E & P NOTES AUTHORS
M. Hedi Acheche ⬃ ETAP, 27 Bis, Avenue
Ghadames basin, southern
Tunisia: A reappraisal of
Triassic reservoirs and
future prospectivity
M. Hedi Acheche, A. M’Rabet, H. Ghariani, A. Ouahchi,
and Scott L. Montgomery
ABSTRACT
Recent discoveries of oil and gas in Triassic reservoirs of the Ghada-
mes basin, eastern Algeria, suggest that similar potential exists to
the east, in the southern Tunisian part of the province. For decades,
southern Tunisia has remained an underexplored part of the basin,
in large part owing to older geological interpretations that focus on
Paleozoic reservoirs and to limitations in seismic data quality, re-
sulting from statics problems, that have rendered trap identification
inaccurate or tenuous. New analyses of previously and recently ac-
quired geological and geochemical data, as well as improvements in
seismic data acquisition and processing, have begun to reverse older
notions regarding limited hydrocarbon presence in southern Tuni-
sia. Log correlations indicate that productive, sand-rich intervals of
the major Triassic reservoir in the region, the Trias Argilo Greseux
Inferieur (TAGI), can be correlated over large distances, suggesting
significant continuity into lightly drilled and undrilled areas. Anal-
yses of geochemical data reveal a more complex, multistage history
of hydrocarbon maturation and migration than previously believed.
Much greater volumes of petroleum have been generated and a
larger variety of traps have been created than can be accounted for
by older interpretations. Where added to the use of new field and
processing parameters for seismic surveys, these factors have to-
gether led to important, upgraded evaluations of basin potential in
southern Tunisia.
INTRODUCTION
The recent history of petroleum exploration has depended greatly
on the reexamination of known hydrocarbon provinces in the light
Copyright 䉷2001. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
AAPG Bulletin, v. 85, no. 5 (May 2001), pp. 765–780
Kheireddine Pacha, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia;
acheche@etap.com.tn
Mohamed Hedi Acheche holds a B.Sc. degree in
applied geology (1984) from the University of
Tunis, Tunisia, and an M.Sc. degree in petroleum
geology (1986) from the Algerian Petroleum
Institute, Boumerdes, Algeria. He began work with
Entreprise Tunisienne d’Activités Pétrolières (ETAP)
in 1987 in the Department of Geochemistry, where
he was involved in a major regional project of
source rock characterization. In 1993, he joined the
Studies Division, where he participated in
multidisciplinary regional surveys. In 1995, he
transferred to the Exploration Department.
Currently, his main area of responsibility is the
assessment of prospects and plays in exploration
licenses, particularly in the southern and central
areas of Tunisia. His primary area of interest is
basin modeling.
A. M’Rabet ⬃ ETAP, 27 Bis, Avenue
Kheireddine Pacha, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia;
mrabet@etap.com.tn
Ali M’Rabet received his B.Sc. degree in geology
from the University of Tunis in 1972 and both his
M.Sc. degree (1975) and Ph.D. (1981), also in
geology, from the University of Paris, France. After
working as an associate lecturer at the French
Petroleum Institute, he served from 1981 to 1990
as professor of petroleum geology and head of the
Department of Geology at the University of Tunis.
During this period, he also acted as a petroleum
consultant in Tunisia for Elf, Conoco, Shell, and
ETAP. In 1991, M’Rabet joined ETAP as exploration
studies manager, becoming exploration manager in
1995 and, most recently, executive director for
exploration. M’Rabet has authored and coauthored
more than 100 publications, including three books.
His main research interest is the characterization of
carbonate reservoirs in North Africa, mainly in
Tunisia, Morroco, and Egypt. He served as vice
president of the International Association of
Sedimentology (1990–1998) and is a member of
SEPM (since 1975) and AAPG.
H. Ghariani ⬃ ETAP, 27 Bis, Avenue
Kheireddine Pacha, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia;
ghariani@etap.com.tn
Houcine Ghariani is a senior geophysicist at ETAP.
He graduated in 1987 from the National
Hydrocarbon Institute of Boumerdes, Algeria, with
a degree in geophysical science. He joined ETAP in
1989 and worked in seismic interpretation (two-
dimensional [2-D] and three dimensional [3-D])
765
 related to both onshore and offshore licenses and
fields in Tunisia. His work responsibilities have also
included evaluation of areas in Colombia, Syria,
Yemen, and Iraq. Ghariani is currently involved
with the acquisition, processing, and reprocessing
of 2-D and 3-D seismic data. He is a member in
good standing of the Society of Exploration
Geophysicists.
A. Ouahchi ⬃ ETAP, 27 Bis, Avenue
Kheireddine Pacha, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia
