Master Thesis of Science

Buckling of Cylindrical Shells with a

Granular Core Under Global Bending
Strength Gains and Imperfection Sensitivity

Timothy W Cook

June 2014

European Wind Energy Master - EWEM- Offshore Track

 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells with a
Granular Core Under Global Bending
Strength Gains and Imperfection Sensitivity

Master of Science Thesis

For obtaining the degree of Master of Science in Offshore

Engineering at Delft University of Technology and in
Technology-Wind Energy at Norwegian University of Science and
Technology.

Timothy W Cook

June 2014

European Wind Energy Master - EWEM

DUWIND - Delft University of Technology
Marin Teknikk, - NTNU
Copyright c Timothy W Cook
All rights reserved.
 European Wind Energy Master - EWEM
Of
Offshore Track

The undersigned hereby certify that they have read and recommend to the European
Wind Energy Master - EWEM for acceptance a thesis entitled “Buckling of Cylindrical
Shells with a Granular Core Under Global Bending” by Timothy W Cook in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science.

Dated: June 2014

Supervisor:
prof.dr. Torgeir Moan of NTNU

Supervisor:
prof. dr.ir. Mirek Kaminski of TU Delft
 Summary

Thin cylindrical shells are commonly employed in civil and structural applications in
which the dominant loading condition is global bending. In applications such as wind
turbine towers, tubular piles, and tall silos, the ultimate strength of the structure is
commonly limited by buckling. Traditional approaches to improving shell stability and
design economy of such structures include using stringers, ring-stiffeners and in fewer
cases a compliant core such as foam or honeycomb. Meanwhile, it has long been observed
in the silo industry that granular filled metal cylinders exhibit strength gains due to the
internal pressure and stiffness of the granular bulk solid against the shell wall. In the silo
industry and in other applications such as towers and piles it may be beneficial to exploit
such strength gains in pursuit of greater design economy. However, strength gains related
to the stiffness of a granular fill core in a cylinder has received very little attention and
has been strictly limited to the axial loading condition.
This work considers the effects of an elastic granular fill on the buckling strength and
imperfection sensitivity of elastic-plastic steel cylindrical shells subject to global bending
action. The bulk fill is modeled as a soft elastic core. Theoretical elastic buckling mo-
ments are first estimated with formulations based on the energy method for perfect elastic
cylinders with a compliant, elastic core. The theoretical analysis results are provided for
different elastic core moduli and R/t ratios. Linear (LBA) and nonlinear (GNIA, GM-
NIA) computational analyses are performed on hollow and filled (Ec = 20 MPa) constant
diameter cylinders with R/t = 140 and σy = 690 MPa. Two cases are considered, dif-
fering only in lengths with L/R = 7 and L/R = 20. The cylindrical shells are modeled
with 4-node quadratic shell elements, and the elastic granular core is modeled using 8-
node linear isoparametric brick elements. The initial geometric imperfections considered
are based on a select eigenmode from the LBA of the perfect shell. Strength gains in
terms of the bifurcation moment are computed and the elastic imperfection sensitivity
is explored. The elastic granular fill is found to significantly improve buckling strength
and reduce sensitivity to imperfections. Further, a bulk fill may be used effectively to
replace ring stiffeners, and the imperfection sensitivity of filled cylinders was found to be
less dependent on length in comparison with hollow cylinders.

v
vi Summary
 Acknowledgements

This master thesis has been carried out in partial fulfillment of the Erasmus Mundus
European Wind Energy Masters program. I would like to thank everyone at the four
participating universities responsible for creating the program. The coordinators in Delft
have done an excellent job and have been very helpful in facilitating our progress as we
worked to satisfy the requirements of multiple universities. I was also very blessed to have
been awarded the Erasmus Mundus scholarship. I would not have been able to participate
in this program with out it.
I wish to thank Torgeir Moan for his unwavering support in the selection and planning
of this thesis. Further, I thank Torgeir Moan, Zhen Gao, Jorgen Amdahl, and Mirek
Kaminski for their constructive comments and feedback along the way.
I would also like to thank Dr. J. Michael Rotter and Jim Platts for their inspiration and
guidance, which helped me develop a thesis topic which I truly enjoyed.

Trondheim, Norway Timothy W Cook

June 2014

vii
viii Acknowledgements
 Contents

Summary v

Acknowledgements vii

List of Figures xv

List of Tables xvii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Previous Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Nomenclature 1

2 Background 7
2.1 Buckling in Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Buckling modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells in Global Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Imperfection sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Imperfections and their characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.4 Ovalization in bent cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.5 Inelastic Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Thin Metal Cylinders with Granular Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Interaction between granular fill and shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.2 Effects of internal pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.3 Effects of fill material stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

ix
x Contents

2.3.4 Practical elastic restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.4 Evaluation of Buckling Resistance by Computational Methods . . . . . . . 20
2.4.1 Different methods of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.2 Solution procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Theory 23
3.1 Hollow Cylinders in Axial Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Hollow Cylinders in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Cylinders with an Elastic Core in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4 Methodology 33
4.1 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Theoretical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.1 Reference moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.2 Classical elastic buckling moment, Mcl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.3 Elastic local buckling moment, Mlb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.4 Elastic ovalization at local buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Computational Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.2 LBA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.3 GNIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.4 GMNIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5 Results 45
5.1 Theoretical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.2 LBA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.1 Eigenmodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.2 MLBA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.3 GNIA and Elastic Imperfection Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3.1 Assumed imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3.2 MGN IA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.4 GMNIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.5 Optimization Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.6 Deformed Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

6 Discussion 65
6.1 Comparison of Theoretical and Computational Results . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2 Influence of Geometric Nonlinearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.3 Imperfection Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.4 Influence of Steel Inelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.5 Effect of Soft Elastic Core on Buckling Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.6 Limitations of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Contents xi

7 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work 71

7.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.2 Recommendations for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

References 75

A Theoretical Analysis: Matlab Calculations 79

A.1 Theoretical Buckling Strength Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
A.2 Plotting Strength Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
xii Contents
 List of Figures

2.1 Concepts in buckling and stability [shellbuckling.com] . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.2 Geometrical description of a stiffened cylindrical shell [1] . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Typical buckling modes of an isotropic elastic cylinder under axial com-
pression (a) axisymmetric mode, (b) non-symmetric [23] . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Buckling mode of an elastic cylinder under bending [10] . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Buckling mode categories for cylinders with various stiffener arrangements
[1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Imperfection sensitivity of cylindrical shells with Type A weld in uniform
axial compression [24] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7 Imperfection sensitivity of long cylinders under bending [10] . . . . . . . . 13
2.8 Buckling of a bent cylinder in the inelastic range (R/t = 50) [28] . . . . . 15
2.9 Effects of symmetric and asymmetric imperfections on internal pressure
elastic buckling strength gain (after [11]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10 Effects of internal pressure on elastic-plastic buckling strength [13] . . . . 18
2.11 Effects of elastic restraint on elastic buckling strength of imperfect cylinders
[14] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.12 Buckling load for different spring models and varying stiffness [15] . . . . 20

3.1 Schematic of cylindrical shell in axial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.2 Schematic of cylindrical shell in bending; normal stress components, σv
responsible for ovalization [10] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Schematic of cylindrical shell with elastic core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4.1 Schematic of structural configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.2 FE model cylinder mesh convergence study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 FE model core thickness convergence study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4 FE model mesh (cylinder+core) view 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

xiii
xiv List of Figures

4.5 FE model mesh (cylinder+core) view 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.6 FE model boundary and symmetry conditions view 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.7 FE model boundary and symmetry conditions view 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.8 FE model constraints and tie interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.1 Classical elastic buckling moment gains MclC /MclH (small deflection theory) 46
5.2 Theoretical elastic buckling moment gains MlbC /MlbH (large deflection the-
ory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.3 Theoretical degree of ovalization reduction ζC /ζHollow . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.4 Mode shape 1 for hollow section L/R=7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.5 Mode shape 2 for hollow section L/R=7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.6 Mode shape 1 for filled section (Ec=20 MPa), L/R=7 . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.7 Mode shape 2 for filled section (Ec=20 MPa), L/R=7 . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.8 Mode shape 1 for hollow section, L/R=20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.9 Mode shape 2 for hollow section, L/R=20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.10 Mode shape 1 for filled section (Ec=20 MPa), L/R=20 . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.11 Mode shape 2 for filled section (Ec=20 MPa), L/R=20 . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.12 LBA and Mc l elastic buckling moment ratio of filled to hollow sections . . 51
5.13 Imperfection form assumed for L/R=7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.14 Imperfection form assumed for L/R=20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.15 Imperfection sensitivity benchmark: 2nd Eigenmode compared with Rotter
et al. [5] results for Type A weld depression imperfection for L/R = 7 steel
cylinders in bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.16 Effect of elastic core on elastic imperfection sensitivity for L/R=7 . . . . . 54
5.17 Effect of elastic core on elastic imperfection sensitivity for L/R=20 . . . . 55
5.18 MGN IA ratio of filled to hollow cylinders w.r.t. imperfection amplitude . . 55
5.19 GNIA and GMNIA load-displacement curve for filled L/R=7 cylinder d0/t=0.5,
R/t = 140, σy = 690, MPa Ec = 20 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.20 GNIA and GMNIA load-displacement curve for filled L/R=20 cylinder
d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690, MPa Ec = 20 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.21 Load-displacement curve comparison of hollow and filled GMNIA for L/R=7
d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690 MPa, Ec = 20 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.22 Load-displacement curve comparison of hollow and filled GMNIA for L/R=20
d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690 MPa, Ec = 20 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.23 Hollow and filled MGM N IA values for d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690, MPa
Ec = 20 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.24 Strength gains due to elastic core based on MGM N IA for d0/t=0.5, R/t =
140, σy = 690 MPa, Ec = 20 MPa, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.25 Capacity curve data points of hollow and filled cylinders in bending for
d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, Ec = 20 MPa, σy = 690 MPa, . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
List of Figures xv

5.26 Load-displacement curves for different hollow cylinder thicknesses com-

pared with filled R/t = 140 cylinder, L/R = 7, GMNIA, d0/t=0.5 . . . . 61
5.27 Load-displacement curves for different hollow cylinder thicknesses com-
pared with filled R/t = 140 cylinder, L/R = 20, GMNIA, d0/t=0.5 . . . . 62
5.28 Collapse mode for hollow cylinder GMNIA, L/R = 7, d0/t=0.5 . . . . . . 63
5.29 Deformed member at bifurcation for filled cylinder GNIA, L/R = 7, d0/t=0.5,
Ec = 20 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.30 Deformed shape at birfurcation for filled section GMNIA, L/R = 20,
d0/t=0.5, Ec = 20 MPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.31 Deformed shape at birfurcation for hollow section GMNIA, L/R = 20,
d0/t=0.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
xvi List of Figures
 List of Tables

4.1 FE model cylinder shell mesh convergence study (L/R=20) . . . . . . . . 40

4.2 Number of elements used in FE models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Materials model summary for cylinder and core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.1 Theoretical results summary for R/t = 140, Ec = 20 MPa . . . . . . . . . 48

5.2 LBA and elastic small deflection theory results for L/R=7 [Units: MN-m] 50
5.3 LBA and elastic small deflection theory results for L/R=20 [Units: MN-m] 50
5.4 GNIA results and elastic imperfection sensitivity Moments are normalized
by the LBA moment for hollow section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.5 Effects of elastic core and material nonlinearity on bifurcation (max) mo-
ment [Units=MN-m] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.6 Amount of steel tonnage saved by filling cylinder to satisfy a target bending
moment strength. The radius is fixed and the hollow cylinder wall thickness
was increased until the same moment strength was achieved as for the filled
cylinder with R/t = 140 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

xvii
xviii List of Tables
 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Motivation

Large diameter steel cylindrical members under beam action are commonly used in appli-
cations such as conveyor galleries, masts, offshore structural members and wind turbine
towers. Representative members, for example wind turbine towers, typically have diam-
eters of 2.5-4.5 m and radius-to-thickness, R/t, ratios of 30-150. The buckling strength
of these structures can be strongly affected by imperfections and inelastic behavior. For
unstiffened members in bending, ovalization can also strongly influence the ultimate buck-
ling moment. Further, the buckling of moderately thin-walled cylinders (R/t = 30 − 150)
can exhibit considerable plasticity without the fully plastic state ever being reached. As
such, these types of structures are deemed to be in the elastic-plastic range.
For thin-walled cylindrical members, an important mechanisms for failure under flexure
is the local buckling type. When the cylinder does not have longitudinal stiffening (i.e.
welded stringers) then the critical buckling type failure mode is typically the local buckling
of the shell in the area under compression. In general, the critical buckling stress decreases
with increasing R/t ratio. In other words, reducing the thickness of a cylindrical shell
with a constrained diameter will reduce the expected critical buckling load.
Large diameter steel cylindrical sections are typically fabricated by rolling and welding
thin plates to form short cans. The cans are then joined together by circumferential
girth welds to produce long spans [13]. In applications with diameter constraints, such as
onshore wind turbine towers, very large wall thicknesses may be encountered due to large
flexure loads. When steel wall thicknesses are large (i.e. exceeding 40 mm), material
utilization can decrease due to reductions in allowed fatigue and yield strength required
by steel codes. Large wall thicknesses also increase welding/fabrication difficulties and
require shorter length segments to meet transportation weight limitations.
The conventional approaches to reducing wall thickness for steel cylinders with constrained
diameters are to use higher strength steel and/or to include stiffeners. However, the use
of high strength steel alone may be ineffective in thin-walled cylinders because local

1
2 Introduction

buckling tends to limit allowable thickness reductions [26]. The inclusion of stiffeners is
a common approach to increasing stability and design economy. Stiffeners in cylinders
may be differentiated as being either circumferential (ring) stiffeners and longitudinal
(axial) stiffeners. Ring stiffeners are almost always included (with spacings of 0.5 to
2 diameters) in large diameter fabricated steel tubes under flexure in effort to minimize
strength reductions related to ovalization. Axial stiffeners, when used, are typically welded
along the length of the cylindrical wall. Axial stiffeners have been shown to be effective
at increasing the ultimate moment up to near the plastic moment [13], but the costs can
outweigh the benefits when stiffening is required around the entire circumference. Axial
stiffeners are more effective when there exist a primary direction of flexure, such that the
axial stiffeners may be included only in the region exposed to compressive stresses.
An alternative method to reducing thickness while meeting strength requirements is to use
an elastic core. Elastic cores are usually intended to be hollow. In the interest of weight
optimization, the use of elastic cores such as foam, expanded metal, and honeycombs has
been shown to be effective for reducing wall thickness and increasing buckling stability [8]
[6]. In some aspects, the elastic core may be thought of as smeared stiffeners with a small
stiffness. Most work on stiffening cylindrical shells with elastic cores has been interested
in overall weight optimization as opposed to cost.
Meanwhile, granular fill (i.e. sand) acting as a quasi-elastic core may be a practical, low
cost replacement for stiffeners as a means to reduce steel tonnage where overall weight
is of little concern. It is well known that cylindrical metal silo structures benefit from
strength advantages when filled, however, rational quantification of such strength gains
have been sparse due to the complexity of the issue and the lack of anticipated impact
on silo design since silo design for local buckling is rarely controlled by loads during the
static filled state.
A permanent granular core filling a cylindrical steel tube that is primarily exposed to
bending can be expected to provide three key advantages:

1. reducing ovalization (replacing ring stiffeners)

2. increasing critical buckling moment

3. improving postbuckling stability

While the effects of internal pressure on buckling resistance are well established and
are already incorporated in design codes, the effects of an elastic core, particularly a
granular fill, on buckling resistance of large diameter bent cylinders has received much
less attention.

