Limba Engleza- Tematica licenta(gramatica)

I. The noun phrase

1) Morphematic structure

2) The categories of number:

English has two numbers :singular and plural.The singular number denotes that one
thing is spoken the plural, more than one.

3)Case and determination of nouns and pronouns.

Case is an inflection or use of a noun(or pronoun) to show it’s relation to other
words in the sentence.
There are now only case forms of Enhlish nouns-one for the nominative and
objective, one for the possessive.
The grammars treat of three cases of nouns, the nominative, the objective and the
possessive.
Uses of the Nominative
-as the subject of a verb
-as a predicative noun
-in apposition with some other nominative word
-in direct addres
-with a participle in an absolute or independent pgrase.
-with an infinitive in exclamations.
Uses of the Objective
-as the direct object of a verb

-as the indirect object of a verb

-adverbially

-as the second object

-as the object of a preposition

-in apposition with another objective.

Uses of the Possessive

-appositional possessive

-objective possessive
 -subjective possessive

4) The category of comparison of adjectives.

Comparison means the changes that word undergo to express degrees in quality, or
amounts in quantity.

There are two forms: The comparative expressing a greater degree of quality, and the
superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality.

These are called degress of comparison.

II. The Verb

1) The indicative Mood and the Sequence of Tenes
The indicative represents something as a fact:
-by declaring a thing to be true or not to be true
-by assuming a thing to be true without declaring it to be so.( This kind of indicative
clauses is usually introduced by’’if’’
-by asking a question to fiind aut some fact

The indicative mood ist hat form of a verb which represents a thing as a fact, or
inquires about some fact.

Sequence of tenses is a set of grammatical rules of a particular language, governing

the agreement between the tenses of verbs in related clauses or sentences.
Tenses are verbs that describe when ar event, action or condition has ocurred. We
have three types of tenses based on the time.
-past tense
-present tense
-future tense

Sequence of Tenses

Rule 1

A past tense in the principal clauses is always followed by a past tense in the
subordinate clause.

Rule 2

If the tense used with the principal clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of
the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.
 Rule 3

When we use the principal clause in the future tense, we do not use subordinating-
clause beginning with’’when, until, before, after, etc’’.

Rule 4

When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction’’that’’,we do the

following:

-We use may in the subordinate clause when the principal clause is in the present
tense

-we use’’might’’ in the subordinate clause when the principal clause is in the past
tense.

Rule5

When some phrases such as’’if only,wish that, what if, it is time’’ are used, the
clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.

III) The structure of the simple sentence

We have four types of sentence structure.

-simple

-compound

-complex

-compund-complex

A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and matifiers.

It contains only one independent clause.

Key: yellow, bold= subject

Green,underline=verb

Blue,italics=object

Pink,regular font=prepositional phrase.

Examples: She wrote

She completed her literature review

He organized his sources by theme.

IV. Complex sentences.Subordinate clauses.
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent
cluase.

Dependent clauses can refer to the subject(who, which) the sequence time(since,while), or the
causal elements(because, if) of the independent clause.

Key: independent clause=yellow, bold

Comma=pink,regular font

Dependent clause=blue, italics.

If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause.

If, on the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma
separating the two clauses.

Althoygh one completed her literasture review, she still needed to work on her metods
section.

Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to fallow.

Subordinate Clause
A subordinate clause(or dependent clause) is a clause that cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence because it does not express a complete thought.

A subordinate clause has a subject and verb.

Example: She had a pretty gift for quotation, which is a serviceable substitute for wit.

A musicologist is a man who can read music but can’t hear it.

Subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinate conjunctions and relative pronouns.

Conjunctions: as, after,because,before, if, now, once,since,than,

though,unless,until,when,while,etc)

Pronouns: which, whichever,that,whatever,who, whoever,whose).

Type of subordinate clauses

a) Noun clause(begins with relative pronouns like how, which,who,what)

The dog cane at what he wants.
 b) Adjective clause(they have a pronoun-who,that,which, or an adverb-
what,where,why,and a verb,or a pronoun or an adverb that serves as
subject and a verb)
The dog is the one who ate the popcorn.
c) Adverb clause(is a group of words that work as an adverb in a sentence,
answering questions asking’’where?’’,’’when?’’,’’how?’’,’’why?’’
The dog ran until he got to the country fair.
This sentence answers the question ‚’how long did the dog run?’’ with the
adverb clause ‚’ until he got to the country fair’’.

V. Speech acts schema.

Locutionary, illocutionary and prelocutionary acts.are, in fact, three basic components
with the help of which a speech act is formed.

Locutionary act: performing on act of saying something illocutionary act: performing an act
in saying something .

Prelocutionary act:performing an act by saying something

The locutionary act can be viewed as a mere uttening of some words in certaind language,
while the illocutionary and perlocutionary acts convey a more complicated message the
hearer.

The locutionary act is closely connected with speaker’s intentions such as:stating,
questioning, promising, giving commands, etc.

Implicature mechanisms

Implicative denotes either the act of meaning or implying one thing by saying something else,
ot the object of that act.

Implicatures can be determined by sentence meaning or by conversational context, and can

be conventional or unconventional.

Implicature serves a variety of goals: communication, maintaining good social relations,

misleading without lying, style, and verbal efficiency.

Figures of speech such as metaphor and irony provide familiar examples.

VI. Semantic relations.

1) Oppositeness of meaning, synonymy and hyponymy .
Synonymy is the relationship between two words that have same sense.
Synonymy has different aspects: Cognitive, Descriptive and Near synonyms.
Hyponymy involves the logical relationship of inclusion.
The meaning of’’animal’’ is included in the meaning of lion, goat, dog and do on’’
The term’’animal’’ is the upper term known as the Superordinate while the lower
term is called the Hyponym.