Abderrahmen Ouahchi received a B.Sc. degree
(1988) in applied geology and an M.Sc. degree
(1991) in basin analysis from the University of
Tunis. His background includes extensive study in
structural geology. He began his career as a
research fellow at the Geological Survey of Tunisia.
In 1993 he joined ETAP, where he was involved in
various projects dealing essentially with
hydrocarbon assessment of Tunisian basins. His
current projects include work on prospect and play
evaluation in the Exploration Division of ETAP.
Scott L. Montgomery ⬃ Petroleum
Consultant, 1511 18th Avenue East, Seattle,
Washington, 98112;
scott.montgomery@prodigy.net
Scott Montgomery is a petroleum consultant and
author. He received his B.A. degree in English from
Knox College in 1973 and his M.S. degree in
geological sciences from Cornell University in 1978.
He is widely published in the geosciences and since
1996 has been principal author of the E & P Notes
series in the AAPG Bulletin. His other publications
include seven books on topics in petroleum
geology, science education, and the history of
science, plus articles and monographs related to
frontier plays, new technologies, field studies, and
reservoir characterization.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank ETAP’s general management and scien-
tific commission for its permission to publish this
article. We also extend thanks to ETAP’s partners in
southern Tunisia for their kind cooperation. We
further extend our gratitude to R. Ghenima, H.
Troudi, and Dorsaf Kebaier for their essential com-
mentary and fruitful discussion.
766 Ghadames Basin (Tunisia)
of new technology, new forms of analysis, and new data. Basins once
deemed mature have since been shown to contain overlooked re-
serves, commonly of considerable volume. Improvements in the
quality and scope of relevant geoscientific information have led to
revised interpretations of hydrocarbon distribution and thus to the
rediscovery of specific basins as important targets for future drilling.
As a concept, “maturity” must commonly be viewed as relative to
the state of knowledge existing at any specific time.
The truth of these statements is well illustrated in the case of
the Ghadames basin of North Africa (Figure 1). Prior to the 1990s,
the Ghadames basin, encompassing parts of eastern Algeria, south-
ern Tunisia, and western Libya, was deemed to be an area whose
major phase of exploratory drilling had long past. Nearly all the 3.5
billion bbl of recoverable oil discovered in the basin by 1990 had
been found before 1965 (Van de Weerd and Ware, 1994; Echikh,
1998). New discoveries during the 1970s and 1980s were relatively
minor, leading many workers to assume the basin had been ma-
turely explored. A closer look, however, reveals that related drilling
tended to obey previously established fairways concentrated along
the structurally higher margins of the province in the vicinity of
basement uplifts. This has left a major part of the central basin area,
roughly 100,000 mi2 (260,000 km2) in size, essentially unexplored.
By one recent estimate, drilling density over this vast area is less
than five wells for every 3900 mi2 (10,000 km2) (MacGregor,
1998). The specific reasons why companies avoided this area in-
clude (1) lack of access and stable ground (much of the basin is
covered by active dunes of the Great Erg Oriental); (2) poor seismic
data quality, related to statics correction problems; and (3) previous
predictions that Paleozoic reservoirs would thin or shale out in the
deeper basin.
Within the past several years, these practical and conceptual
obstacles to further exploration have been removed by updated
study of the region, using modern engineering and geoscientific
analyses. Most of this new work has been focused in the eastern,
Algerian part of the basin (e.g., Van de Weerd and Ware, 1994;
Rudkiewicz et al., 1997; Scott et al., 1997), where Triassic sand-
stones form principal reservoir targets. Declining productivity in
many fields led to the active encouragement of new investment in
the province, with concessions granted to major and large indepen-
dent oil companies (Van de Weerd and Ware, 1994). This effort
succeeded in bringing about a new phase of drilling and related
investigation.
This new drilling has been based, more specifically, on signifi-
cant advances in several areas. These areas include (1) basin mod-
eling, (2) seismic acquisition and processing, (3) interpretation
of reservoir facies and architecture, (4) thermal modeling, and
(5) structural interpretation. Related work has shown the crucial
importance of maturation and migration histories to hydrocarbon
distribution. Improved, reliable seismic imaging of the subsurface
has more clearly defined existing structures and shifted attention
toward previously overlooked types of traps, for example, fault