1.2 Previous Work

The study of cylindrical shell buckling began with simultaneous theoretical investigations
of medium length thin-walled cylinders under uniform axial compression by Lorenz (1908),
Timeshenko (1910) and Southwell (1914). At the onset, many simplifying assumptions
were adopted in order to reduce the governing equation into a linear eigenvalue problem
1.2 Previous Work 3

commonly known as the classical buckling problem. However, unacceptable discrepancies

between theory and real structures has been observed ever since the early experiments on
axially loaded cylinders as carried out by Roberston [20], Flugge [7], Wilson and Newmark
[29], and Lundquist [19]. As the field progressed, the effects of initial geometric imperfec-
tions, prebuckling deformations and boundary conditions were studied and identified as
significant sources of this discrepancy. In particular, the effects of initial geometric imper-
fections dominate the buckling strength of axially loaded cylinders, while bent cylinders
can be sensitive to all three sources, most significantly prebuckling deformations and
imperfections, depending on the structure’s geometry.
The advantages of a bulk solid stiffness on buckling strength of a cylinder have been
investigated for axially compressed cylinders. For the most part, these studies have been
conducted in the context of silo design. Experiments [25] [4] [17] on the strengthening
effects of stored bulk solids demonstrated strength gains consistently higher than would
otherwise be attributed to the effects of the internal pressure alone [14]. Experiments
have been performed on fabricated steel cylinders filled with sand under axial loading
conditions demonstrating consistent gains in buckling strength, and in many cases the
classical buckling stress was achieved. However, a certain scatter of buckling strengths
was observed with the varying forms of imperfections [4]. Further, it has been challenging
to deduce how much of the strength gains were caused by pressurization and how much
can be attributed to the granular-solid stiffness [17]. Design guidance for cylinders taking
advantage of an elastic granular core requires the separation of the effects of pressurization
and granular-solid stiffness. Further, the cylinders used in experimentation did not follow
fabrication processes which may be used in practice where circumferential welds would
cause a local axisymmetric imperfection [14]. Thus, theoretical studies on the effects of
an elastic stored solid on the buckling of cylindrical shells have necessarily been pursued.
The elastic buckling of thin isotropic cylindrical shells filled with an elastic core was first
presented by Seide [27], who demonstrated theoretical strength gains of perfect cylindri-
cal shells with an elastic core, with motivation in the context of solid-fuel rockets. Seide
modeled the core as a linear elastic spring (Winkler) foundation supporting the shell.
Shear stresses at the core-wall interface were neglected. Good correlations were observed
when reasonable assumptions were made in calculating the elastic spring constant. He
concluded that the critical stress in axial compression increases with increasing core mod-
ulus, and that the axissymmetric buckling load produces the lowest buckling strength.
Yao [32] applied Seide’s model to longer axially loaded cylinders and observed similar
results. Also, by extending Seide’s model to include the shear stress between the core and
wall, Yao [32] concluded that the inclusion of shear stress does not have a major influence
on shell stability.
Obsevations of the buckling behavior for uniaxial elastic buckling of cylinders with a com-
pliant core indicate transitions in the critical buckling mode even for very soft elastic cores.
The classical diamond pattern for empty cylinders will transition to a circumferentially
elongated diamond pattern for very low modulus cores (Ec /E = 3 · 10−5 ) and already to
the axisymmetric mode in cylinders with a slightly stiffer core of (Ec /E = 10−4 ) [16].
The effects of an elastic core on the local buckling of short bent cylinders has been ana-
lyzed by Yabuta [31] by extending Seide’s work and neglecting any ovalization of the cross
section. Two empty cylinders and two cylinders filled with silicon rubber (Ec /E = 10−3 )
4 Introduction

were tested in bending. The empty and filled cylinders demonstrated strengths of roughly
60% and 80% of the calculated load in a trend similar to those observed for the uniaxial
compression case. In 1995, Karam and Gibson [8] reanalysed the problem and formu-
lated a more simplified analysis for the elastic buckling of a thin isotropic cylindrical
shell with an elastic core. Their analysis was comprehensive including consideration for
axisymmetric buckling in uniaxial compression, ovalization, Brazier moment, and local
buckling moment in pure bending. Ovalization nomographs and strength gains with re-
spect to R/t ratios and Ec /E ratios were presented. Results from the theoretical analysis
were compared with 4-point bending tests on hollow silicone rubber cylinders and silicon
rubber cylinders partially filled with a compliant core presented in a companion paper
[9]. Ten cylindrical shells with R/t ratios ranging from 17.6 to 55 were tested.The load-
displacement curves of the filled specimens exhibited a small plateau corresponding to
stable local buckling which was usually followed by localization of one buckle and the
formation of an elastic hinge and collapse. For the hollow tubes, the experimental data
was between 70% and 95% of theoretical predictions, however, this discrepancy has been
attributed to the thickness variation in the cylindrical specimens. The buckling capac-
ity is proportional to the thickness squared, and the measured specimens had thickness
variations on the order of 15%. After comparison of the theory and experiments it was
concluded that ovalization can be neglected in cylindrical shells with a compliant core,
but it can not be neglected for hollow tubes. The ovalization at local buckling for a
long hollow tube (ζlb = 0.145) leads to a reduction in theoretical buckling stress down to
56%, which brings theory in good agreement with data. The theoretical and experimental
strength gains for the filled elastic cylinders with R/t = 17.6 − 55 showed strength gains
of 50 − 400%. The data points agree well with theoretical predictions, falling at most 25%
below predictions.

The aforementioned studies were limited to perfect cylindrical shells free of imperfections.
The standard reference for a systematic theoretical investigation of strength gains due
to an elastic granular fill with specific consideration for imperfections was presented by
Rotter and Zhang [14]. Rotter and Zhang considered imperfect cylindrical shells filled
with a granular bulk solid under uniform axial compression with an imperfection in the
form of a circumferential weld depression. Their nonlinear numerical model was based
on axisymmetric shell finite elements and the bulk solid core was modeled using a lin-
ear Winkler spring foundation similar to Seide. The linear spring constant, ”subgrade
modulus”, is a very simple approach to modeling granular core behavior, and it relies
on the assumption that shell wall deformations are small such that the pressure between
the bulk solid and the does not reach zero. It was pointed out that even though the
elastic solid stiffness depends on the buckling mode and visa-versa, the low levels of stiff-
ness provided by a granular core only slightly change the circumferential buckling mode,
therefore the influence of the solid on the buckling mode was ignored. With conservative
assumptions made in defining the subgrade modulus, Rotter and Zhang observed strength
gains some 30% larger than predicted by ECCS for fluid pressurized vessels. It was noted
that further increases in buckling strength may be possible with better quantification of
the bulk-solid/shell interaction. According to their results, the elastic buckling gains of
an imperfect steel cylindrical shell (R/t = 140, E = 210 GPa) with an elastic granular
fill corresponding to Ec = 20 MPa, νc = 0.3 may be on the order of about 40 − 50%.
That is based on a dimensionless modifying parameter of b = 2, and a resulting subgrade
1.3 Objectives 5

modulus, f R = 77 MPa.
The linear spring (Winkler foundation) model for the granular solid is known to be a re-
strictive assumption[21]. Knebel and Schweizerhof [15] studied the influence of the model
used for the solid-wall interaction on the buckling of a silo under axial compressive load.
In particular, different nonlinear interaction models were compared with the simple linear
model. In contrast to previous simplified studies [14] [17], Knebel and Schweizerhof used
a FE model with no restrictions concerning geometry, deformation or buckling patterns.
It was shown that the stiffness of the bulk fill material can raise the buckling capacity con-
siderably, and that the simple linear elastic spring model may lead to an overestimation
of the buckling load, in particular for rather stiff contents. More specifically, the elastic
buckling load predicted by the linear spring model appears to separate from the compres-
sion only model (with linear stiffness down to zero pressure) when the core stiffness gets
larger than roughly Ec = 30 MPa.
A more recent investigation of the buckling of imperfect metal cylindrical shells containing
sand was presented by Wojcik et. al. [30] in early 2014. A 3D buckling analysis (LBA,
GMNA, GMNIA) of empty and filled cylindrical shells was conducted using a rigorous
hypoplastic constitutive model to describe the behavior of the fill material. Two different
imperfection forms were considered including the 1st eigenmode resulting from the LBA,
and a circumferential weld depression. The FE results showed that the initial geometric
imperfection in the form of the 1st eigenmode produced the lower buckling strength
compared with the circumferential weld depression. The results also clearly demonstrate
strength gains of 9 − 22% due to the stored bulk solid which compares with previous
experiments [18] that recorded strength gains of approximately 25% for axial compression.
It is noted that these gains correspond to a relatively soft bulk stiffness due to small
confining pressures in the sand of ≈ 10 − 15 kPa, and the results also compare well with
those of Rotter and Zhang [14].
While consistent strength gains have been observed for perfect elastic cylindrical shells in
bending and for imperfect cylindrical shells in axial compression, the effects of a granular
bulk solid or soft elastic core on the buckling strength of imperfect steel cylindrical shells
in bending remains an open topic, in particular for cylindrical shells in the elastic-plastic
range.

1.3 Objectives

The present study is concerned with the buckling capacity of imperfect elastic-plastic
cylinders with a granular core under global bending action. The effects of core stiffness
on buckling capacity and imperfection sensitivity are investigated. Further, the influence
of geometric and material nonlinearities is considered. In summary, the objectives of this
work are to:

1. Study the effects of granular core stiffness on the buckling capacity and imperfection
sensitivity of bent cylinders

2. Investigate the influence of geometric and material nonlinearities on buckling resis-

tance
6 Introduction

3. Draw conclusions and recommendations for future analyses and work

 Chapter 2

Background

2.1 Buckling in Structures

Buckling is an instability phenomena in structures that can occur from compression

loads/stresses. In relatively slender or thin structures, the structure or its components
may fail due to buckling at loads much smaller those that would otherwise lead to ma-
terial strength failure. Under an increasing load on a structure, buckling is theoretically
caused by a bifurcation in the solution to the equations of static equilibrium. A struc-
ture is said to be in stable equilibrium when small perturbations do not cause ”large”
movements (like a mechanism), and the structure vibrates about its equilibrium position.
On the other hand, if small perturbations of a structure lead to large movements and
the structure does not return to its original equilibrium position, then the structure is
said to be unstable. In terms of potential energy, the equilibrium configuration becomes
unstable when the stationary point is no longer a local minimum potential energy with
respect to adjacent configuration perturbations. Neutral equilibrium is less obvious. It
can be suspected when small perturbations cause large movements, but the structure can
be brought back to the original equilibrium position with no work.
When a structure is subjected to compressive stresses it can undergo bifurcation buckling.
As the load is increased, a critical value is reached where a sudden small change in
geometry occurs and the load-deformation path bifurcates. Referring to Figure 2.1, the
post-buckling path is said to be stable (c) if the load capacity increases and unstable (d)
if the load capacity decreases after bifurcation. Further, post-buckling behavior can be
symmetric and neutral (a) or asymmetric (b). In the figure, the effects of imperfections
can also be observed for the various buckling behaviors. In general, imperfections cause
an earlier transition to bifurcated load path.
In some cases, a structure can experience a sudden large change in geometry when a certain
limit load is reached. This behavior is often referred to as ”snap-through” buckling. It
occurs when a limit load of the structure is reached and a jump is observed in the load-
displacement path from the initial equilibrium state to a second stable state after passing
through a temporary instability. Snap-through buckling can occur in shallow arches or

7
8 Background

in long slender tubes subject to bending. A linear bifurcation analysis can not capture
the snap-through type buckling, hence a geometrically nonlinear analysis is required to
consider it in a collapse assessment.

Figure 2.1: Concepts in buckling and stability [shellbuckling.com]

2.1.1 Buckling modes

The potential buckling modes in shell structures depends on the structures geometry and
loading condition. Consider a cylindrical shell as shown in Figure 2.2.
2.1 Buckling in Structures 9

Figure 2.2: Geometrical description of a stiffened cylindrical shell [1]

The stiffened cylindrical shell is composed of a shell wall, axial (longitudinal) stiffen-
ers, and ring stiffeners. Depending on the geometry details and loading conditions, the
buckling modes for a stiffened cylindrical shell may be categorized as [1]:

• Shell buckling: shell only

• Interframe shell buckling: longitudinal stiffener with associated shell plating

• Panel ring buckling: rings with associated plate flange between axial stiffeners

• General buckling: involves bending of shell, axial stiffeners, and ring stiffeners

• Torsional or local buckling of stiffeners and frames

• Column buckling of the cylinder

However, for an unstiffened cylinder, the only two buckling mode categories are the shell
buckling type and column buckling. Shell buckling modes for unstiffened cylindrical shells
in axial compression and global bending are shown in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
Ring stiffeners are commonly included in long cylinders exposed to bending in order to
avoid ovalization. When ring stiffeners are included, two additional buckling mode cate-
gories are introduced: general ring stiffener buckling, and local ring stiffener buckling. A
summary of the buckling mode categories for cylinders with various stiffener arrangements
is provided in Figure 2.5.
10 Background

Figure 2.3: Typical buckling modes of an isotropic elastic cylinder under axial compression (a)
axisymmetric mode, (b) non-symmetric [23]

Figure 2.4: Buckling mode of an elastic cylinder under bending [10]

Figure 2.5: Buckling mode categories for cylinders with various stiffener arrangements [1]
2.2 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells in Global Bending 11

2.2 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells in Global Bending

2.2.1 General

The buckling of cylindrical shells is a classic problem with many application in aerospace,
marine, civil and mechanical engineering. Due to (1) a non-uniform stress distribution
around the circumference, and (2) highly nonlinear prebuckling deformations due to oval-
ization, the analysis of slender cylinders subject to bending is considerably more compli-
cated than the uniform axial compression case. However, extensive experimental work
suggests that the critical buckling stress obtained under axial compression can be used
to describe buckling under bending for unstiffened and ring-stiffened cylinders. Under
uniform meridian compression, the classical elastic buckling stress is calculated by the
well-known equation 2.1:

E t
σcl = p (2.1)
3(1 − ν 2 R

which is often written for steel as:

t
σcl ≈ 0.605E (2.2)
R

by substituting ν = 0.3, in which E is Young’s modulus, ν is Poisson’s ratio, and R,

t are the cross-sectional mean radius and thickness, respectively. However, the actual
buckling strength of cylindrical shells observed in practice is never as high as the classical
elastic critical stress described by equation 2.1. The design of cylindrical shells under axial
compression is usually related to σcl , but the imperfection sensitivity and nonlinearities are
taken into account through the introduction of a ”knockdown factor”. Practical buckling
strengths of unpressurized imperfect thin-walled cylinders that are well constructed (as
defined by standards) is often as low as 20-30% of the classical elastic critical stress [14].
This significant discrepancy between theory and experimental observations for most shell
structures is commonly attributed to one of more of the following four factors [13]:

• prebuckling deformations and their associated changes in stress,

• boundary conditions,

• eccentricities and non-uniformities in the applied load or support, and

• geometric imperfections and associated residual stresses,

The single dominant source of discrepancy between theoretical and experimental buckling
stresses for axially compressed isotropic cylinders is initial geometric imperfections. A
substantial amount of research has explored the effects of geometrical imperfections in
shell structures, considering different imperfection forms and amplitude under various
uniform load conditions. Much less work has been done on the influence of corresponding
residual stresses on the buckling capacity of shells. Residual stresses are known to have
some effect on actual buckling capacity, but it is difficult to include in design as they do
not exhibit a systematically deleterious effect for shell structures [13].
12 Background

The influence of prebuckling stresses and nonlinear changes before buckling depends on
the shell structure under consideration. The classical linear buckling theory assumes that
the state of stress before buckling is uniform and consists of membrane stresses alone.
However, for bent long cylinders, prebuckling deformations can play a major role on the
actual buckling behavior. The most significant prebuckling deformation for these members
is ovalization. In long cylinders, ovalization reduces buckling capacity by locally reducing
the curvature (due to flattening) and inducing larger stresses at smaller applied moments.
As such, the buckling strength of unstiffened cylinders in bending can be dominated by
ovalization, and to a lesser extent imperfections. In contrast, for cylindrical shells under
axial compression, the effect of prebuckling deformations is relatively small (≈ 15%)
compared to that of imperfections [13].
Boundary conditions are known to effect buckling capacity, however, they have been found
to make a relatively small contribution to the observed discrepancies in most practical ap-
plications. The greatest sensitivity to boundary conditions for buckling of axially loaded
cylinders occurs when the shell is not restrained from circumferential displacement. Re-
garding bent cylinders, the end conditions can influence the degree of ovalization for short
and medium length cylinders. For elastic cylinders, the end effects are considered to have
no influence on the ovalization response when [2]:
p
L/R >= 2.97 R/t (2.3)

The buckling strength of cylindrical shells is typically not very sensitive to small global
loading eccentricities, however, local eccentricities in the shell and non-uniform support
conditions can strongly influence buckling in some cases. In general, care should be taken
to ensure cylindrical shell structures are uniformly supported.

