II:SUPERCONDUCTIVITY & NANOMATERIALS]
Lecture 7
Creation of buckyballs
Buckyballs are created by following methods:
(1) Carbon Arc
Buckyballs are created in a inert gas, He, medium.
This helium atmosphere is created by bell-jar
apparatus which is filled with 100 Torr of helium.
Inside the bell-jar two carbon rods should be
placed slightly apart from each other. With these
two carbon rods one can create a carbon arc
between the two rods using the energy apparatus.
This energy apparatus needs to provide some
where between 100 and 200 amps, closer to the
200, of current at around 220 voltage, a portable
arc welder can fill these requirements. This arc
should be left on for approximately 10-15
seconds. After this a 5-10 minuet cool down
period is recommended. This should have
produced a good amount of soot on the inside of
the bell-jar. This soot contains not only
Buckministerfullerenes but other fullerenes and
carbon molecules as well. The next step is to
purify the carbon 60 and extract the molecules
from the soot.
(2) Solar Production of Fullerene
(3) Pyrolytic Production of Fullerenes
Carbon Nanotube
Carbon tubes were discovered by S. Iijima. It is a
tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having a
diameter measuring on the nanometer scale. It is
sheet of graphite called graphene, rolled into a
cylindrical structures. In these structures each
carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other
carbon atom. At face of each carbon nanotubes
carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal type
geometry. If the ends of tubes are closed, then
carbon atoms are arranged in pentagonal
structures at the ends.
Carbon nanotubes can be of few nm in diameter
and upto several nm in length. Hence they have
large length to diameter ratio (~106).
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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2014

(ii)Multiwalled carbon nanotubes-

Multi-wall nanotubes can appear either in the
form of a coaxial assembly of SWNT similar to a
coaxial cable, or as a single sheet of graphite
rolled into the shape of a scroll. The diameters of
MWNT are typically in the range of 5 nm to 50
nm. The interlayer distance in MWNT is close to
the distance between graphene layers in graphite.

Carbon Nanotubes have many structures,

differing in length, thickness, and in the type of
helicity and number of layers

Types of carbon nanotubes on the basis of Assignments

number of layers 1) Write down the bottom up and top down
Carbon nanotubes may be of two types. approach?
Single walled carbon nanotubes- 2) Why the properties of naoparticle differ
(i)Single-wall nanotubes (SWNT) are tubes of from its bulk materials?
graphite that are normally capped at the ends. 3) How to visualize nanoscale?
They have a single cylindrical wall.Most SWNT
typically have a diameter of close to 1 nm. The
tube length, however, can be many thousands of Lecture 8
times longer.
SWNT have unique electronic and mechanical Types of Nanotubes on the basis of helicity
properties which can be used in numerous Nanotubes on the basis of helicity are categorized
applications, such as field-emission displays, by defining chrial vector. Chrial vector is defined
nanocomposite materials, nanosensors, and logic as the unit vector in an infinite graphene sheet that
elements. describes how to to roll up graphene sheet to
make nanotubes. The way the graphene sheet is
wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (n,m).
If a1 and a2 are the two unit vectors in graphene
sheet then chiral vector is defined as
  
Ch  na1  ma2
The diameter of an ideal nanotube can be
calculated from its (n,m) indices as follows
d
a

n 2
 nm  m 2 
where a = 0.246 nm.

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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2014

(3) Chiral Nanotube

This type of nanotube exhibits twist or spiral
around the axis of nanotubes.
For these nanotubes,
n#m
  
i.e. Ch  na1  ma2
On the basis of chiral vector (orientation)
nanotubes are defined as

(1) Arm chair

In this nanotube there is a line of hexagonal
parallel to the axis of tube.

Assignments
1) How many category of carbon nanotube
For this nanotube, n=m are there?
  
i.e. Ch  na1  na2 2) What is carbon nanotube ?
   3) What type of hybridization is present in
Ch  na1  a2  carbon nanotube?
4) A arm chair carbon nano tube have
(2) Zig-Zag Nanotubes diameter 1.35 nm, calculate the chiral vector for
In this nanotubes there is a line of carbon bonds arm chair CNT.( Hint :- d = (n2 + m2 + nm)1/2
down to the centre of hexagonal. 0.0783nm)
For this nanotube,
m = 0,
 