traps, paleovalleys, and regional pinch-outs. Of special
importance is the newly appreciated role of faults as
migration pathways, controls on reservoir develop-
ment, and primary trapping mechanisms.
This article presents a brief summary of relevant
interpretation specific to Triassic reservoirs in southern
Tunisia. The reason for choosing this area is that it has
been generally overlooked by other recent discussions
on the Ghadames basin, which have tended to concen-
trate on eastern Algeria and, to a lesser extent, western
Libya (Van de Weerd and Ware, 1994; Rudkiewicz et
al., 1997). The Tunisian segment, however, which
contains most of the giant El Borma field (discovered
1964; reserves ⬎ 800 million bbl oil equivalent), con-
tains a significant number of previously untested or
lightly tested structures (Boote et al., 1998), as well as
considerable volumes of good quality reservoir rock
and mature source material. A selection of data on
which these and related interpretations are based are
presented in the following sections.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
Tectonic Setting
The Ghadames basin is an intracratonic depression en-
compassing more than 135,000 mi2 (350,000 km2) in
Figure 1. Regional map
showing location of the Ghada-
mes basin, North Africa. Basin
includes parts of eastern Alge-
ria, southern Tunisia, and west-
ern Libya.
the western part of North Africa (Figure 1). This basin
is one in a series of large- and medium-size basins that
exist within the Saharan platform, an early Paleozoic
passive margin stretching over 1000 mi (1600 km)
from Morocco to Egypt. This margin was affected by
multiple episodes of tectonism, including late Paleo-
zoic collision with Laurasia and subsequent early Me-
sozoic rifting associated with the opening of the Teth-
yan ocean. The cumulative result of such tectonism in
the area of the Ghadames basin is a series of fault-
bounded structural highs, with complex histories, sur-
rounding a central depression whose specific morphol-
ogy differs for sediments at different structural levels.
The regional structure map and north–south cross
section in Figure 2 illustrate the basic tectonic features
associated with the Ghadames basin. To the north and
east lie the Talemzane arch (Dahar-Naffusah high) and
Qarqaf uplift, respectively. The western margin of the
basin is marked by the prominent Amguid-El Biod
high, a highly faulted uplift trend with which many
large oil and gas fields are associated, including the
supergiant Hassi Messaoud (10.5 billion bbl oil equiv-
alent). On the south, the Ghadames is separated from
the neighboring Illizi basin by a series of more low-
relief uplifts (Tin Fouyé, Al Hamra, Tihemboka highs),
which have experienced a complex tectonic history in-
volving structural inversion (Alem et al., 1998; Echikh,
1998). All of these structural features have complex
Acheche et al. 767
Figure 2. (a) Regional
structure-contour map and
(b) cross section, Ghadames
basin. Selected major oil and
gas fields are indicated in part
a as dark (oil) and open (gas)
areas. Dominant productive
trends exist along the eastern
and northern sides of the basin.
Map is modified from Echikh
(1998).