2.2.2 Imperfection sensitivity

Thin cylindrical shells under axial compression are known to be very sensitive to initial
geometric imperfections. Both shape and amplitude of the imperfection strongly influence
the buckling strength and it remains an open question which imperfection form is both
the ”worst” case that is also ”practically relevant”. The discrepancy between the classical
elastic stress and experimental observations with significant scatter can be seen in Figure
2.6. In the past, limited explanation for this discrepancy is what led to the traditional
”lower bound” design philosophy with substantial knock-down factors. Today, more ratio-
nal design approaches have been developed by employing more transparent computational
assessments. It is pointed out that the figure indicates an increasing reduction of critical
stress with increasing R/t ratio (or more generally slenderness) for such cylinders.
In considering the buckling of cylinders under bending action, it is natural to compare
them with axially loaded cylinders. In contrast to axially loaded cylinders, bent cylinders
are typically less sensitive to geometric imperfections, in particular with increasing length
to radius, L/R, ratios. Therefor, the strength reduction due to the imperfection alone
is often much less in bent cylinders. This difference in sensitivity is attributed to the
fact that the buckling moment corresponds to a single buckling mode, whereas a large
number of buckling modes are associated with axially compressed cylinders [10]. However,
design codes do not explicitly take this into account because they consider the same
2.2 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells in Global Bending 13

Figure 2.6: Imperfection sensitivity of cylindrical shells with Type A weld in uniform axial
compression [24]

imperfection sensivity for both axial and bending loading. As a consequence, strength
reductions for longer cylinders related to imperfections and ovalization are implicitly
accounted for in the same knock-down factor (α in EN1993-1-6) established originally for
axially loaded cylinders. In particular, for R/t values in the range of 100 to 150 with
good construction quality (Q=25), the imperfection sensitivity parameter, α, suggested
by EN1993-1-6 is between 0.36 and 0.41, and this has been observed to be conservative
for long bent cylinders [10].

Figure 2.7 shows an example imperfection sensitivity study performed on a long elastic
cylinder with R/t = 120 under bending. The imperfection form is based on the buckling
mode corresponding to the bifurcation moment. Although, the imperfection amplitudes
in the figure are relatively small, the bent cylinder demonstrates less sensitivity to small
imperfections than is typical for cylinders subject to uniform axial compression.

Figure 2.7: Imperfection sensitivity of long cylinders under bending [10]

14 Background

2.2.3 Imperfections and their characteristics

The assumed imperfection form can strongly influence buckling behavior and consequently
the ultimate strength for slender cylindrical shells. In general, it is difficult to know the
critical imperfection forms a priori, especially for new structure types. Different realistic
forms of imperfections should be investigated in attempt to identify the most critical
case. Realistic forms of imperfections may reflect fabrication processes and tolerances,
but other models for imperfections are commonly employed that avoid explicit modeling of
the many possibilities for realistic imperfections. Some common imperfection forms that
have been investigated in buckling of cylinders include the linear bifurcation mode (LBM),
the nonlinear buckling mode (NBM), postbuckling deformed shapes (PDS) and local weld
depression (WD). The LBM is popular for being relatively easy to implement and it is
commonly assumed to be the critical imperfection form. However, this is not universally
true, and in some cases the LBM can lead to incorrect collapse predictions. The WD form
has been shown to be useful, as it is often critical (or near critical) and it represents a
realistic imperfection for fabricated steel cylinders [23]. In long bent cylinders, it has been
observed that an imperfection shape following the wrinkling buckling mode is significantly
more detrimental when even small values of a localization factor are applied [10]. The
localization factor attempts to localize the imperfection where the actual buckling zone
occurs. The buckling zone in bent cylinders is generally small, and for elastic cylinders it
is known to decrease with increasing R/t ratio.
Care should be taken in choosing imperfection amplitudes because a larger amplitude
is not necessarily conservative. In some cases lower buckling stresses can be observed
for smaller amplitudes, for example when imperfections are near boundary conditions
or discontinuities [23]. Thus an investigation of measured imperfections and a study
on imperfection sensitivity for structures, especially novel structures, are necessary for
reliable assessment.

2.2.4 Ovalization in bent cylinders

In general, ovalization in cylindrical shells is caused by (1) fabrication imperfections, and

(2) bending action. For unstiffened cylinders, the ovalization due to bending is far more
significant that that attributed to fabrication tolerance. More specifically, the ”out-of-
roundness” prescribed by EN1993-1-6 for fabricated steel cylinders corresponds to an
ovalization for a 4 m diameter cylinder on the order of 10−3 . In contrast, the elastic
ovalization at buckling of a long hollow steel cylinder is on the order of 0.15, which is
much larger.
When cylinders are subject to bending, the response is characterized by ovalization of the
cross section followed by local buckling in the compression zone. The ovalization is caused
by the ”inward” component of the tensile and compressive stresses and is more significant
for longer cylinders. Ovalization increases with increasing bending curvature, and it can
lead to significant reductions in buckling strength. The flattening of the cross section leads
to a circumferentially local increase in the apparent R/t ratio, which consequently reduces
the elastic buckling stress. The flattening of the cross sections induces circumferential
stresses and higher axial stresses. The cylinder becomes more flexible as the cross section
flattens because the distance between the tension and compression zone is decreased
2.3 Thin Metal Cylinders with Granular Fill 15

implying a reduced ”lever-arm” [10]. This reduction in the lever arm causes a bent
cylinder to exhibit a reduction in bending stiffness and can lead to a ”limit moment” even
when the stresses may continue to increase.

2.2.5 Inelastic Cylinders

The buckling of elastic-plastic cylinders under bending usually initiates soon after plastic
deformation occurs. The buckling mode is generally characterized by the development
of a uniform wrinkling pattern as shown in Figure 2.4 followed by localization of the
deformation where one wrinkle grows very rapidly and the other wrinkles disappear. The
localized buckled shape of a bent cylinder with R/t = 50 and σy = 340 MPa is shown in
Figure 2.8. Plasticity can influence the degree of ovalization that occurs. More specifically,
plasticity can slow down ovalization a small degree. Therefore, in design of elastic-plastic
cylinders, the elastic ovalization solution can typically be used as a conservative estimate
[10]

Figure 2.8: Buckling of a bent cylinder in the inelastic range (R/t = 50) [28]

2.3 Thin Metal Cylinders with Granular Fill

Vertical metal cylinders filled with a granular material such as sand experience internal
normal pressure, axial compressive stresses due to friction, and a stiffness of the granular
bulk solid against the shell wall. The internal pressure and material stiffness of a granular
bulk fill are known to produce strength gains in terms of buckling behavior. On the
other hand, the compressive stresses contribute to buckling. In silo structures, the axial
compressive forces caused by the weight of the bulk fill being carried by the shell wall
are significant. However, in elastic-plastic cylinders subject to bending, the R/t ratios
are typically much lower than those observed in silo structures and the axial compressive
stresses will be relatively small for all practical cases. For the specimens considered in this
study, the axial compressive stresses arising from a stored bulk sand, for instance, would
be less than 5% of the yield stress. As such, these stresses are not further considered in
this study. The interaction between a granular bulk fill the containing cylindrical shell
can be very complex, even for a ”static” loading scenario.
16 Background

2.3.1 Interaction between granular fill and shell

The interaction between the cylindrical shell wall and the bulk granular fill depends on a
number of factors. For example, the stress state and material properties of the bulk solid,
the size and pattern of shell wall deformation, the rate of deformation, load cycles etc. all
contribute to the complex interaction between the wall and fill material. The bulk solid
is presumed to exert some stiffness on shell wall as long as the normal pressure between
the wall and bulk material is greater than zero. This implies that the interaction between
the bulk material and the wall depends on the direction of the shell wall displacement.
If the wall moves radially inwards, then the bulk material stiffness is observed and is
expected to have a positive influence on shell stability. However, if the wall moves radially
outward, then the normal pressure can be reduced considerably, and might even reach
zero if the contact between the material and wall is lost locally. Thus the interaction is
obviously nonlinear, in particular for non-small displacements. It is noted that for a study
considering the large displacements, i.e. postbuckling behavior, a nonlinear interaction
curve must be used [15].
The modulus of a granular solid is difficult to estimate. When a particular modulus value
is discussed, the conditions associated with that particular value must be understood. The
state of the bulk solid and the loading process must be known. It is also important to
clarify which modulus is of interest: secant, tangent, unload, reload, or cyclic? The secant
modulus is is often used in estimating soil behavior due to first application of a spread
footing, while the tangent modulus is more appropriate for calculating the incremental
movement due to an incremental load. The unloading and reloading moduli would be
appropriate for unloading and equal weight reloading cases, respectively. When a bulk
solid is subject to a number of load cycles then the cyclic modulus and its variation with
cycles should be employed. In any case, the state of the granular fill at any given time
will affect the corresponding moduli [3].
The state of the bulk solid is influenced by the level of compaction, type of granules, water
content, and loading history. For sand, the dry density, void ratio, and water content are
common metrics. With the state of the solid assumed to be known, the stress and strain
level, strain rate, and number of cycles experienced should be evaluated. In general, the
higher the confining stress, the higher the modulus will be. The strain rate is important,
because the faster the bulk fill is loaded, the stiffer it will react. Further, the number
of cycles and amplitude of cycles will influence the particular moduli being considered.
Even supposing that the modulus of the granular fill is a material property, the stiffness
is not a material property. In granular materials, the stiffness of the bulk solid actually
depends on the size of the loaded area. In the context of buckling, this implies that the
buckling mode will influence the stiffness which will influence the buckling mode. It is
therefore, convenient to reference the modulus as opposed to the stiffness. In this report,
the terms ”stiffness” and ”modulus” are otherwise used interchangeably.
In attempt to estimate the bulk solid state and modulus for a filled cylinder, here we will
employ simple methods established by the silo industry. As such, this approach does not
explicitly consider the effects of many complexities such as cyclic loading or strain rate,
and small displacements/strains are assumed in the prebuckling phase.
Simple empirical relations exist for approximating the behavior of common dry sand
fills in cylinders based on the density and confining stress. The stress state of a static
2.3 Thin Metal Cylinders with Granular Fill 17

stored granular column contained in a cylinder can be approximated using the well known
Janssen equation, which is based on a one-dimensional slice of the granular material with
infinitesimal height. The vertical confining pressure at a certain depth from the free
surface, σz , is dependent on the cylinder radius, R, the bulk material unit weight, γ,
the ratio of lateral to vertical pressure, K, and the friction coefficient between the bulk
material and the shell wall, µw , expressed as:

γR  z 
Janssen0 s (1895) solution : σz = 1 − exp(−2µw K ) (2.4)
2µw K R

As such, the pressure will increase with depth until a certain ”saturation stress” is reached
which can be calculated as:

γR
Saturation pressure : σz0 = (2.5)
2µw K

The stress asymptotically approaches the saturation stress such that the confining stress
becomes independent of the filled height beyond a certain depth. Typical material pa-
rameters for stored sands are presented by [22]. Loose and dense dry sands typically have
unit weights in the range of γ = 14 − 17 kN/m3 . The wall friction coefficient depends
on the roughness of the inner wall surface. For smooth to rough inner metal surfaces the
friction coefficients range from approximately µw = 0.3 − 0.6. Finally, commonly used
values for the lateral stress ratios of sand, K, are roughly 0.4 − 0.5. As an example, the
saturation pressure in a column of sand in a steel cylinder with R = 2 m and µw = 0.3
(relatively smooth) will be roughly σz0 ≈ 90 − 140 kPa.

2.3.2 Effects of internal pressure

Internal pressure in filled cylinders has a positive influence on buckling strength whether
the cylinder is filled with nonsolid contents such as gas or liquid, or with solids such
as sand. Nonsolids produce only normal stresses on the inner wall surface, while bulk
solid filling materials also induce compressive stresses and exhibit a certain stiffness. The
effects of internal pressure on the elastic buckling of cylindrical shells is well documented
and is incorporated into design codes such as EN1993-1-6.

Under axial compression, imperfect cylinders with internal pressure tend to experience
more rapid strength gains than perfect cylinders. However, the gains have been observed
to depend on the type/form of imperfections present. For example, cylindrical shells with
axisymmetric imperfections (i.e. circumferential welds) exhibit less rapid strength gains
with increasing internal pressure compared to cylinders with asymmetric imperfections
as observed in Figure 2.9. This observation reinforces the importance of understanding
the influence of different imperfections and identifying what is both the ”realistic” and
”worst” case.
18 Background

Figure 2.9: Effects of symmetric and asymmetric imperfections on internal pressure elastic
buckling strength gain (after [11])

The normal internal pressure on the cylindrical wall induces circumferential tension, which
has a positive effect on the buckling capacity up until a certain pressure is reach, beyond
which plasticity quickly limits the strength. Figure 2.10 is a schematic demonstrating
the elastic strengthening effect of internal pressure followed by plastic weakening with
increasing internal pressure.

Figure 2.10: Effects of internal pressure on elastic-plastic buckling strength [13]

2.3.3 Effects of fill material stiffness

The elastic restraint provided by a granular bulk fill material is known to increase the
buckling strength of the containing cylindrical shell, however, much fewer studies have
investigated the topic compared to internal pressure. The effect of granular fill stiffness on
imperfect cylinders has only been addressed for axially loaded cylinders and it is usually
simulated by a foundation model in which the stiffness of the bulk solid is represented by
a set of linear [14] or nonlinear [15] springs.
Rotter and Zhang [14] proposed a simple procedure for estimating and incorporating the
characteristics of the granular solid into buckling calculations. A linear Winkler founda-
tion is used to represent the bulk solid stiffness. The spring constant is taken to be depen-
dent on the confining stress level, the buckling mode, and the level of internal pressure.
2.3 Thin Metal Cylinders with Granular Fill 19

Simplifying assumptions are made regarding the effect of stiffness on the circumferential
buckling mode, Poisson’s ratio of the solid, and the lateral pressure ratio. The resulting
effects of elastic restraint on the buckling strength of imperfect steel cylindrical shells is
shown in Figure 2.11. In the figure, the ”effective solid stiffness”, F is the ratio of the
modified subgrade modulus to the classical buckling stress of the shell. The specimen
considered in the computational analysis of the present study can be compared with an
effective solid stiffness of approximately F ≈ 0.08. By inspecting Figure 2.11 for zero
normalized pressure, the elastic strength gains predicted by Rotter and Zhang appear to
be approximately 40−50% for the case of axial compression. It can further be noted, that
the saturation pressures previously evaluated for R = 2 m and R/t = 140 translate to
normalized pressures less than p̂ < 0.04. Ignoring this pressure in the buckling assessment
is therefor slightly conservative for elastic buckling.