i.e. Ch  na1

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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2014
Lecure 9
Production of Nanotubes
Following methods are used for producing carbon
nanotubes.
(1)Arc discharge
Nanotubes were observed in 1991 in the carbon
soot of graphite electrodes during an arc
discharge, by using a current of 100 amps that was
intended to produce fullerenes.
Laser ablation
In laser ablation, a pulsed laser vaporizes a
graphite target in a high-temperature reactor while
an inert gas is bled into the chamber. Nanotubes
develop on the cooler surfaces of the reactor as
the vaporized carbon condenses. A water-cooled
surface may be included in the system to collect
the nanotubes.
The laser ablation method yields around 70% and
produces primarily single-walled carbon
nanotubes with a controllable diameter
determined by the reaction temperature. However,
it is more expensive than either arc discharge or
chemical vapor deposition.[40]
Plasma torch
The method is similar to arc-discharge in that both
use ionized gas to reach the high temperature
necessary to vaporize carbon-containing
substances and the metal catalysts necessary for
the ensuing nanotube growth. The thermal plasma
is induced by high frequency oscillating currents
in a coil, and is maintained in flowing inert gas.
Typically, a feedstock of carbon black and metal
[UNIT-II:SUPERCONDUCTIVITY & NANOMATERIALS]
catalyst particles is fed into the plasma, and then
cooled down to form single-walled carbon
nanotubes. Different single-wall carbon nanotube
diameter distributions can be synthesized.
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
During CVD, a substrate is prepared with a layer
of metal catalyst particles, most commonly nickel,
cobalt,[84] iron, or a combination.[85] The metal
nanoparticles can also be produced by other ways,
including reduction of oxides or oxides solid
solutions. The diameters of the nanotubes that are
to be grown are related to the size of the metal
particles. This can be controlled by patterned (or
masked) deposition of the metal, annealing, or by
plasma etching of a metal layer. The substrate is
heated to approximately 700°C. To initiate the
growth of nanotubes, two gases are bled into the
reactor: a process gas (such as ammonia, nitrogen
or hydrogen) and a carbon-containing gas (such as
acetylene, ethylene, ethanol or methane).
Nanotubes grow at the sites of the metal catalyst;
the carbon-containing gas is broken apart at the
surface of the catalyst particle, and the carbon is
transported to the edges of the particle, where it
forms the nanotubes.
Assignments
1) Write the typical properties and uses of
carbon Nanotube
2) Explain the detailed method of production
of carbon-nanotube by any one method with
diagram?
3) What is carbon Buckuball and write their
properties and uses
Lecture 10
Properties of buckyballs
Properties of Carbon Bucky balls:
1. Because of spherical shape , Bucky ball
have extremely stable configuration
which is resilient to impact and
deformation
2. The C60 buck balls can withstand high
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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2014
temperature and pressure.
3. Bucky ball have aromatic nature as
electron are free to move among other
bonds in hexagon carbon rings.
4. Bucky ball are infect the only known
carbon allotropes which are soluble,
have limited solubility , in most of the
solvents.
5. By doping buck ball they can be
electrically insulating , conducting ,
semiconducting or even
superconducting
Uses of Bucky balls:
1. Hydrogen storage as almost every carbon
atom in C60 absorb a hydrogen atom
without disrupting the buckyball structure
, making it more effective than metal
hydrides .This could lead to application in
fuel cell.
2. Bucky are now being considered for uses
in the field of medicine, both for
diagnostic and drug delivery purpose.
3. The scanning Tunneling microscope in
one of the tools in microscopy which uses
needle OF the BUCKYBALLS.
4. Doping metals onto the surface of Bucky
ball offers the possibility for become
catalysts.
Properties of Carbon Nanotube:
1. CTNs have high electrical conductivity
2. CTNs have Very high tensile strength.
3. CNTs have highly flexible can be bent
considerably without damage.
4. CNTs have high thermal conductivity in
the axial direction.
5. CNTs have low thermal expansion
coefficient.
6. CNTs are good electron field emitters.
7. CNTs have a hiogh aspect ratio
(length=1000x diameter)
ranging from every life items like clothes
and sports gear to combat jackets.
2. Nanotube based transistors have been
made that operate at room temperature.
3. Carbon Nanotube has also been proposed
as a possible gene delivery vehicle and for
use in combination with radiofrequency
fields for destroys cancers cells.
Application of nanotubes
Carbon Nanotube Technology can be used for a
wide range of new and existing applications:
 Conductive plastics
 Structural composite materials
 Flat-panel displays
 Gas storage
 Antifouling paint
 Micro- and nano-electronics
 Radar-absorbing coating
 Technical textiles
 Ultra-capacitors
 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) tips
 Batteries with improved lifetime
 Biosensors for harmful gases
 Extra strong fibers
Applications of nanotechnology
Assignments
1) Explain how a Buckyball can be used as
anti-oxidant, medical imaging and drug delivery
system?
2) Write the advantage of nanotechnology
over the conventional technology

Uses of Carbon Nanotube:

1. Because of the great mechanical
properties of the carbon nanotube , a
variety of structure have been proposed

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