histories, beginning in the late Precambrian Pan Afri- The map of Figure 2a has been adapted from
can orogeny and undergoing repeated reactivation dur- Echikh (1998), with contours drawn on top of the lat-
ing the Phanerozoic. est Ordovician to show basinal morphology for Paleo-

768 Ghadames Basin (Tunisia)

zoic deposits. As indicated on the accompanying cross
section (Figure 2b), the Paleozoic section, containing
regional source rocks of Silurian age, is separated from
overlying reservoir-bearing Mesozoic deposits by a ma-
jor unconformity of Hercynian (Permian–Carbonifer-
ous) age. This unconformity is a regional feature of the
Saharan platform, reflecting uplift and erosion associ-
ated with the collisional event between Gondwana and
Laurasia.
At least four major episodes of tectonism are re-
sponsible for the present-day architecture of the Gha-
dames basin. These episodes include (1) Caledonian
(Devonian), (2) Hercynian (Carboniferous), (3) Aus-
trian (Early Cretaceous), and (4) Pyrenean (Late
Cretaceous–late Eocene) orogenies. In most cases, later
episodes had the effect of reactivating older structures,
commonly through structural inversion. As a result,
traps of different ages, especially those formed early in
the history of the basin, are present throughout the
province.

Stratigraphy and Depositional History

Generalized stratigraphy for the southern Tunisian

part of the Ghadames basin is shown in Figure 3. The
total section is divided into five stratigraphic packages
on the basis of mapped regional unconformities, each
associated with an important phase of tectonic activity.
Cambrian and Ordovician deposits consist mostly of
nonmarine (mainly fluvial) sandstones overlain by
transgressive marine shales. Above the Taconian un-
conformity, the Early Silurian is represented by thick,
continuous, partly graptolitic marine shales of the
Tannezuft Formation, the major source interval of the
Saharan platform. This major transgressive episode
peaked during the Wenlockian stage, and the depo-
sition of black, organic-rich muds resulted in rich-
source rock material. Subsequent regression is re-
corded by overlying Acacus marine sandstones and
shales. The Acacus is truncated in the southeastern
part of the basin against the Caledonian unconfor-
mity, reflecting tectonism associated with collision
between west Africa and North America. Tectonic
movements during this period are responsible for ini-
tiating segregation of the Ghadames basin as a separate
structural–stratigraphic province.
Devonian deposits above the Caledonian unconfor-
mity include continental and shallow-marine sandstones
and shales of the Tadrart and Ouan Kasa formations,
respectively (Figure 3). Continued transgression led to
deposition of argillaceous marine sediments of the
Figure 3. Generalized stratigraphic chart, southern Tunisia.
Cont. ⳱ continental.
Aouinet Ouenine Group, also an important source in-
terval in the Ghadames basin. The overlying Late De-
vonian–Carboniferous shallow marine and deltaic sed-
iments reflect regression associated with the early and
main stages of collision between Gondwana and Laur-
asia. Known regionally as the Hercynian orogeny, this
episode peaked in the Carboniferous, resulting in re-
newed uplift over most of the Telemzane arch in the
northern part of the Ghadames basin. Subsequent ero-
sion and peneplanation of the Paleozoic series during
the Permian left a subcropping Paleozoic basin beneath
the resulting unconformity.
The degree of Hercynian truncation decreases
southward from the Talemzane arch (see Figure 2b).
Basal Triassic fluvial–deltaic deposits overlie Cambrian–
Ordovician units on the arch and Devonian–
Carboniferous units in the central basin area. Triassic