Figure 2.11: Effects of elastic restraint on elastic buckling strength of imperfect cylinders [14]

In a realistic situation, when the outward displacement of the shell wall reaches a certain
value, the local contact pressure as well as the stiffness will reach zero. This is a conse-
quence of there being no tension possible between the wall and the bulk solid. Simple
linear elastic spring models, such as Rotter and Zhang’s model [14], do not take this into
account. The effect that the interaction model (linear vs nonlinear) has on the buckling
load was explored by [15], and the buckling loads for different spring models are presented
in Figure 2.12. It is observed that the linear spring model can lead to an overestimation
of the buckling load at higher stiffness values for the core. More specifically, the elastic
buckling load predicted by the linear spring model appears to separate from the compres-
sion only model (with linear stiffness down to zero pressure) when the core stiffness gets
larger than roughly Ec = 30 MPa.
20 Background

Figure 2.12: Buckling load for different spring models and varying stiffness [15]

2.3.4 Practical elastic restraint

Based on experience from the silo industry, the elastic tangent modulus will be adopted
for the present buckling study. The tangent modulus of the stored bulk solid can be
empirically (and simply) related to the vertical confining stress, σz , by:

Ec = kv σz (2.6)

Where kv is referred to as the modulus-contiguity coefficient, which is typically prescribed

values of 100 for loose sand, and 150 for dense-packed hard mineral particles [14]. The
expression in equation (2.6) is very simple, and although more complex relations exist,
it is difficult to justify the use of complex models due to limited knowledge of different
bulk-solid properties. By referring to the range of saturation confining stresses previously
estimated for a sand granular fill and using kv = 100 and 150, we can establish an
approximate range of tangent moduli for a cylinder with R = 2 m as Ec = 9 − 21 MPa.
Modeling the bulk solid as an elastic material also requires assigning a Poisson’s ratio
to the solid, νc . The Poisson’s ratio will have some influence on the buckling strength,
characterized in that a lower Poisson’s ratio will theoretically produce a lower buckling
capacity with all other parameters unchanged. It is difficult to measure or find previous
work on the values of Poisson’s ratios for many granular bulk solids, and it, too, is
dependent on the stress level. Experiments have demonstrated trends such that the
Poisson’s ratio decreases with increasing confining stress, for example, from 0.3 at low
stresses to 0.15 at σz = 40 kPa. Still, νc = 0.3 is commonly adopted in absence of better
data [14]

2.4 Evaluation of Buckling Resistance by Computational

Methods

The buckling of curved plates and shells (i.e. thin-walled cylinders) has historically shown
considerable disagreement between theory and experiment in many cases. Further, there
2.4 Evaluation of Buckling Resistance by Computational Methods 21

is a high degree of experimental scatter due to a number of parameters that influence buck-
ling strength, and relying on testing alone for design purposes is generally prohibitive.
As a consequence, the design of curved shells must rely on semi-empirical methods which
are guided by theory. In the past, it was much more expensive to launch an experimen-
tal campaign to study, for example, a particular structure’s sensitivity to imperfections.
Today, with the finite element method and advanced computational power, reliable ex-
perimentation and design can be performed through computational methods requiring
much fewer physical experiments.
Experimentation is not the only reason engineers designing shell structures employ com-
putational methods. The structural analysis of shell structures under any non-trivial
loading, or any complexity of geometry can lead to stress patterns that are not easy to
determine algebraically; often requiring solutions to fourth or eighth order differential
equations [24]. Analytical solutions lack the flexibility inherent in the finite element ap-
proach. Thus in most practical cases, the shell structure designer will find computational
treatment irresistible.

2.4.1 Different methods of analysis

Different levels of computational treatments can be employed which address the various
mechanical phenomena of structures under static loading including stability, material
nonlinearity, geometric nonlinearity, plasticity, and imperfection sensitivity. The various
computational levels can be described by the following terminology:

• LA: Linear Analysis (elastic small displacement shell bending theory)

• LBA: Linear Bifurcation Analysis (linear eigenvalue analysis)

• GNA: Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis (elastic large displacement theory)

• MNA: Materially Nonlinear Analysis (elastic-plastic small displacement theory)

• GNIA: Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis with Imperfections (elastic large displace-

ment theory with explicit modeling of imperfections)

• GMNIA: Geometrically and Materially Nonlinear Analysis with Imperfections (sim-

ilar to GNIA but with material inelasticity)

Employing higher levels of analysis allows for a more accurate assessment of the structure’s
response. However, there is a trade off in that more complex analyses require more input
and computational time. The benefit of a better analysis, in theory, is the potential for
greater design economy as uncertainty (risk) is reduced with higher level assessments.

2.4.2 Solution procedures

In ABAQUS, analysis procedures are defined in steps. The initial state of each step is
based on the end state of the previous step. An initial step is always used to described the
initial model that will propagate through the subsequent step(s). When performing a non-
linear buckling analysis using, it is important to have a robust solution procedure. There
22 Background

are three different solution approaches that are often employed for nonlinear buckling
problems in ABAQUS. The most common approach is the arc-length method (modified
Riks method). In some cases the Riks method is inadequate or unfavorable. For example,
when the buckling is very local. The two alternative methods include the static stabilizing
method with the aid of (artificial) damping and the explicit dynamic procedure. In any
case, the solution procedure should be tuned for the specific problem under consideration.
A Riks analysis is commonly performed in buckling analysis cases involving material
nonlinearity, pre-buckling geometric nonlinearity and/or an unstable collapse. When the
Riks method is used, the load magnitude becomes an additional unknown (in addition
to displacements) and in ABAQUS/Standard the arc length along the static equilibrium
path is used to measure the progress of the solution. During a Riks step a user defined
reference load is proportionally ramped up from the loading state in the previous analysis
step up towards the defined reference load. The simulation completes when one of the
following occurs: (1) a failure criteria is met (2) the reference load is reached, or (3)
the number of steps are exhausted. The Riks procedure can be tuned by adjusting the
number of increments, initial increment, and increment size range.
 Chapter 3

Theory

3.1 Hollow Cylinders in Axial Compression

Figure 3.1: Schematic of cylindrical shell in axial compression

In order to understand the buckling behavior of cylindrical shells in bending, it is com-

mon to use the classical elastic buckling stress under axial compression, σcl , (equation
equation (2.1)) as a reference. As it was mentioned previously in section 2.2.1, the buck-
ling stresses predicted by theory can substantially overestimate the strengths observed

23
24 Theory

in practice. Nevertheless, this classical stress is a useful metric in semiempirical design.

In this section we derive the classical elastic buckling stress for axial compression which
will later be translated into a reference classical buckling moment in section 3.2. The
classical buckling stress was found independently by Lorenz (1908), Timeshenko (1910)
and Southwell (1914) by adopting the following major assumptions:

• isotropic elastic cylinder with no imperfections

• small deflection theory

• cylinder is moderate length (prebuckling stress unaffected by boundary conditions)

• edges are simply supported (restrained from radial displacement)

With the previous assumptions established, the energy method (Euler method) can be
used to estimate the minimum buckling load for a conservatively loaded system. The
energy method requires first suggesting an assumed displacement function, and then
demanding equilibrium between internal energy (potential energy stored in elastic de-
formation of the structure) and the external energy (work done on structure by external
forces). To apply this criterion, different admissible static perturbations of an equilibrium
position are considered. A perturbation is admissible if it satisfies the essential boundary
conditions. The potential energy of the different perturbations is compared with that of
the equilibrium position. The system is stable if the equilibrium position has the lowest
potential energy. The equilibrium is unstable (or neutrally stable) if at least one of the
different configurations has a lower (equal) potential energy.
The buckling of the cylindrical shell is assumed to take the shape of the following sinusoidal
displacement function:
 mπx 
w = wmn sin sin(nθ) (3.1)
L
where wmn is the amplitude, L is the cylinder length, and m, n are the number of half
waves in the axial and circumferential direction, respectively. The half buckle wavelength,
λ, and the dimensionless buckling number, m̂, are defined here as

λ = L/m (3.2)
mπR
m̂ = (3.3)
L

By neglecting end effects and assuming a constant axial compressive load, P , the following
is established.

P
Nx = , Nxθ = Nθ = 0 (3.4)
2πR
We introduce the flexural rigidity, D, and axial rigidity, C, of the curved shell are defined
as
3.1 Hollow Cylinders in Axial Compression 25

Et
D=
12(1 − ν 2 )
Et
C=
1 − ν2

the governing equation for the problem can be expressed

   
D 2 2 4 4 2 P 2 2 2 2 wmn m̂x
(m̂ + n ) + m̂ (1 − ν )C − (m̂ + n ) m̂ sin sin(nθ) = 0
R2 2πR R6 R
(3.5)
The critical buckling load is determined by setting the coefficient in the bracket equal to
zero, leading to the axial load, Ncr in the buckled shell strip mn given by:

D (m̂2 + n2 )2 2 m̂2
Nx = + (1 − ν )C (3.6)
R2 m̂2 (m̂+ n2 )2

Here, by introducing the dimensionless parameter, χ

(m̂2 + n2 )2
χ= (3.7)
m̂2
and substituting into equation (3.6), we can now write:

D 1
Nx = 2
χ + (1 − ν 2 )C (3.8)
R χ

The minimum buckling load (with the least potential energy) is found by setting the
derivative of Nx in equation equation (3.8) with respect to χ equal to zero. This can be
done analytically by treating χ as a continuous variable. The value of χ corresponding to
the critical buckling load is found to be
r
(1 − ν 2 )CR2 Rp
χcr = = 12(1 − ν 2 ) (3.9)
D t
By plugging χcr into equation (3.8) and substituting the expressions for the bending and
axial rigidity, the critical membrane force is determined:

E t2
(Nx )min = p (3.10)
3(1 − ν 2 ) R

By dividing the critical membrane force by the shell thickness, t, the classical elastic
critical buckling stress of a cylindrical shell is obtained:

(Nx )min E t
σcl = =p (3.11)
t 3(1 − ν 2 ) R
26 Theory

By substituting the Poisson’s ratio for steel, ν = 0.3, one arrives at the popular form of
the classical elastic critical buckling stress:

t
σcl ≈ 0.605E (3.12)
R
Which occurs at:
r
m̂ 4 Et
= (3.13)
R R4 D
From Equation equation (3.13), the half-wave length, λ, can be evaluated for m = 1 as
r √
4 R2 D Rt √
λ=π = πp ≈ 1.72 Rt (3.14)
Et 4
12(1 − ν 2 )

With reference to equation equation (3.7), it is pointed out that several buckling modes
may correspond to a single bifurcation point. Additionally, the treatment of m and n
as continuous variables leads to negligible error even though in reality these are discrete
quantities [1]. Lastly, it is observed that the classical elastic buckling stress is only depen-
dent on the radius to thickness, R/t, ratio, and it is independent of the cylinder length.

3.2 Hollow Cylinders in Bending

Figure 3.2: Schematic of cylindrical shell in bending; normal stress components, σv responsible
for ovalization [10]

The problem of cylinder buckling under bending action has received much less atten-
tion than axially loaded cylinders. By contrast, cylinders under bending experience
3.2 Hollow Cylinders in Bending 27

a non-uniform stress distribution around the circumference and significant prebuckling

nonlinearity related to ovalization. The buckling pattern of bent cylinders is typically
characterized by local wrinkling on the compression side of the member. Because the
size of the typical buckling waves is rather small, a first estimate of the elastic buckling
strength of a cylinder under bending is often made according to the condition when the
most compressed fiber in the bent cylinder reaches σcl (equation (3.12)) [5]. This condi-
tion may be referred to as the classical buckling moment, Mcl , which can be written for a
perfect cylinder as

 !
πE t
Mcl = p R2 t ≈ 1.90Et2 r (3.15)
3(1 − ν ) R
2

Being based on σcl , Mcl maintains the assumptions of an elastic, medium length perfect
cylinder with small deflections. As a consequence, it can be expected to compare well with
buckling analyses of elastic medium length cylinders and with linear bifurcation analyses.
However, it does not account for any of the nonlinear geometrical effects, for example,
that longer cylinders exhibit when bent.
Longer cylinders under bending moments ovalize which is characterized by a flattening
cross section leading to the development of hoop stresses in addition to the Saint-Venant
longitudinal bending stress. As a result, the prebuckling behavior of longer cylinders is
nonlinear and can strongly influence the buckling moment capacity. As a consequence, the
Mcl predicts higher values than a geometric nonlinear buckling analysis would provide.
Ovalization of long cylinders under bending can lead to a snap-through buckle behavior
termed the Brazier effect [5]. During bending, the curvature is increased, the cross-section
flattens and the bending moment reaches the theoretical maximum Brazier moment at:
√
2 2π ERt2 0.987ERt2
MBrazier = √ = √ (3.16)
9 1 − ν2 1 − ν2

However, local buckling will always precede the Brazier moment. Taking into account the
ovalization of the cross section for a long shell, the elastic local buckling moment is given
as in equation (3.17). Comparing equation (3.16) and equation (3.17) it is seen that the
two elastic limit moments are nearly the same.

0.939ERt2
Mlb = √ (3.17)
1 − ν2

The formulations for MBrazier and Mlb include prebuckling geometry changes, but they
are still limited to elastic cylinders with no imperfections. Also, they assume an infinitely
long cylinder implying the end boundary conditions have no influence on the ovalization.
However, the end boundary conditions can influence the ovalization of intermediate length
cylinders. According to [2], for elastic cylinders in bending, end effects are considered to
have no influence on the ovalization response when

p
L/R ≥ 2.97 R/t (3.18)
28 Theory

For R/t = 140, equation (3.19) can be evaluated as

L/R ≥ 35 (3.19)

which is seen to exceed the values of L/R = 7 and 20 considered in the computational
analyses of the present study. This means that the end restraints will reduce the degree
of ovalization.
All of the above equations correspond to the buckling of elastic perfect cylinders. Since
the buckling of thin-walled cylinders is generally sensitive to imperfections, it is expected
that the above reference moments (Mcl ,MBrazier ,Mlb ) will all produce strengths above
GNIA and GMNIA results. Further, when considering cylinders in the elastic-plastic
range the buckling strength may be influenced by extensive plasticity. Therefore it is
convenient to establish the reference yield moment and full plastic moment in a perfect
cylinder with ideal elastic-plastic properties. First yield occurs when:

MY = πR2 tσy (3.20)

and full plasticity occurs at

MP = 4R2 tσy (3.21)

for thin tubes, where σY is the yield stress. It is observed that equation (3.20) and
equation (3.21) imply that first yield occurs at 79% of the full plastic moment for perfect
thin cylinders.

3.3 Cylinders with an Elastic Core in Bending

Here, the local buckling of a cylindrical shell with a compliant elastic core will be consid-
ered based on the energy method as derived by [8] with corrections from [6]. A cylindrical
shell of radius, R, and wall thickness, t, with an elastic core is shown in Figure 3.3. The
properties of the elastic core are denoted with a subscript ’c’ and those of the steel shell
will have no subscript. Hence, the steel shell and the elastic core have Young’s moduli,
E, Ec , and a Poisson’s ratios, ν, νc respectively. For convenience, a modulus ratio will be
defined as: α = Ec /E.
The effect of the compliant core on the critical stress for elastic buckling under axial
compression is obtained by including a two-dimensional elastic foundation stabalizing a
longitudinal strip of the shell into the results for the symmetric deformation and axisym-
metric buckling of a hollow cylindrical shell. A sinusoidal radial displacement is, again,
assumed during buckling, and for n = 0 equation (3.1) reduces to:

 mπx 
w = wm sin (3.22)
L
3.3 Cylinders with an Elastic Core in Bending 29

Figure 3.3: Schematic of cylindrical shell with elastic core

The compliant core is treated as a half elastic space with spring constant ke taken as

2Ec 1
ke = (3.23)
(3 − νc )(1 + νc ) λ0

where λ0 = λ/π and λ is still the meridonial half buckled wavelength as defined in equa-
tion (3.2). By including the compliant foundation in the governing equations, the equation
for the axial load, Nx , becomes

1 Et 2ERλ0
Nx = D 0
+ 2 λ02 + (3.24)
λ R (3 − νc )(1 + νc )

The half buckle wave length corresponding to the minimum buckling load, λ0cr , is deter-
mined as shown in equation (3.25), by setting the derivative of Nx in equation (3.24) with
respect to λ0 equal to zero.
√
Rt
λ0cr = p (3.25)
4
12(1 − ν 2 )

The solution in equation (3.25) is the same as for an empty cylinder, as can be observed
by comparison with equation (3.14), and it applies for α0.65 (R/t) < 1.9, which is the case
for steel cylinders with soft elastic cores representing a granular bulk solid. With the
critical wavelength parameter known, the critical buckling stress of the cylindrical shell
with an elastic core, σcrC , in uniform axial loading is found to be [6]:

Ef1
σcrC = (3.26)
R/t
30 Theory

where
(λ0 /t)2 1 R/t 2α(λ0 /t)(R/t)
f1 = + 2 0 2
+ (3.27)
(R/t) 12(1 − ν ) (λ /t) (3 − νc )(1 + νc )
In pure bending, the total strain energy per unit length of a cylinder with an elastic core
includes the shell longitudinal stretching, core bending, shell circumferential bending, core
ovalization, and Poisson’s effect due to bending. The resulting strain energy in terms of
the curvature, ρ, and the degree of ovalization, ζ, is given as

  
1 2 αR 3 5 2 3 t π π
3
U = ρ EπR t 1 + 1 − ζ + ζ + πE h2 ζ 2 + αβEζ 2 R2 + αβ 0 Eρ2 R4
2 4t 2 8 8 R 4 16
(3.28)
with
t 3 − 5νc νc2 (5 − 2νc )
h= √ , β= , β0 = (3.29)
1 − ν2 (1 + νc )(1 − 2νc ) (1 + νc )(1 − 2νc )
However, the contribution to strain energy of Poisson’s effect of the core due to bending,
π 0 2 4
16 αβ Eρ R , can be neglected since the cross section will remain very circular [6].
For a given curvature, the degree of ovalization is determined by minimizing the corre-
sponding strain energy, ∂U 5 2
∂ζ = 0. Neglecting the term 8 ζ in equation (3.28), the resulting
degree of ovalization for a given curvature, ρ, is found to be
!
αR
R4 1+
ζ= ρ2 2 2
4t
R3
(3.30)
h 1+ 3 αβ th2

The Brazier limit moment is found by setting the derivative of the moment with respect
to the curvature equal to zero. By substituting equation (3.30) for the curvature, ρ, in
equation (3.28) and finding the moment corresponding to ∂ 2 U/∂ρ2 = ∂M/∂ρ = 0, the
Brazier moment is found to be:
√
αR −1
r
R3 αR αβ 0 R 3/2
   
2 2 2
MBrazier = πERth 1 + αβ 2 1 + + 1+ (3.31)
9 3 th 4t 8t 4t

Still, the Brazier moment will always be (just barely) preceded by local buckling. As was
done for a hollow cylinder in equation (3.15), the local buckling bifurcation is assumed to
occur when the meridonial stress in the compression zone of the cylindrical shell reaches
the elastic critical stress (equation (3.26)) as calculated for axial compression. Further,
the effects of ovalization on the critical (max) buckling stress are accounted for by taking
the maximum stress for an ovalized cylinder as

σmaxC = σcrC (1 − 3ζ) (3.32)

where the change of curvature in the cross section leads to a radius for the ovalized shape
of R0 = 1−3ζ
R
where the maximum stress occurs. According to linear elastic beam theory,
the maximum stress is related to the curvature and degree of ovalization by

σmax = EρR(1 − ζ) (3.33)

3.3 Cylinders with an Elastic Core in Bending 31

So, by combining equation (3.30), equation (3.32) and equation (3.33), the ovalization
when local buckling occurs under pure bending can be evaluated numerically by solving
q
αR
ζ 1/2 (1
− ζ) 1+ 4t
√ = f1q (3.34)
2
1 − ν (1 − 3ζ 2αβR3 (1−ν 2 )
1+ 3t3

where f 1 was defined in equation (3.27). After determining the ovalization at local buck-
ling, ζlb , by solving equation (3.34), the elastic local buckling moment can be obtained
by substitution into equation (3.28) and equation (3.30) and writing M = ∂U/∂ρ. The
moment to cause elastic local buckling for a long cylinder with an elastic core can be
evaluated as:

√  r r
EπRt2 ζ 3 αR 2αβR3
MlbC = √ 1− ζ 1+ 1+ (3.35)
1 − ν2 2 4t 3th2

With soft elastic cores, as might represent a granular fill, the nominal yield moment,
MY and plastic moment, MP are assumed to follow equation (3.20), and equation (3.21),
respectively. Thus, it is assumed that the elastic cores under consideration have negligible
influence on these nominal values.
32 Theory
 Chapter 4

Methodology

4.1 Method

As previously discussed, the buckling of bent cylinders involves highly nonlinear phe-
nomena and when a granular core is introduced that is characterized by non-uniform,
non-isotropic interaction stiffness and pressure that vary nonlinearly, the problem quickly
becomes exceedingly complex. However, with small local displacements during prebuck-
ling, a simple linear material model is expected to be very useful in estimating the buckling
behavior. As a first pass attempt to investigate the buckling capacity of bent cylinders
with a granular core and to achieve the objectives described in section 1.3, the present
study will adopt the simplifying assumption that the core is uniform and elastic. This is
similar to the assumption adopted in early (and still practically relevant) investigations of
granular filled cylinders under axial compression, which adopted a Winkler spring foun-
dation model for the bulk solid [14]. Again, this approach is limited to relatively soft bulk
fill stiffness values and small displacements. In order to emphasize the assumption, the
following implications are denoted:

• the granular core is modeled as a uniform ideal elastic core (direction independent)

• no slip occurs (so no friction) between the core and the shell wall

• internal pressure is zero

With the core modeled as a soft elastic medium, the effects of imperfections, geometric
nonlinearities, and material nonlinearities on the buckling capacity of hollow and filled
cylinders are investigated by the following approach:

1. Assess the theoretical buckling capacity for elastic perfect steel cylinders with a soft
elastic core

2. Determine buckling capacities by LBA, GNIA, and GMNIA

33
34 Methodology

3. Compare theoretical buckling for perfect elastic cylinders with LBA, GNIA and
GMNIA results

The specific methodologies for the theoretical analyses and computational analyses are
described in the following sections.

4.2 Theoretical Analysis

The theoretical analysis includes various formulations that provide reference values and
estimations to be compared with the computational analyses. All of the formulations
presented here were introduced with more background in chapter 3. Also, all of the actual
calculations were performed using Matlab , and the script can be found in appendix A.
The reference moments in section 4.2.1 include the first yield moment, plastic moment,
and Brazier moment. The classical elastic buckling moments are provided in section
4.2.2. The calculations for the local buckling moments and corresponding ovalization are
discussed in sections 4.2.3 and 4.2.4, respectively.
All of the theoretical formulations considered are valid for a perfect cylinder that is free
of imperfections. Further, with the exception of the nominal plastic moment, all of the
theoretical analyses assume elastic material, so the effects of yielding are not accounted
for. In general, the following assumptions prevail in theoretical evaluations:

1. isotropic elastic cylinder with no imperfections

2. isotropic elastic core

The key assumptions differentiating each formulation are noted in the corresponding
sections 4.2.1 to 4.2.4.

4.2.1 Reference moments

These are useful for providing quick sanity checks and to help interpret the results when
geometry and material nonlinearities are included in the computational analysis. The
following moments, (MY , MP , MBrazier ), calculated here apply to hollow sections with
no core.
For a perfect cylinder with small displacements, first yield occurs at

MY = πR2 tσy (4.1)

and assuming ideal elastic-plastic properties and a thin shell, full plasticity occurs at

MP = 4R2 tσy (4.2)

4.2 Theoretical Analysis 35

For long (hollow) cylinders with large displacements under bending, the Brazier mo-
ment is calculated as

0.987ERt2
MBrazier = √ (4.3)
1 − ν2
The yield and plastic moment are expected to be negligibly affected by the presence of a
soft elastic core.The Brazier moment for a hollow cylinder in equation (4.3) is used as a
reference point, but the Brazier moment for filled cylinders (equation (3.31)) is of little
interest in the present study.

4.2.2 Classical elastic buckling moment, Mcl

The classical elastic buckling moment is a common first estimate of buckling strength. It
is established by the condition of the highest meridonial compressive stress in the bent
cylinder reaching the classical buckling stress derived from the uniform axial compression
case. As a consequence, the classical buckling moment adopts the assumptions of the
classical buckling stress, including small displacements and the buckling is unaffected
by end conditions.
In addition to being a common first estimate of strength, the classical buckling moment
is expected to compare well with the results of a linear bifurcation analysis. Thus it can
be used as a first verification in the computational analysis.
The classical buckling moment for a perfect cylinder is calculated as

Mcl = πσcl R2 t (4.4)

where σcl for a hollow steel cylinder is calculated as

t
σc l ≈ 0.605E (4.5)
R

and for a filled cylinder (denoted here as σcrC ) as

Ef1
σcrC = (4.6)
R/t
where
(λ0 /t)2 1 R/t 2α(λ0 /t)(R/t)
f1 = + + (4.7)
R/t 12(1 − ν 2 ) (λ0 /t)2 (3 − νc )(1 + νc )

4.2.3 Elastic local buckling moment, Mlb

The elastic local buckling moment for long cylinders accounts for the large displacement
effects of ovalization. Based on the energy method, the moment to cause elastic local
buckling for a long cylinder with an elastic core can be evaluated by solving:

√  r r
EπRt2 ζ 3 αR 2αβR3
MlbC = √ 1− ζ 1+ 1+ (4.8)
1 − ν2 2 4t 3th2
36 Methodology

for a given degree of ovalization at local buckling. Also, equation (4.8) works for filled
and hollow sections. For hollow sections, the modulus ratio is set to zero, α = 0, when
calculating the buckling moment and the ovalization at bending. In order to evaluate the
local buckling moment, the degree of ovalization is first calculated as given in the next
section.

4.2.4 Elastic ovalization at local buckling

The degree of ovalization under bending is expected to be strongly influenced (reduced) by

the stiffness of the granular fill, in particular for longer cylinders. Further, as mentioned
in the previous section, the local buckling moment for cylinders depends on the degree
ovalization.
The ovalization when local buckling occurs under pure bending can be evaluated for a
hollow or filled cylinder by solving
q
αR
ζ 1/2 (1
− ζ) 1+ 4t
√ = f1q (4.9)
2
1 − ν (1 − 3ζ 2αβR3 (1−ν 2 )
1+ 3t3

which is solved numerically using Matlab and then plugged into equation (4.8) to eval-
uate the local buckling moment.

4.3 Computational Analysis

Given the previously described complexity of slender cylinders under bending action, the
behavior of these member with and without a granular (elastic) core is investigated us-
ing nonlinear finite elements methods. In order to observe the effects of geometric and
material nonlinearities and imperfections, multiple levels of finite element analysis are un-
dertaken. First, linear bifurcation analyses (LBA) are performed on the elastic structures
with no imperfections. Subsequently, geometric nonlinear analyses with imperfections
(GNIA) are performed on the elastic structure by extracting mode shapes from the LBA
to be used as initial geometric imperfection forms and including geometric nonlinear ef-
fects. The imperfections are scaled to different amplitudes in order to investigate the
structures’ elastic imperfection sensitivity. Finally, the fully nonlinear analysis is con-
ducted including geometric and material (steel only) nonlinearities with imperfections.
The results are presented in terms of bifurcation moments and are compared with the-
oretical and reference moment values. The comparison is made between ”hollow” and
”filled” cylinders, and differences between different levels of analysis are considered.
In order to produce a reliable strength assessment, the FE model must be able to accu-
rately simulate the behavior of the structure and represent the most probable collapse
mode. Effective modeling will involve selecting adequate finite elements and mesh sizes to
capture the nonlinear behavior of the structure and expected localization of the collapse
mode. In the present study, simplified material properties are used. In design of a real
structure it would be prudent to study the sensitivity of the structure’s elastic-plastic col-
lapse to the material models and to implement more representative stress-strain curves.
4.3 Computational Analysis 37

It is important that the boundary and interface conditions imposed on the finite element
model represent actual constraints on the physical structure of interest. The problem of
interest in the present study involves complex behavior in the load-displacement curve,
so a robust solution procedure should be used.

The commercial finite element software, ABAQUS version 6.12 is used for all finite element
analyses. In the following section 4.3.1, the structures of interest and the corresponding
finite element models are described. Subsequently, in sections 4.3.2 to 4.3.4 the individual
procedures for executing the LBA, GNIA and GMNIA are provided.

4.3.1 Description

Objective of analysis: The ultimate aim of this study is to investigate the relative
strength gains, imperfection sensitivity, and effects of material and geometrical nonlin-
earity for bent elastic-plastic cylinders with a granular (soft elastic) core. Computational
analyses are capable of modeling such effects that are not captured by simple theoretical
formulations, and it is of interest to observe differences between them. Further, differ-
ent levels of computational analysis provide different information. A linear bifurcation
analysis (LBA) is performed on perfect elastic cylinders and is expected to compare well
with classical moments, Mcl , for the cylinders under consideration. Geometric nonlin-
ear analyses with imperfections are performed with elastic (GNIA) and inelastic material
(GMNIA) models in order to observe the influence on the bending bifurcation moments.

Structure description: The structures of interest are moderately thin-walled steel

cylinders with a granular fill core exposed primarily to global bending. In particular,
a tower-type cylinder is considered which is pinned at one end and loaded with an ap-
plied moment at the opposite end as shown in Figure 4.1. The steel cylinders have no ring
or axial stiffeners, but are assumed to be radially restrained at both ends. The granular
fill is taken to be dense dry sand under a constant confining pressure. The specific gran-
ular fill properties and state are not identified, rather, a single tangent modulus is used,
Ec = 20 MPa, which is assumed to represent the behavior of an arbitrary dense sand.
38 Methodology

Figure 4.1: Schematic of structural configurations

Two structure cases are considered with different lengths corresponding to L/R = 7 and
L/R = 20. The thickness and diameter are constant, and the radius to thickness ratio is
R/t = 140. The cylinder is made of steel with a yield strength of σy = 690 MPa, and a
Young’s modulus of E = 210 GPa.
Structural model: The structural models for both cases (L/R = 7 and L/R = 20) are
similar except for the length. The structures are modeled as cylinders with a uniform
isotropic elastic core.

• Steel is elastic-plastic with some strain hardening (Et = 1000 MPa)

• Core is elastic

• No slip occurs between core and cylinder wall

• Cylinder ends remain circular

• A single imperfection form is modeled

4.3 Computational Analysis 39

Geometry: The perfect steel cylinder geometry is fully described by R/t = 140 with
constant radius for both L/R = 7 and L/R = 20. The soft elastic core is in intimate
contact with inside wall of the steel cylindrical shell. Taking advantage of symmetry, the
finite element model is constructed for only 180 degrees (half) of the cylinders.
Assumed imperfections: Geometric imperfections modeled are assumed to take the
form of the 2nd eigenmode of the perfect hollow cylinders as determined by the LBA.
That is, the same imperfection form was modeled for the hollow and filled cylinders. The
rationale in selecting the imperfection forms are discussed in section 5.3. The amplitude
of the imperfection, d0 , is presented as the ratio of the amplitude to the shell thickness,
d0 /t. Imperfection amplitudes of d0 /t = 0.001, 0.2, 0.5, and 1 are considered.
Elements and mesh The steel shell is modeled using ABAQUS S8R elements which
are 4-node quadratic shell elements with reduced integration. The granular fill core is
modeled using 8-node linear isoparametric brick elements with reduced integration called
C3D8R. The cylindrical shell elements are modeled such that the middle surface of the
thickness lies on the cylinders prescribed radius. The elastic core radius is offset by 1/2
the steel shell thickness such that the inside surface of the shell elements is contact with
the outside surface of the elastic core and there is no overlap. In effort to reduce the
computation time, the full core is not modeled. Instead, a central core is omitted leaving
a modeled core thickness, tcore . The mesh size and core thickness are determined by
convergence studies.

Figure 4.2: FE model cylinder mesh convergence study

The shell element mesh size is determined through a convergence study performed for
the hollow cylinder based on LBA results. The shell mesh size determined for the hollow
cylinders was assumed to be satisfactory for the filled cylinders. This was assumed because
the soft core was found to have a negligible effect on the buckling wave length determined
by the theoretical analysis. The final element size was compared with the theoretical
buckling half wave length, λ. For buckling of thin cylinders,√ it is common to demand that
the element length in the axial direction be less than 0.5 Rt, and in the circumferential
40 Methodology

direction a single element should not correspond to an angle greater than π/12. This leads
to element size constraints of approximately 145 mm in the longitudinal direction and 523
mm. Thus, after the convergence study, the approximate size for the shell elements of
150 mm in both directions was deemed sufficient. The number integration points through
the thickness of the shell elements was increased from 5 to 7. The outer surface mesh
of the core was sized to fit the mesh of the shell (i.e. ≈ 150mm) in order to facilitate
efficient tie constraint computations. A core thickness of 1500 mm was determined to be
representative of a full core based on the core thickness convergence study as presented
in Figure 4.3.

Table 4.1: FE model cylinder shell mesh convergence study (L/R=20)

Element Type Approx. Size [mm] # Elements LBA 1st Eigenvalue [x1010 ]
S8R 400 1,600 8.648
S8R 200 6,200 8.261
S8R 150 11,214 8.215
S8R 100 25,200 8.207
S8R 50 100,800 8.206

Figure 4.3: FE model core thickness convergence study

The resulting mesh for the L/R = 7 filled cylinder is presented in Figures 4.4 and 4.5.
The L/R = 20 cylinder was modeled in the same manner, only longer. The corresponding
total number of elements for the cylindrical shells and for the filled cylinders are provided
in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Number of elements used in FE models

Cylinder Cylinder+Core
L/R=7 3,906 27,342
L/R=20 11,214 78,498
4.3 Computational Analysis 41

Figure 4.5: FE model mesh (cylinder+core)

view 2
Figure 4.4: FE model mesh (cylinder+core)
view 1

Boundary and interface conditions: The boundary conditions applied to the cylin-
drical shell are schematically represented in Figures 4.6 and 4.7. The end boundaries
of the cylinder are restrained to remain circular. At one end, the cylindrical shell and
core edges are supported with pin connections. At the opposite end, a reference point
is defined (”RP-1” in Fgure 4.8), for which a multi-point constraint defined as a ”beam
constraint” is imposed between the cylindrical shell edges and RP-1. Symmetry boundary
conditions for the Y-direction are applied along the longitudinal edges of the shell and
elastic core.