Acheche et al. 769

deposition in southern Tunisia was associated with sig-
nificant extensional deformation and the introduction
of volcanic material (Boudjema, 1987), related to
opening of the Tethyan seaway. En echelon normal
faulting and tilted horst blocks characterize southern
Tunisia, where faults exercised significant control over
depositional facies and thicknesses (Echikh, 1998).
The basal Triassic consists of an extensive, blanketlike
sequence of braided fluvial sheet sands and interbed-
ded shales of the Trias Argilo Greseux Inferieur
(TAGI), containing the highest quality reservoirs in the
northern Ghadames basin. The TAGI sandstones con-
sist of three main sand-rich intervals that are well doc-
umented in the El Borma area and can be correlated
on a regional basis. The TAGI is overlain, successively,
by transgressive marine shales and carbonate interbeds
of the Azizia Formation and regressive evaporites of
the Adjaj and Abreghs formations, which serve as in-
traformational markers and excellent regional seals
(Acheche et al., 2000). Evaporite deposits are domi-
nantly Jurassic in age and, despite reaching thicknesses
of hundreds of meters, have not been significantly in-
volved in halokinesis (Van de Weerd and Ware, 1994).
Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous rocks include
mainly nonmarine sediments capped by the regional
Austrian unconformity. This structure separates Lower
Cretaceous clastics from middle to upper Albian ma-
rine dolomites and succeeding lagoonal deposits. Aus-
trian tectonism resulted in significant reactivation of
preexisting fault trends, causing a combination of
structural inversion, folding, and remodeling of older,
Hercynian features (Echikh, 1998). A later tectonic
episode of Late Cretaceous–Eocene age (Pyrenean
event), linked to compression within the Atlas fold and
thrust belt, had mostly localized effects in the Ghada-
mes basin. This tectonic phase also remodeled older
features, though with reduced intensity.
HABITAT OF PETROLEUM IN SOUTHERN
TUNISIA
Recent data suggest the existence of several petroleum
systems in the southern Tunisian part of the Ghadames
basin; however, because insufficient information exists
at present to differentiate discrete families of oils (Dan-
iels and Emme, 1995; Boote et al., 1998), the desig-
nation of such systems must be considered generalized
and preliminary. For the purposes of this article, a Pa-
leozoic system and a Paleozoic–Mesozoic system are
proposed for introductory discussion. These systems are
770 Ghadames Basin (Tunisia)
designated Tannezuft–Acacus/Ouan Kasa (Paleozoic)
and Tannezuft/Aouinet Ouenine–TAGI (Paleozoic–
Mesozoic). These differ from the systems suggested by
Boote et al. (1998) mainly in the inclusion of Paleozoic
reservoirs, which have only very recently been identi-
fied as holding significant regional potential in Tunisia.
Basinwide, Devonian reservoirs are the most produc-
tive and widespread, particularly in Algeria and Libya.
This is not the case in southern Tunisia, where Triassic
and Silurian sandstones hold the majority of untapped
reserves (M’Rabet et al., 1997).
Major elements of both Paleozoic and Mesozoic
systems are indicated on the stratigraphic chart of Fig-
ure 3. Principal source intervals for both systems in-
clude organic-rich shales of the Tannezuft (Silurian)
and Aouet Ouenine (members III and IV, Devonian)
formations, which have total organic carbon (TOC)
values in the range of 2–17% in southern Tunisia. Pa-
leozoic reservoirs include sandstones of the Tadrart and
Ouan Kasa (Lower Devonian) and Acacus (Upper Si-
lurian) formations (Ghenima, 1993, 1995; Acheche et
al., 1999) and fractured quartzites of the Bir Ben Tartar
unit (Upper Ordovician). Seals for these reservoirs are
shales of Silurian and Devonian age.
Prior to the late 1990s, Paleozoic reservoirs in
southern Tunisia were largely overlooked or consid-
ered marginally productive. This was due to two main
factors, one related to geology, the other to technolog-
ical factors. Geologically, hydrocarbon potential in Pa-
leozoic rocks appeared low because of regional facies
changes: sand-rich continental and marginal marine de-
posits in the southern and central Ghadames basin
grade into more open-marine, shale-rich deposits in
the northern, Tunisian part of the province. Existing
seismic techniques, moreover, were unable to properly
identify or resolve hydrocarbon-bearing intervals
within the Paleozoic section. New drilling and reentry
of older wells, however, have recently identified and
confirmed significant bypassed reserves in low-resistiv-
ity Upper Silurian Acacus sands. Moreover, recent im-
provements in seismic data acquisition and processing
support reinterpretation of Paleozoic reservoirs as hav-
ing significant continuity into the northern basin area.
Such indications, coupled with the recent discoveries
at Hammouda and Nassim fields, strongly suggest that
systematic application of exploratory methods devel-
oped for low-resistivity sandstones could open signifi-
cant new plays in Tunisia (M’Rabet et al., 1997).
By far the greatest production to date has been
derived from the Mesozoic petroleum system, which
has reservoirs in fluvial sandstones of the TAGI For-
mation. These sandstones comprise the highest quality
and most continuous reservoirs in the northern Ghada-
mes basin and form the dominant producer in the
larger Tunisian fields, such as El Borma, Makhrouga,
Chouech, and Larich. Oil and gas in TAGI sandstones
are sealed by evaporites of the Upper Triassic–Lower
Jurassic Adjaj Formation.
Brief summaries of trapping situations and inter-
preted migration pathways in the Ghadames basin
have been presented by Echikh (1998), Boote et al.
(1998), Rudkiewicz et al. (1997), and Makhous et al.
(1997). A wide variety of traps exists, owing in large
part to the complex and multiphase deformational his-
tory. Structural traps are the most common and in-
clude (1) broad, low-relief anticlines of pre-Hercynian
(e.g., Caledonian) age, therefore affecting Paleozoic
reservoirs; (2) normal faults of Hercynian and Late
Triassic–Early Jurassic age; and (3) reverse faults and
flower structures of Austrian and Pyrenean ages. Strati-
graphic traps, however, result from updip pinch-out of
reservoir sandstones, truncation along the Hercynian
unconformity, and paleovalley fill. In addition, com-
bination traps involving facies changes over anticlines,
diagenetic traps, and hydrodynamic traps also exist.
Migration history is similarly interpreted to have been
complex and to have involved both local and long-
distance movement of hydrocarbons. Faulting and frac-