The inner surface of the cylindrical shell and the outer surface of the elastic core are
constrained kinematically using a surface tie constraint as illustrated in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.6: FE model boundary and Figure 4.7: FE model boundary and
symmetry conditions view 1 symmetry conditions view 2
42 Methodology

Figure 4.8: FE model constraints and tie interactions

Material properties: The steel shell is modeled as an elastic-plastic material obeying

von Mises criterion with the normal flow rule and the flow theory of plasticity in bifur-
cation calculations. The mechanical properties of the steel are taken as E = 210 GPa,
v = 0.3, σy = 690 MPa, and ET = 1, 000 MPa.
The granular fill is modeled as an elastic core with Ec = 20 MPa and νc = 0.3. The
material model properties for the steel cylinder and elastic core are summarized in Table
4.3.
Table 4.3: Materials model summary for cylinder and core

E [MPa] ν σy [MPa] ET [MPa]

Steel Cylinder 210,000 0.3 690 1,000
Elastic Core 20 0.3 N/A N/A

Applied loads: The only load applied to the system is a global bending moment, which
is applied at the free end of the cylinder. No gravitational or pressure forces are included.
The bending moment is applied as a concentrated moment at the reference point, (RP-1),
shown in Figure 4.6, and the moment is distributed to the cylinder shell end due to the as-
signed ”beam” constraint. The magnitude of the applied moment varies depending on the
analysis. For LBA, the magnitude does not really matter, but a value of 1,000 is used so
the resulting eigenvalues were easy to interpret. For the nonlinear analyses, the magnitude
only needs to be larger than the expected maximum load because the load-displacement
solution is stepped incrementally. Values of Mcr were used. Had the structure reached
these values, then the applied moment would have needed to be increased.
Criteria of failure: For many shell geometries and load cases there is not necessarily
a peak load value which can be readily identified as the failure state. In addition to the
conservative first yield point criteria, EN 1993-1-6 provides three useful failure criteria
4.3 Computational Analysis 43

definitions: 1. snap-through, 2. bifurcation, or 3. excessive deformation. In the present

study, we seek a failure criteria in terms of the bifurcation moment.

4.3.2 LBA

Linear bifurcation analyses (LBA) are performed in ABAQUS for the elastic cylindrical
specimens with perfect geometry. The LBA is used for quick mesh convergence studies,
providing a first indication of buckling strength, and extracting eigenmodes.
The applied load (moment) is set arbitrarily to 1, 000 N-mm. The linear eigen-buckling
problem is solved by ABAQUS using the Lanczos method for the hollow cylinders and
the subspace method for filled cylinders which had surface tie constraints. The first 7
eigenvalues are requested and the maximum number of iterations is set to 400.
In section 5.2, the first two eigenmodes for all specimens are displayed and the corre-
sponding eigenvalues are reported. Note, only one eigenvalue is reported for each spec-
imen because the first couple eigenvalues are within 1% of each other. LBA results are
compared with theoretical predictions by Mcl . A comparison is made between the result-
ing small displacement strength ratios based on the LBA and Mcl , which are calculated
respectively as:

(MLBA )C
LBA Ratio = (4.10)
(MLBA )H
and
MclC
Mcl Ratio = (4.11)
MclH

The corresponding strength gains are calculated generally as:

Gains = (Ratio − 1) · 100% (4.12)

The select eigenmodes are extracted from ABAQUS using the *NODE FILE keyword to
be used as imperfections in the nonlinear anlayses.

4.3.3 GNIA

Geometric nonlinear analyses are performed with imperfections (GNIA) on the elastic
FE specimens using the Riks method. The influence of geometric nonlinearities and
imperfection amplitude on the bifurcation moment for the bent cylindrical specimens is
studied.
The imperfection forms for both the hollow and filled sections correspond to the second
eigenmode for the hollow sections as extracted from the LBA. These imperfection shapes
are shown in section 5.3, along with reasoning for the chosen forms. Different imperfection
ampliftudes are considered ranging from d0/t = 0.001 (representing essentially a GNA
with no imperfections) up to d0/t = 1, where d0/t is the imperfection amplitude normal-
ized by the cylinder wall thickness. In ABAQUS, the *IMPERFECTION keyword was
44 Methodology

included in the model file in order implement the imperfections which were then scaled
according to the desired d0/t ratio.
The applied moment is set approximately equal to Mcl . The geometric nonlinearities are
accounted for in the Riks analysis by setting the NLGEOM option to ON. The maximum
number of increments in the step is increased to 120. The increment parameters are tuned
such that the initial increment is 0.01, the minimum is 1x10−20 and the maximum is 1.
The elastic imperfection sensitvity for both filled and hollow sections is considered by
normalizing the GNIA bifurcation moment with the LBA moment of the corresponding
hollow section, calculated as:

MGN IA
M̂GN IA = (4.13)
(MLBA )H

The elastic strength ratio is expressed as the ratio of the GNIA bifurcation moment of
the filled section over the hollow section, or as:

(MGN IA )C
GN IA Ratio = (4.14)
(MGN IA )H

4.3.4 GMNIA

By adding material nonlinear effects to a GNIA, the highest level of FE analysis is then
performed accounting for geometric and material nonlinearities with imperfections (GM-
NIA). Generally speaking, if the FE model is representative of the structure and the im-
perfection form(s) and amplitude(s) are the most critical ”realistic” case, then a GMNIA
can be expected to provide a reasonable prediction of the true structure performance.
The implementation of the GMNIA in ABAQUS is the same as for the GNIA, except
now the material inelasticity of the steel (not the core) is also accounted for. Thus, with
the inelastic behavior of the steel included, another Riks analysis is performed with the
same load and increment controls as described in the previous section for the GNIA. The
same imperfections are assumed, but only one imperfection amplitude is considered in
the GMNIA and that is d0/t = 0.5.
Load-displacement curves are provided for select cylinders which represent the moment-
rotation path at RP-1. The strength ratios are calculated as done in previous sections:

(MGN IA )C
GM N IA Ratios = (4.15)
(MGN IA )H

and the corresponding gains are calculated as shown in equation (4.12).

 Chapter 5

Results

Theoretical and computational analyses were performed on isotropic unstiffened steel

cylindrical shells with and without a soft elastic core. The soft elastic core is intended to
model the elastic stiffness of granular bulk fill such as sand inside the cylinder. The effects
of the elastic core on the buckling strength and imperfection sensitivity were investigated.
Also, multiple levels of analysis were performed to understand the individual influences of
geometric and material (steel only) inelasticity. The theoretical analysis present in section
5.1, is based on formulations by Karam and Gibson [8]. Theoretical strength gains for
perfect elastic cylinders with an elastic core are presented with respect to R/t ratios and Ec
values for both small deflection and large deflection theory. The effects of different elastic
core moduli on the ovalization of long elastic bent cylinders is included. Computational
analyses were performed on cylinders with R/t = 140, σy = 690 MPa, and Ec = 20
MPa. Two lengths were considered corresponding to length to radius ratios of L/R = 7
and L/R = 20. The results of the LBA, GNIA, and GMNIA computational analyses
are presented in sections 5.2 to 5.4, respectively. The computational analysis results are
presented in terms of the bifurcation moment. It is noted that all resulting moments from
the computational analysis are presented as for a whole cylinder by multiplying the actual
results from the symmetric half cylinder model by a factor of 2. In order to consider the
potential impact on design economy, an optimization study is presented in section 5.5.
Finally, the bifurcation behavior is demonstrated with select deformed shapes provided
in section 5.6.

5.1 Theoretical Analysis

Theoretical analyses were performed as a first attempt to estimate the effects of a soft
elastic core on the buckling strength of cylindrical shells in bending. They are based on
the energy method and represent the behavior of perfect elastic cylinders with a compliant
elastic core.
The first calculations performed were based on small displacement theory, and are pre-
sented in Figure 5.1 as the ratio of the elastic classical moment of filled sections over

45
46 Results

hollow (empty) sections. As implied in equation (3.15) the classical elastic buckling mo-
ment is simply the classical elastic stress (either hollow or filled) times the elastic section
modulus. As such, the strength gains shown in Figure 5.1 can also be interpreted simply
as the gains in the elastic classical stress, σclC /σcl . As concluded by previous work, the
theoretical buckling stress is seen to increase with both the R/t ratio and with the core
stiffness, Ec . In particular, for R/t = 140, the classical elastic strength ratios for Ec = 10,
20 and 100 MPa are shown to be roughly 1.04, 1.08, and 1.4, translating to gains of 4%,
8% and 40%, respectively.

1.5
Ec 10 MPa
Ec 20 MPa
1.4 Ec 100 MPa

1.3
MclC/MclH

1.2

1.1

1
60 80 100 120 140
R/t
Figure 5.1: Classical elastic buckling moment gains MclC /MclH (small deflection theory)

By extending the theoretical analysis to include large displacements, the prebuckling

change of geometry in cylinders (ovalization) can be accounted for. The resulting local
buckling moment strength gains presented in Figure 5.2 are observed to be significantly
larger than the gains predicted by small displacement theory, and they are relevant for
”longer” cylinders. For comparison, the elastic local buckling moment ratios for R/t = 140
are shown to be roughly 2, 2.1, and 2.77, translating to substantial gains of 100%, 110%,
and 177% for elastic core moduli of Ec = 10, 20 and 100 MPa respectively. The gains are
seen to increase with R/t and Ec in a trend similar to that observed for small displacement
theory.
5.1 Theoretical Analysis 47

2.8
Ec 10 MPa
Ec 20 MPa
2.6 Ec 100 MPa

2.4
MlbC/MlbH

2.2

1.8
60 80 100 120 140
R/t
Figure 5.2: Theoretical elastic buckling moment gains MlbC /MlbH (large deflection theory)

0.08
Ec 10 MPa
Ratio of ovalization at Mlb, ZC/ZH

0.07 Ec 20 MPa
Ec 100 MPa
0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
60 80 100 120 140
R/t
Figure 5.3: Theoretical degree of ovalization reduction ζC /ζHollow
48 Results

In order to understand the cause of the substantial theoretical strength gains observed in
Figure 5.2, it is important to investigate the effect of the elastic core stiffness on ovalization
of the bent cylinders. The effect of soft elastic cores on the degree of ovalization is shown
in Figure 5.3. It can be seen that for even very soft elastic cores in moderately thin shells
(Ec = 10, R/t = 70), the degree of ovalization for the filled section is less 10% that of
the corresponding hollow section. It is further pointed out that the degree of ovalization
(rapidly) decreases with Ec and R/t. Continuing consideration for the example case, the
filled to hollow ratio of ovalization for R/t = 140 and Ec = 20 MPa is shown to be 0.006,
translating to only 0.6%.
A summary of the theoretical results for the example case of R/t = 140, Ec = 20 MPa is
provided below in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Theoretical results summary for R/t = 140, Ec = 20 MPa

Classical Buckling Moment, Mcl Local Buckling Moment, Mlb Ovalization, ζlb
Ratio Gains Ratio Gains % Ratio %
1.08 8% 2.1 110 % 0.006 0.6%

5.2 LBA

A linear bifuraction analysis is a natural first step in performing a computational as-

sessment of buckling strength. The bifurcation analysis is performed following a static
analysis with an arbitrary amplitude of loading. The resulting eigenvalues of the LBA
are essentially linear load factors with respect to the static applied load corresponding to
the point of bifurcation for different eigenmodes. Being that an LBA does not account
for nonlinear geometry, inelasticity or imperfections, it can be expected to compare well
with the theoretical Mcl for medium length cylinders. Here, LBA are performed for each
filled and hollow section for both study cases, L/R = 7 and L/R = 20, resulting in a total
of four LBA. The first couple eigenmodes for each cylinder are presented in section 5.2.1,
and the corresponding eigenvalues are presented as a linear bifurcation moment, MLBA ,
in section 5.2.2 along with corresponding values of Mcl , MY , and MP for comparison.

5.2.1 Eigenmodes

The first two eigenmodes for the hollow and filled cylinders are shown in Figures 5.4
to 5.7 for L/R = 7, and in Figures 5.8 to 5.11 for L/R = 20. The mode shapes are
characterized by the well known wrinkling pattern on the compression side of the cylinders.
The wrinkling, however, is not uniform and it exhibits varying localization in the different
eigenmodes.The first eigenmodes for L/R = 7, shown in Figures 5.4 and 5.6, are seen to
have a maximum amplitude near the base of the cylinder which is supported with the
pin connections. While the second eigenmodes for L/R = 7 (Figures 5.5 and 5.7) exhibit
localization at the midlength of the cylinder, and the wrinkles decreases in amplitude
towards the cylinder ends. The first two eigenmodes of the hollow L/R = 20 section
exhibit a similar trend as observed in the L/R = 7 sections. However, the first two
eigenmodes of the filled L/R = 20 section are different, and are both characterized by
5.2 LBA 49

wrinkling localization near the free end (loaded end) of the cylinder. In general, it is
observed that there is a higher degree of localization of the wrinkling pattern in the filled
sections in comparison with the hollow sections.

Figure 5.4: Mode shape 1 for hollow section Figure 5.5: Mode shape 2 for hollow section
L/R=7 L/R=7

Figure 5.6: Mode shape 1 for filled section Figure 5.7: Mode shape 2 for filled section
(Ec=20 MPa), L/R=7 (Ec=20 MPa), L/R=7

Figure 5.8: Mode shape 1 for hollow section, Figure 5.9: Mode shape 2 for hollow section,
L/R=20 L/R=20
50 Results

Figure 5.10: Mode shape 1 for filled section Figure 5.11: Mode shape 2 for filled section
(Ec=20 MPa), L/R=20 (Ec=20 MPa), L/R=20

5.2.2 MLBA

The resulting linear bifurcation moments, MLBA , along with reference moment values for
the L/R = 7 and L/R = 20 specimens are presented in Tables 5.2 and 5.3, respectively.
Although multiple (two) eigenmodes were presented for each specimen in the previous
section, the first couple eigenvalues for each specimens varied by less than 1%, so only
one MLBA is reported for each case. It is readily observed that the results for L/R = 7
and L/R = 20 are essentially the same. Further, the resulting MLBA values are seen
to compare very well with the theoretical Mcl values with no more than 1% difference.
This observation is again reflected in comparing the bifurcation moment ratios for filled
to hollow sections (i.e. strength gains) as portrayed in Figure 5.12. The linear bifurcation
analyses agree with the theoretical classical moments in predicting roughly 8% strength
gains for the filled sections in comparison with hollow sections for Ec = 20 MPa. Again,
this directly reflects σcl gains of about 8%. That is for both L/R = 7 and L/R = 20. By
comparing MLBA with the reference values it is pointed out that the linear bifurcation
moment exceeds the yield, MY , and plastic, MP , moments by 33% and 3% for the hollow
sections and by 43% and 12% for the filled sections, respectively.

Table 5.2: LBA and elastic small deflection theory results for L/R=7 [Units: MN-m]

Case MLBA Mcl % Difference MY MP

Hollow 164 163 1% 124 158
Ec =20 MPa 177 177 0% 124 158

Table 5.3: LBA and elastic small deflection theory results for L/R=20 [Units: MN-m]

Case MLBA Mcl % Difference MY MP

Hollow 164 163 1% 124 158
Ec =20 MPa 177 177 0% 124 158
5.3 GNIA and Elastic Imperfection Sensitivity 51

Figure 5.12: LBA and Mc l elastic buckling moment ratio of filled to hollow sections

5.3 GNIA and Elastic Imperfection Sensitivity

By including the effects of geometric nonlinearity and modeling imperfections in the

elastic cylindrical specimens, GNIA were performed. GNIA are commonly performed in
a computational assessment of buckling capacity. In particular, the analysis is useful for
studying the elastic imperfection sensitivity of a structure, and it allows the influence of
geometric nonlinearity and material nonlinearity to be distinguished when later compared
with a fully nonlinear (GMNIA) analysis. The imperfection forms adopted for the present
study are discussed in section 5.3.1. The elastic imperfection sensitivity of the specimens
was investigated by performing GNIA for different imperfection amplitudes. The resulting
GNIA bifurcation moments, MGN IA , were normalized by (MLBA )H and presented as the
normalized moment, M̂GN IA . The normalized theoretical local buckling moment for long
cylinders, M̂lb , is also presented for comparison.