turing promoted vertical migration, particularly into
the Triassic TAGI, which once charged, provided a
high-quality lateral conduit for updip migration to the
southeast (Boote et al., 1998).
TRIASSIC TAGI RESERVOIR
In southern Tunisia, the TAGI includes repeated se-
quences of fine- to medium-grained fluvial sandstone
and shale ranging from 100 to 250 m in thickness
(Boudjema, 1987). The unit thins northward and
northwestward, undergoing a regional facies change to
more shaly lithologies along the flanks of the Telem-
zane arch before pinching out. Sandstones have a
sheetlike morphology and excellent regional continu-
ity. The TAGI is interpreted to represent deposition by
braided fluvial systems supplied by material shed from
surrounding paleohighs, including the Telemzane arch
to the north, the Dahar uplift to the west, and the El
Biod arch to the south (Figure 4). Drainage was largely
northeastward, into a fluvial deltaic system that devel-
oped between the Telemzane and Dahar uplifts (Fig-
ure 4). A major part of the total river network runs
through the southern Tunisian area of the Ghadames
basin and has important oil fields developed in the
main fluvial trend (Figure 4). Locally, TAGI aeolian
deposits may also have been developed.
Study of the TAGI at El Borma and other southern
Tunisia fields supports division of the interval into
three facies-related zones. These include an upper
Figure 4. Block diagram
showing generalized deposi-
tional setting for TAGI braided
fluvial deposits, southern Tuni-
sia and western Libya. These
deposits form the best quality
reservoirs in the northern
Ghadames basin. Modified from
Echikh (1998).
Acheche et al. 771
sand-rich zone, corresponding to braided stream dep-
osition; an underlying shale; and a basal sand–shale
zone that represents initial burial and sedimentary in-
filling of the remnant topography on the Hercynian
erosional surface.
For purposes of reservoir delineation, however,
further subdivision of this scheme has been performed
into five sandstone-bearing members, designated A–E
and separated by shales of varying thickness (Figure
5). Member A is overlain by shales and evaporitic do-
lomites of the lowermost Azizia Formation.
In general, reservoir quality and productivity tend
to be highest in the upper members: at El Borma, for
example, member A accounts for nearly 60% of re-
serves in place, member B accounts for an additional
20%, members C and D account for another 18%, and
member E accounts for about 2%. In other fields, only
the A members and, less commonly, the B members
are oil bearing. An exception is Chouech Saida field,
where reserves exist in member E.
The A member ranges from 4 to 30 m thick and
consists of fine- to medium-grained, well-sorted
quartzose sandstones that have thin interbedded
shales. Individual sandstones exhibit fining-upward
texture, with abundant cross-stratification and argil-
laceous or carbonate cementation. The A member
sandstones commonly have the highest reservoir qual-
ity in the TAGI interval, exhibiting porosities greater
than 24% and permeabilities of 300–1000 md.
The B member of the TAGI includes fine- to
medium-grained, moderately to well-sorted, glauco-
nitic sandstones with both horizontal and cross strat-
ification. Thicknesses of this member range from
10 to 31 m (33–102 ft). Porosities and permeabili-
ties range from 18 to 24% and 200 to 400 md,
respectively.
Members C and D contain very fine- to medium-
grained, moderately to well-sorted sandstones inter-
calated with thin shales. An increasing proportion of
siliceous cement exists in these rocks, compared to
sandstones of the A and B members. Porosities aver-
age 18%, and permeabilities average 100 md. At El
Borma, the C and D members are commonly
combined.
Member E consists of medium-grained sandstones
and interbedded shales with considerable lateral vari-
ation in facies and reservoir quality. Porosities and
permeabilities are lower than those in the C and D
members.
Recent analyses suggest that member E represents
filling of an incised paleovalley system associated with
772 Ghadames Basin (Tunisia)
Hercynian erosion, whereas overlying members indi-
cate cycles of rejuvenated fluvial deposition, possibly
associated with periods of basin subsidence (Scott et
al., 1997). Sandstone continuity and reservoir quality
are highest in the uppermost members, A and B, re-
flecting maximum development of braided fluvial sys-
tems. Regional log cross sections (Figure 6) suggest an
ability to trace individual members for considerable
distances across southern Tunisia, south of the Tel-
emzane arch. Such correlations indicate that the shale
intervals area is also continuous over large distances
and could therefore have acted as important, intrafor-
mational seals. Hydrocarbon saturations in TAGI res-
ervoirs are in the range of 70–80%. Oil gravities range
from 40 to 47⬚ API.
SOURCE ROCKS
Source rock studies and related investigations in the
Ghadames basin have identified the Silurian Tanne-
zuft and the middle part of the Devonian Aouinet
Ouenine as main source intervals for oils produced in
the Tunisian part of the province (Daniels and Emme,
1995; Ghenima, 1995; Makhous et al., 1997).
Tannezuft shales have remarkable lateral extent
within the Saharan platform and have acted as source
rocks in basins extending from Morocco to Libya.
These shales range from 300 to 400 m thick, with the
lower 20–100 m comprising the most organically rich
part. The TOC values in this lower part range from 2
to 17%. Hydrogen indices are 250–450 mg hydrocar-
bons (HC)/g TOC, indicating type II kerogen.
Devonian source rocks are concentrated in the
Frasnian–Fammenian part of the section, encompass-
ing the Aouinet Ouenine members III and IV (see Fig-
ure 3). The entire interval combining these two mem-
bers can be as much as 400 m thick. The TOC values
range from 1 to 12%, with higher values mainly con-
centrated in member III and the lower part of member
IV. Type 2 kerogen is also indicated for these rocks,
in which hydrogen indices range from 350 to 700 mg
HC/g TOC, suggesting excellent generative potential.
Geochemical analyses of biomarker and isotope
extract data have shown a very high degree of simi-
larity between Tannezuft and Aouinet Ouenine
sources (Daniels and Emme, 1995). Such results have
made it very difficult to differentiate the specific con-
tribution of each source to produced oils. The most
significant differences observed to date lie in the areas
of regional distribution and thermal maturity.
Figure 5. Type log, Middle Triassic TAGI reservoir interval, El Borma field.

Acheche et al. 773

Figure 6. Regional east–west log cross section, TAGI interval, southern Tunisia, showing correlation of individual member units.
HYDROCARBON GENERATION AND
EXPULSION
A combination of geochemical and stratigraphic data
has been used to estimate maturity levels in the noted
source intervals and to model hydrocarbon generation
in the northern Ghadames basin.
Figures 7 and 8 present maturity maps for Tanne-
zuft and Aouinet Ouenine (III and IV) shales and also
show pinch-out trends for these rocks. The two maps
are based on equivalent vitrinite reflectance data, de-
rived from basin modeling analyses, and suggest divi-
sion of southern Tunisia into several maturity zones
respective to each source. Both maps (Figures 7, 8)
indicate that maturity levels increase to the south-
southwest. Silurian source rocks are interpreted to
range from mature (oil) to overmature (gas-generat-
ing) throughout the whole of the area south of the
Telemzane arch, whose upper flanks are marked by
the Tannezuft erosional limit (see Figure 7). Devonian
shales pinch out approximately 85 km south of the
Tannezuft limit and reach maturity only in the vicin-
ity of Chouech field and in southernmost Tunisia.
774 Ghadames Basin (Tunisia)
To estimate the main periods of hydrocarbon
generation and expulsion, a series of kinetic sim-
ulations was run, and the results integrated with
data from burial history curves for wells in se-
lected areas of southern Tunisia. Thermal history
reconstructions were based on both fixed and vari-
able heat flow to encompass observed present-day
maturity indicators.
Information from these investigations is presented
on the maps of Figures 9 and 10, showing interpreted
distribution of peak oil generation in space and time
for Tannezuft and Aouinet Ouenine source rocks. As
with the maturity data of Figures 7 and 8, a fairly
distinct zonation is evident, reflecting changing pat-
terns of subsidence and uplift between the Telemzane
arch in the north and the central Ghadames basin in
the south. In general, oil generation migrated with
time outward from the basin center. Maturation his-
tory in the northern Ghadames basin is therefore in-
terpreted to be more complex than in previous stud-
ies, which postulated two main phases of petroleum
generation occurring in the late Paleozoic and early–
middle Mesozoic.
Figure 7. Map showing maturity equivalent in vitrinite reflec-
tance (present day), Silurian Tannezuft shales, northern Ghad-
ames basin.
Based on the interpretation of Figure 9, early mat-
uration of Tannezuft shales in southernmost Tunisia
and eastern Algeria occurred as a result of initial Her-
cynian (Mississippian) subsidence. This episode led to
the development of up to 3500 m of overburden, with
only minor subsequent uplift during the peak of Her-
cynian deformation. In contrast, the El Borma-Larich
area located along the flank of the Telemzane arch un-
derwent recurrent uplift between the Carboniferous–
Permian and the Jurassic, achieving depths of burial
adequate for peak hydrocarbon generation only follow-
ing middle–Late Cretaceous subsidence. Devonian
source rocks lie approximately 1500 m higher in the
section and were thus not buried deeply enough in the
central basin until the Mesozoic.
MIGRATION
Migration pathways interpreted for the southern Tu-
nisian part of the Ghadames basin are shown on the
Figure 8. Map showing maturity equivalent in vitrinite reflec-
tance (present day), Devonian Aouinet Ouenine shales (mem-
bers III and IV), northern Ghadames basin. Shading in accor-
dance with legend in Figure 7.
cross section of Figure 11. Vertical migration is be-
lieved to have occurred through a combination of fault
conduits and expulsion from Tannezuft source rocks
into immediately overlying Acacus sandstones. Fault
migration appears especially significant with regard to
accumulations above the Acacus. Mesozoic-age faults,
that may in part represent reactivated Paleozoic or Pre-
cambrian structures, are known to penetrate the Her-
cynian unconformity and terminate within or below
Upper Triassic–Lower Jurassic evaporites. These are
excellent candidates for having acted as conduits into
in the Triassic TAGI sandstones.
Lateral updip migration within the TAGI would
have occurred within the basal part of the formation
above the Hercynian unconformity. We interpret that
hydrocarbons arrived in the lower TAGI by means of
vertical fault-related pathways or through westward
migration within Paleozoic carrier beds. A model based
Acheche et al. 775
 Figure 10. Map of the timing of peak oil generation, Devonian
Figure 9. Map of the timing of peak oil generation, Silurian Aouinet Ouenine (members III and IV) source rocks, northern
Tannezuft source rocks, northern Ghadames basin. Ghadames basin.