5.3.1 Assumed imperfections

The imperfection forms assumed for the L/R = 7 and L/R = 20 specimens are shown in
Figures 5.13 and 5.14. As implied in the figures, the same imperfection form is assumed
for both the filled and hollow sections. The imperfection forms are the second eigenmodes
of the hollow cylinders determined by the LBA in the previous section. As mentioned
previously, the buckling analysis results can strongly depend on the form of imperfections
assumed. As such, it is important to take care in selecting the imperfection forms in
order to produce a reliable strength assessment. For emphasis, the assumptions of the
imperfection form are bulleted below:

• The imperfections correspond to 2nd eigenmode of hollow cylinder

52 Results

• The same imperfection form is assumed for both the hollow and filled specimens

A study was performed which led to the above assumptions. First, a comparison was
made between the first two eigenmodes for the hollow sections with d0/t = 0.5, in which
the 2nd eigenmode (with amplitude localization near the midlength of the cylinder) was
found to be the more critical of the two by approximately 9%. Further, the resulting
imperfection sensitivity curve produced for the hollow L/R = 7 cylinder with the 2nd
eigenmode imperfection form was compared with the curve proposed by Rotter et al. [5]
for similar members with a weld depression type imperfection. This plot is shown in
Figure 5.15, and acceptable agreement is observed. More specifically, the 2nd eigenmode
imperfection is seen to be relatively conservative for imperfection amplitudes d0/t < 0.5
and slightly non-conservative for d0/t > 0.5. For the cylinders considered in this study,
practical imperfection amplitudes are expected to be less than 0.5. Regarding the filled
cylinders, GNIA with d0/t = 0.5 were performed on the filled L/R = 20 specimen with
two different imperfections forms corresponding to (1) the 2nd eigenmode of the hollow
specimen shown in Figure 5.14, and (2) the 1st eigenmode of the filled specimen shown
in Figure 5.10. It was found that the 2nd eigenmode of the hollow specimen produced
the lower result by roughly 7%. Based on this study, the 2nd eigenmode of the hollow
cylinders is expected to be at least near critical for all specimens. The approximate gains
and trends predicted by the following computational analyses are assumed to represent
the behavior of the specimens to the limit of other simplifying assumptions (in particular
the elastic core material model).

Figure 5.14: Imperfection form assumed for

L/R=20
Figure 5.13: Imperfection form assumed for
L/R=7
5.3 GNIA and Elastic Imperfection Sensitivity 53

Figure 5.15: Imperfection sensitivity benchmark: 2nd Eigenmode compared with Rotter et al.
[5] results for Type A weld depression imperfection for L/R = 7 steel cylinders in bending

5.3.2 MGN IA

The bifurcation moments as determined by the GNIA, MGN IA , were calculated for im-
perfections amplitudes of d0/t = 0.001, 0.2, 0.5, and 1. The normalized M̂GN IA and M̂lb
are presented in Table 5.4. It is noted that the buckling moments predicted for the very
small imperfection amplitude, d0/t = 0.001, can be expected to represent a geometric
nonlinear analysis of a perfect shell, or GNA, and are treated as such in the discussion.
For easier interpretation, the same results of Table 5.4 are plotted in Figure 5.16 for
L/R = 7 and Figure 5.17 for L/R = 20. For the GNA (d0/t = 0.001), the hollow cylin-
ders already exhibit strength reductions corresponding to 89% and 58% of the LBA for
L/R = 7 and L/R = 20, respectively. On the other hand, the filled cylinders demonstrate
buckling strengths near the LBA by reaching 103% and 105% of the hollow specimen
LBA, where the comparable LBA results were 108%.

A distinct difference in imperfection sensitivity between the shorter (L/R = 7) and longer
(L/R = 20) cases is observed for the hollow specimens. As shown in Figure 5.16, the
buckling strength of the shorter hollow specimen decreases rapidly with increasing imper-
fection amplitude in a trend similar to axially loaded cylindrical shells, while the longer
hollow specimen begins at a much lower value and only slightly decrease over the same
imperfection range, even exhibiting a slightly larger buckling strength than the shorter
specimen at d0/t = 1.
This trend is far less pronounced in the filled specimens. The shorter filled specimen grad-
ually decreases from 105% down to 80% with increasing imperfection amplitude. While
54 Results

the longer filled specimen decreases from 103% down to 83% over the same range. For
both the filled and hollow cases, the shorter specimens produced higher buckling strength
at small imperfections (d0/t < 0.5) while the longer specimens produced slightly higher
strengths for d0/t = 1.

By comparing the results for the GNA (d0/t = 0.001) in Table 5.4 with the normalized
Mlb it can be observed that the filled sections compared much better with the theoretical
predictions than the hollow cylinders. Further, the longer cylinders compared better than
the shorter cylinders, in particular for the hollow case.

Table 5.4: GNIA results and elastic imperfection sensitivity

Moments are normalized by the LBA moment for hollow section

M̂GN IA M̂lb
d0/t= 0.001 0.2 0.5 1
L/R=7 Hollow 0.89 0.64 0.49 0.43 0.51
Ec =20 MPa 1.05 0.96 0.88 0.80 1.07
Ratio 1.17 1.5 1.78 1.88 2.1
L/R=20 Hollow 0.58 0.46 0.47 0.46 0.51
Ec =20 MPa 1.03 0.99 0.87 0.83 1.07
Ratio 1.78 2.17 1.84 1.79 2.1

Figure 5.16: Effect of elastic core on elastic imperfection sensitivity for L/R=7
5.3 GNIA and Elastic Imperfection Sensitivity 55

Figure 5.17: Effect of elastic core on elastic imperfection sensitivity for L/R=20

The imperfection sensitivity plots of Figures 5.16 and 5.17 demonstrate substantial im-
provement of the imperfection sensitivity in the filled sections compared with hollow
sections for the prescribed imperfection form. The strength ratios are presented in Table
5.4 and also plotted in Figure 5.18. A marked increase in elastic gains is observed with
increasing imperfection amplitude for the shorter cylinders. While the longer cylinders
exhibit more uniform gains of roughly 80% with a local peak of 117% at d0/t = 0.2.

Figure 5.18: MGN IA ratio of filled to hollow cylinders w.r.t. imperfection amplitude
56 Results

5.4 GMNIA

At the highest level of analysis, the inelasticity of the steel cylindrical shell is included
in the GNIA to perform a geometric and material nonlinear analysis with imperfection
(GMNIA). Here, a single imperfection amplitude of d0/t = 0.5 was considered. In this
section the resulting load displacement curves are presented along with supporting tables
and figures. Emphasis is on the strength gains for the filled sections and the results from
the GNIA are included for easy comparison.

The effects of inelasticity on the behavior of the filled sections is demonstrated by the
load-displacement curves plotted in Figures 5.19 and 5.20 for L/R = 7 and L/R = 20,
respectively. The load-displacement paths for the GNIA and GMNIA in both graphs are
indistinguishable up to the bifurcation point of the GMNIA. In other words, the rotational
stiffness of the elastic and inelastic specimens is seen to be essentially the same. However,
a significant reduction in the bifurcation moments is observed due to the steel inelasticity.

Figure 5.19: GNIA and GMNIA load-displacement curve for filled L/R=7 cylinder
d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690, MPa Ec = 20 MPa
5.4 GMNIA 57

Figure 5.20: GNIA and GMNIA load-displacement curve for filled L/R=20 cylinder
d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690, MPa Ec = 20 MPa

In order to investigate the effects of the elastic core on the fully nonlinear response, the
GMNIA load-displacement curves for the hollow and filed cylinders are plotted on top
of each other in Figures 5.21 and 5.22. Slight deviations in the rotational stiffness are
observed near the bifurcation loads of the hollow sections. More specifically, a slight
loss of stiffness is observed in the L/R = 20 hollow section, while a minimal increase
in stiffness is observed for the L/R = 7 hollow section as the moment approaches the
respective bifurcation moments. However, the more obvious trend is the substantial
increase in bifurcation moments observed due to the elastic filling. For easier comparison,
the respective bifurcation moments are presented in Figure 5.23, and the corresponding
strength gains are shown in Figure 5.24. It is seen that the strength gains predicted by
the GMNIA were 33% for the shorter L/R = 7 cylinder and 62% for the longer L/R = 20
cylinder. In order to translate the gains into commonly used design language, the GMNIA
results are plotted as capacity curve data points in Figure 5.25. The elastic core is seen to
move the data points to the left and upwards in the graph implying reduced slenderness
and increased capacity.
58 Results

Figure 5.21: Load-displacement curve comparison of hollow and filled GMNIA for L/R=7
d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690 MPa, Ec = 20 MPa

Figure 5.22: Load-displacement curve comparison of hollow and filled GMNIA for L/R=20
d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690 MPa, Ec = 20 MPa
5.4 GMNIA 59

Figure 5.23: Hollow and filled MGM N IA values

for d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690, MPa Ec = 20 MPa

Figure 5.24: Strength gains due to elastic core based on MGM N IA

for d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, σy = 690 MPa, Ec = 20 MPa,
60 Results

Figure 5.25: Capacity curve data points of hollow and filled cylinders in bending
for d0/t=0.5, R/t = 140, Ec = 20 MPa, σy = 690 MPa,

A summary of the results is provided in Table 5.5. The table includes the bifurcation
moment values, MGM N IA and MGN IA , for all four specimens. By inspecting the ratio
of MGM N IA /MGN IA it can be seen that inelasticity influences the filled cylinders more.
The inelasticity reduces the hollow cylinders by factors of 0.93 and 0.86 for L/R = 7 and
20. While the corresponding filled cylinders are reduced by 0.69 and 0.77. Nevertheless,
substantial strength gains are still observed in the filled cylinders. The trends in the table
suggest a larger strength gain and less influence of inelasticity for the longer L/R = 20
specimen.

Table 5.5: Effects of elastic core and material nonlinearity on bifurcation (max) moment
[Units=MN-m]

Length Case MGN IA MGM N IA MGM N IA /MGN IA

L/R=7 Hollow 81 75 0.93
Ec =20MPa 144 100 0.69
Ratio 1.78 1.33 0.75
L/R=20 Hollow 78 67 0.86
Ec =20MPa 143 109 0.77
Ratio 1.84 1.62 0.89

5.5 Optimization Study

The pursuit of greater design economy in bent cylinders was a primary motivation of the
present study. A reliable cost study would be based on a lifecycle cost assessment requiring
5.5 Optimization Study 61

design, manufacturing and construction details. These details can vary significantly from
project to project. Therefor, in order to investigate the potential impact on cost, we
will simply consider the amount of steel tonnage that may be saved for the case of a
constrained diameter. This problem would be relevant, for example, in the application of
taller wind turbine towers where transportation constraints limit the diameter, and steel
tonnage accounts for approximately 80% of the tower cost [12].

Here, a simple investigation is performed using the same methods described for the GM-
NIA analysis. The bending moment capacities determined in section 5.4 for the filled
cylinders with R/t = 140, Ec = 20 MPa were adopted as the target moment value. The
wall thickness of the hollow cylinders was then increased until (roughly) the same moment
capacity was achieved. The point was to compare the required wall thicknesses of the
filled and hollow cylinders which satisfy a target flexural strength.

The moment-rotation curves (at RP-1) are plotted in Figures 5.26 and 5.27 for L/R = 7
and 20, respectively. The original filled and hollow cylinders for R/t = 140 are shown,
along with two additional hollow specimens with larger wall thicknesses. As expected,
there is a slight increase in rotational stiffness for the cylinders with larger wall thickness.
In Figure 5.26, the filled cylinder buckling moment is closely bounded by the buckling
moment capacities of hollow cylinders with R/t = 115 and 120. It was estimated that
the same buckling moment would’ve been achieved for roughly R/t = 118, as implied in
Table 5.6. On the other hand, in Figure 5.27 the hollow cylinder with R/t = 105 was
seen to produce essentially the same moment as the filled cylinder, so this thickness was
used for the hollow L/R = 20 cylinder in the table.

Figure 5.26: Load-displacement curves for different hollow cylinder thicknesses compared with
filled R/t = 140 cylinder, L/R = 7, GMNIA, d0/t=0.5
62 Results

Table 5.6: Amount of steel tonnage saved by filling cylinder to satisfy a target bending moment
strength. The radius is fixed and the hollow cylinder wall thickness was increased until the same
moment strength was achieved as for the filled cylinder with R/t = 140

L/R=7 L/R=20
R/t Required Wall Thickness Ratio R/t Required Wall Thickness Ratio
Hollow 118 1 105 1
Filled (Ec=20 MPa) 140 0.84 140 0.75

Figure 5.27: Load-displacement curves for different hollow cylinder thicknesses compared with
filled R/t = 140 cylinder, L/R = 20, GMNIA, d0/t=0.5

Table 5.6 demonstrates the amount of steel tonnage that could be saved in terms of
wall thickness to satisfy a target design moment. The study implies that the structure is
strength dominated. In other words, the slight sacrifice in rotational stiffness for the filled
cylinders (due to smaller rotational inertia) is unimportant. By inspecting the table, it is
seen that the filled cylinders require just 84% and 75% of the steel tonnage required by
the L/R = 7 and 20 hollow cylinders, respectively.

5.6 Deformed Cylinders

In order to indicate the buckling behavior of the cylindrical specimens, the deformed
shape of select specimens is provided. In particular, the postbuckling deformed shape of
the short hollow cylindrical specimen (GMNIA, d0/t = 0.5, L/R = 7) is shown in Figure
5.28. The cylinder buckling was characterized first by wrinkling along the compression
side (representative of the assumed imperfection mode) at bifurcation, followed by rapid
5.6 Deformed Cylinders 63

localization as a single wrinkle grew larger eventually leading to the deformed shape
shown in the figure. The postbuckling behavior of the filled sections was not investigated
as the results would have been erroneous due to the linear elastic core assumption. The
wrinkling deformation at the bifurcation loads for select cylinders are shown in Figures
5.29 and 5.31. By inspecting the L/R = 20 cylinders in Figures 5.30 and 5.31, a slightly
higher degree of wrinkling localization is observed in the filled cylinder. This trend was
also observed for the shorter cylinders.

Figure 5.28: Collapse mode for hollow cylinder

GMNIA, L/R = 7, d0/t=0.5

Figure 5.29: Deformed member at bifurcation for filled cylinder

GNIA, L/R = 7, d0/t=0.5, Ec = 20 MPa
64 Results

Figure 5.30: Deformed shape at birfurcation for filled section

GMNIA, L/R = 20, d0/t=0.5, Ec = 20 MPa

Figure 5.31: Deformed shape at birfurcation for hollow section

GMNIA, L/R = 20, d0/t=0.5
 Chapter 6

Discussion

6.1 Comparison of Theoretical and Computational Results

By nature, theoretical or semi-analytical evaluations of buckling resistance involves less

computational time than evaluation by finite element methods. However, finite element
methods are invariably more flexible and are often more straightforward to pursue when
complexities such as imperfections and material nonlinearities are to be considered. Nev-
erthesless, it is interesting to draw comparisons between theoretical formulations and
computational assessments in order to guide interpretation of results and to anticipate
where simple theoretical formulations may be useful in future strength evaluations.
Care should be taken in understanding the underlying assumptions implied in theoretical
analyses when making comparison with different levels of finite element analyses. In
this study, the focus of the theoretical analysis has been on the classical elastic buckling
moment, Mcl , and the local buckling moment, Mlb , both of which apply to isotropic elastic
perfect cylindrical shells which may be either hollow or filled with an elastic core. The
key differences are that the Mcl is based on small displacement theory and is relevant
for medium length cylinders with pinned boundary conditions, while Mlb incorporates
large displacement theory and is relevant for infinitely long cylinders where the boundary
conditions do not influence geometry changes (i.e. ovalization). As such, the Mcl moment
was expected to compare well with LBA results for all cylinders considered. On the other
hand, the Mlb values were expected to significantly underestimate the strength determined
by the GNA for the hollow sections because the cylinders are short enough such that the
end restraints reduce the effects of ovalization. Due to this, it should be expected that the
GNA of the longer hollow cylinder would compare better with Mlb than the shorter hollow
cylinder. In contrast, the filled cylinders were predicted to have minimal ovalization, so
the discrepancies between the Mlb and GNA of the filled cylinders were expected to be
significantly less than the hollow cylinders.
By inspecting the results of the LBA and Mcl in section 5.2.2 it is readily observed that
the MLBA and Mcl compare very well for all cylinders with a maximum difference of 1%.

65
66 Discussion

It is further pointed out that the shorter and longer cylinders exhibit essentially the same
values. This was expected since Mcl is independent of cylinder length.
By shifting focus to the GNIA and Mlb results in section 5.3 the expected trend of dis-
crepancies is observed. It was seen that the Mlb of the hollow cylinders does indeed
underestimate the strength, even more so for the longer cylinder. Specifically, the nor-
malized M̂GN A of the hollow cylinders were 0.89 and 0.58 for L/R = 7 and 20 compared
to the normalized Mlb value of 0.51 (infinite length). In contrast, the filled cylinders ex-
hibited much better agreement, as expected, between the Mlb and GNA even though they
were not very long. To illustrate, the normalized M̂GN A of the filled cylinders were 1.05
and 1.03 for L/R = 7 and L/R = 20 comparing very well to the normalized Mlb value
of 1.07 (infinite length). The consequence is that the buckling strength of an elastic per-
fect cylinder with an elastic core can be very well estimated using Mlb , even for not-long
cylinders. However, the corresponding strength gains will not be accurately estimated
for not-long cylinders because the Mlb underestimates the buckling strength of medium
length hollow sections.

6.2 Influence of Geometric Nonlinearity

The influence of geometric nonlinearity in the buckling of cylindrical shells can be observed
by comparing LBA and GNA results. The most significant prebuckling geometry change
that occurs in bent thin-walled cylinders is ovalization. Therefore, the difference between
the LBA and GNA can be attributed to ovalization. With this in mind, it was expected
that the hollow cylinders would exhibit much more significant strength reductions due to
geometric changes than the filled cylinders. Likewise, the longer cylinders are expected
to be reduced more than the shorter cylinders.
The comparison between MGN A and MLBA can be made by considering the reduction
ratio of MGN A /MLBA for each cylinder. The ratio should be less than unity, where unity
implies that geometric nonlinearity has no influence on the bifurcation moment of the
elastic perfect cylinder. The reduction ratios for the hollow cylinders were found to be
0.89 and 0.58 for L/R = 7 and L/R = 20. While the less significant reduction ratios for the
filled cylinders were calculated to be just 0.97 and 0.95 for L/R = 7 and 20, respectively.
As expected, the hollow cylinders experienced much greater reductions by accounting for
geometric nonlinearity. Further, in both the hollow and filled cases the longer cylinders
experienced the greater reductions. However, this was much less pronounced in the filled
cylinders. The relatively small discrepancy (≤5%) between the LBA and and GNA for the
filled cylinders reinforces the previously held assumption by Yabuta [31] that ovalization
in bent elastic perfect cylindrical shells with an elastic core can be neglected.

6.3 Imperfection Sensitivity

Thin walled cylindrical shells are notoriously sensitive to imperfections. However, cylin-
ders in bending generally exhibit less sensitivity than those under uniform axial com-
pression due to the predominance of a single buckling mode. In the present study the
6.4 Influence of Steel Inelasticity 67

imperfections correspond to the 2nd eigenmode of the hollow cylinders. This imperfection
form was chosen based on the small study described in section 5.3.1.
Here, imperfection sensitivity is referred to as the relative decrease in buckling strength
with increasing imperfection amplitude.Two primary trends were expected in the elastic
imperfection sensitivity study. First, the elastic core was expected to reduce imperfection
sensitivity in a manner similar to internal pressure. Second, the longer L/R = 20 cylinders
were expected to be less sensitive to imperfections than the shorter L/R = 7 cylinders.
The reason for this, is based on previous work on long hollow cylinders in bending. In the
longer cylinders, the influence of geometric nonlineairity reduces the buckling strength
even for very small imperfections. As the imperfection amplitude is increased, the longer
cylinders exhibit a less significant decrease in buckling strength.
The trends just previously described are demonstrated in the results provided in section
5.3. More specifically, the filled cylinders indeed demonstrated a reduction in imperfection
sensitivity in comparison with the hollow cylinders. However, the sensitivity reduction was
much more significant for the shorter L/R = 7 cylinders than the L/R = 20 cylinders.
The imperfection sensitivity of the L/R = 7 cylinders was reduced by approximately
50%, while that of the L/R = 20 cylinders was reduced only by roughly 10%. This
is also consistent with the expected trend of the longer cylinders being less sensitive to
imperfections.

6.4 Influence of Steel Inelasticity

In addition to geometric nonlinearity and imperfections, material nonlinearity can strongly

influence the buckling capacity of structures. In cylindrical shells, elastic buckling occurs
only when the R/t ratio is on the same order of magnitude (or larger) as ratio of E/σy .
Consequently, in steel cylinders, elastic buckling is only observed for very thin-walled
shells with the R/t ratios greater than roughly 300 − 500. Thus, the moderately thin
cylinders considered in this study with R/t = 70 − 140 can exhibit considerable inelastic-
ity before buckling occurs. In bending, the inelasticity is localized due to the non-uniform
stress distribution around the circumference and buckling often occurs before full plastic-
ity is ever reached. For these members, a comparison between GNIA and GMNIA is very
useful for evaluating the influence of material inelasticity on the buckling resistance.
Table 5.5 presented the buckling moment results as determined by both GNIA and GM-
NIA for d0/t = 0.5. By inspecting the table, it was pointed out that the MGN IA for
the filled cylinders exceeded the MY = 124 MN-m by about 15 − 16%. In contrast, the
MGN IA of the hollow cylinders was less than MY by roughly 35 − 37%. Based on this ob-
servation, it can immediately be suspected that the filled cylinders will experience greater
reductions due to inelasticity than the hollow cylinders. This speculation is confirmed in
the table by inspecting the ratios of MGM N IA /MGN IA . The ratios are seen to be 0.93
and 0.86 for the for the shorter and longer hollow cylinders. In comparison, the ratios
for the filled cylinders were less at 0.69 and 0.77. By further inspection, it is interesting
to point out that the longer cylinders demonstrated a greater strength reduction due to
inelasticity for the hollow case, but less strength reduction for the filled case when com-
pared to the respective shorter cylinders. It is speculated that this trend is observed due
68 Discussion

to the interaction between inelasticity and ovalization, specifically, in the longer hollow
cylinder.

6.5 Effect of Soft Elastic Core on Buckling Strength

A primary objective of this study was to investigate the effect of a bulk granular fill on
the buckling capacity of elastic-plastic cylindrical shells in bending. The motivation is
primarily related to the pursuit of greater design economy of cylindrical structures. The
suspected benefits of a bent cylinder supported by a granular core are reiterated as:

• reduced ovalization (or replacing ring stiffeners)

• increased critical buckling moment

• superior postbuckling behavior

Previous investigations have demonstrated that ovalization can typically be neglected in

bent cylinders with elastic cores. On the other hand, analyses of hollow cylinders under
bending must include the effects of ovalization. These observations were confirmed with
the cylinders considered in the present study. For the R/t = 70 and 140, the theoretical
ovalization for a cylinder with a soft elastic core of Ec = 20 MPa was predicted to be just
4% and 0.6% of that for a corresponding hollow cylinder. The substantial reduction in
ovalization was also reflected in the computational analysis results. In the comparisons
made between the GNIA and LBA results, it was pointed out that the MGN A was at
most 5% less than the MLBA for the filled cylinders. Thus, ovalization had little effect
for filled sections. As expected, a much larger discrepancy (11 − 42%) was observed for
the hollow cylinders, which indicates the higher degree of ovalization.
Prior investigations have also considered the effect of a granular fill on the critical buck-
ling stress of imperfect cylindrical shells. However, this work has been limited to the
case of uniform axial compression and for elastic buckling with relatively large R/t ratios.
Rather than the critical stress, the focus of the present study was on the buckling moment.
The results in section 5.4 present the bifurcation moments determined by the GMNIA.
Very clear strength gains were observed for the filled cylinders. Specifically, an increase
in MGM N IA of 33% and 62% was observed for the L/R = 7 and L/R = 20 cylinders,
respectively. The predicted strength gains are significant. No practically relevant exper-
imental results have been found to serve for comparison. However, the strength gains of
the shorter cylinder may be compared with experiments on axially loaded cylinders with
soft elastic cores. Comparable results by Rotter and Zhang [14] suggested elastic buckling
strength gains on the order of 40 − 50% for axially loaded cylinder.

6.6 Limitations of Analysis

The results of the present study should be taken with certain challenges and limitations
in mind. The most notable limitations are related to the core material model and the
assumed imperfection forms.
6.6 Limitations of Analysis 69

The elastic core material model is a very simple approach to modeling the tangential stiff-
ness of a bulk granular fill at buckling. However, for small prebuckling wall displacements
and relatively non-stiff elastic cores such as Ec = 20 MPa, the linear elastic spring as-
sumption made in previous studies for axial compression compared well with experiments.
Still, the elastic core model is not practical when large displacements are encountered due
to the nonlinear nature of the wall-core interaction. Therefore a postbuckling assessment
with the elastic core model was not pursued. It is further noted that the elastic core
model for a bulk solid may affect the buckling behavior in bending differently than in
axial compression. The key difference is that the bent cylinder undergoes global deforma-
tion and ovalization is resisted leading to the development of pre-buckling stresses in the
core, even though the local wall displacements remain small. These prebuckling stresses
in the core must remain small in order for the elastic core model to have practical value.
The effect of the granular fill on buckling resistance is not only influenced by the material
stiffness. In practical applications, the granular fill stiffness will be accompanied by a
normal pressure against the shell wall. Internal pressure in thin cylinders is known to
improve buckling resistance. However, the actual strength gains observed would not
simply be a summation of the strength gains predicted by considering an elastic core
or internal pressure separately. As Rotter and Zhang [14] found, the strength gains
attributed solely to the elastic core will decrease as the internal pressure is increased,
and visa-versa. The strength gains presented in this study correspond to the imaginary
case with an internal pressure of zero. However, for the structures considered in this
computational study, the small internal pressures would have a much smaller effect than
bulk fill stiffness.
A key challenge in performing a comparative buckling assessment for multiple structures
is in choosing the imperfection forms. A thorough investigation of the worst realistic
imperfection form for each specimen was not pursued. In this work, a quick study was
made comparing two imperfection forms based on eigenmodes for each the hollow case and
the filled case. Of the imperfections considered, it was found that the 2nd eigenmode of the
hollow cylinders produced the lowest strength for both the hollow and filled cylinders. As
an additional attempt to verify the choice of the imperfection form, a comparison was also
made between the imperfection sensitivity curve determined in the present study for the
hollow L/R = 7 with comparable results for a Type A weld depression presented by Rotter
et al. [5]. It was seen that the eigenmode imperfection led to relatively conservative results
for smaller imperfection amplitudes (d0/t < 0.5) and slightly non-conservative results for
d0/t > 0.5. Therefor, the subsequent GMNIA analysis was based on d0/t = 0.5, which
was expected to produce indicative results.
70 Discussion
 Chapter 7

Conclusions and Recommendations

for Future Work

7.1 Conclusions

A first pass attempt was made to understand the effects of an elastic granular core on
the buckling resistance of elastic-plastic cylindrical shells in bending. The granular core
was modeled simply as a linear elastic solid. The goal was to observe the influence of
the fill material stiffness on buckling moment capacity and imperfection sensitivity. The
influence of geometric nonlinearity and steel inelasticity were also considered. Theoretical
and computational analyses were conducted and results were compared. The theoretical
analyses were based on small and large displacement theory for isotropic-elastic-perfect
cylindrical shells with an elastic core. The theoretical results were presented with respect
to R/t ratio for different elastic core moduli. The finite element analyses were conducted
using ABAQUS. LBA, GNIA, and GMNIA were performed for cylinders of two lengths,
L/R = 7 and L/R = 20, with R/t = 140, σy = 690 MPa, and Ec = 20 MPa. The im-
perfections were modeled using the 2nd eigenmode of the hollow cylinders. The following
conclusions have been made based on observations in this study:

• Similar to the effect of internal pressure, a soft elastic core is seen to increase the
buckling capacity significantly and reduce sensitivity to imperfections. In this study,
buckling moment strength gains on the order of 33 − 62% were observed for the
L/R = 7 and L/R = 20 cylinders, respectively.
• The imperfection sensitivity of filled cylinders is less dependent on length than
hollow cylinders
• A soft elastic core increases the degree of wrinkling localization at bifurcation in
bent cylinders.
• An elastic bulk fill such as sand can be used effectively to replace ring stiffeners.
Ovalization in steel cylindrical shells with a soft elastic core is practically eliminated.

71
72 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work

• Longer cylinders with an elastic core exhibit greater strength gains than shorter
cylinders. For elastic-plastic cylinders this phenomenon is attributed to two aspects
of reduced ovalization: First, the local curvature around the circumference is not
significantly reduced leading to the geometric advantage observed for elastic cylin-
ders, and second, the onset of plasticity is delayed by avoiding the higher stresses
that would be induced by an ovalizing cross section.

• Naturally, the filled elastic-plastic cylinders exhibit larger strength reductions when
inelasticiy is included than the corresponding hollow cylinders. This is evidenced
by the MGM N IA /MGN IA ratios.

• The theoretical elastic buckling moments Mcl are very useful in approximating
MLBA for cylinders with and without an elastic core

• The theoretical local buckling moment Mlb was useful in predicting the MGN A for
the filled cylinders, even though Mlb holds the assumption of an infinitely long
cylinder. Since the cylinders were not long, discrepancies were observed between
the Mlb and the MGN A for the hollow cylinders, with are larger discrepancy observed
for the shorter cylinder, as expected.

• A soft elastic core can be effective in reducing required steel tonnage in strength
dominated bent cylinders. In this study, the filled cylinders required just 84% and
75% of the steel tonnage required by the L/R = 7 and 20 hollow cylinders with the
same flexural capacity.

7.2 Recommendations for Future Work

Since the present study represents a first known attempt to quantify the buckling be-
havior of bent elastic-plastic cylinders with a compliant granular core, there are many
opportunities for future work. Particular areas of focus might include the material mod-
els, imperfection analysis, postbuckling behavior, combined pressure/stiffness effects, and
experimental campaigns for validation. The following are more specific recommendations
for improving on the present study:

• The results of the present study suggest that an experimental campaign may very
well be justifiable. Care should be taken in the planning and execution of such
an experiment, as there are many challenges to be suspected. The most notable
challenges might be in fabricating representative imperfections and ensuring that the
model (and material) can be scaled to practical applications. Also, the experiment
should be planned such that the effects of internal pressure and bulk solid stiffness
can be separated.

• An investigation incorporating a nonlinear material model for the bulk solid should
be performed. The effects of prebuckling deformations for medium to long length
cylinders would be of particular interest, and if the chosen material model is ade-
quate, an evaluation of the postbuckling response should be pursued.
7.2 Recommendations for Future Work 73

• A more comprehensive study of imperfections in bent cylinder with a granular core

should be performed. Recommendations for design should be made and validated
by experiment. In contrast to empty cylinders, it is suspected that the imperfection
sensitivity of filled cylinders will be less dependent on cylinder length for most
practical applications.

• A study of the combined effects of pressure/stiffness should be pursued. Emphasis

on realistic combinations of pressure and stiffness for granular bulk solid should be
made. It is also possible to use sophisticated material models such as a hypoplas-
ticity model of the bulk solid to account for pressure and stiffness simultaneously,
however, a separation of the effects would be useful for incorporation into design
recommendations.
74 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work
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78 References
 Appendix A

Theoretical Analysis: Matlab

Calculations

A.1 Theoretical Buckling Strength Calculation

79
A.2 Plotting Strength Gains 81

A.2 Plotting Strength Gains