Figure 11. Proposed migra-

tion pathways and trapping sit-
uations, southern Tunisia,
Ghadames basin. Note that
traps are generalized and are
not meant to represent the spe-
cific situations of the various
fields.

776 Ghadames Basin (Tunisia)

entirely, or mainly, on vertical migration into the TAGI
would suggest that only the Silurian source could have
charged traps in the northernmost part of the basin,
approximately between the upper flanks of the Telem-
zane arch and Ech-Chouech field. The contribution
from Devonian sources would be limited to areas south
of Ech-Chouech, that is, the erosional limit of the rele-
vant Aouinet Ouenine shales (see Figure 8). Long-
distance migration within the lower TAGI took place
to the south-southeast.
In addition, Figure 11 suggests expulsion of oil into
Paleozoic sandstones proximal to Silurian and Devo-
nian source rocks. Updip migration within these car-
riers might then have led to entrapment along the seal-
ing parts of faults, beneath the Taconian unconformity,
or in areas of porosity/facies pinch-out.
The interpreted combination of local and long-
distance migration should be viewed in conjunction
with the very large volumes of petroleum that are es-
timated to have been generated in the basin. Daniels
and Emme (1995), for example, on the basis of source
rock volume and thermal history data have calculated
2100 billion bbl oil generated for the Algerian part of
the Ghadames. Simple correlations based on this data
suggest at least an additional 500–800 billion bbl oil
generated within the southern Tunisian part of the ba-
sin. This suggests a large untapped resource in this area.
Extensive loss and degradation of hydrocarbons
would have been largely confined to the later stages of
Hercynian deformation and subsequent early Mesozoic
faulting. Hercynian uplift is known to have caused ero-
sional unroofing of Paleozoic units around the margins
of the basin, whereas Triassic–Early Jurassic faulting
likely resulted in the breaching of many surviving ac-
cumulations. It should be emphasized, however, that
these considerations apply only to oils generated in the
pre–Middle Jurassic (see Figure 9). Volumetrically, the
greater part of the Silurian Tannezuft attained peak oil
generation in the Middle Jurassic to lower Tertiary,
with a regional peak interpreted for the middle–Late
Cretaceous (Boote et al., 1998). Such indications sup-
port the conclusion that large volumes of hydrocarbons
remain undiscovered in the northern basin and are
likely to occupy a variety of different trapping
situations.
ENTRAPMENT
Structural, stratigraphic, and combination traps are
proposed for the northern Ghadames basin. Most
structural traps are interpreted to be fault related (see
Figure 11). Like other basins of the Saharan platform,
the Ghadames was formed mainly in the Hercynian
and underwent significant, but commonly localized
modification thereafter: most structures with entrap-
ment possibilities in the Tunisian part of the basin are
due to vertical and high-angle movements caused by
Hercynian compression/transpression and Triassic–
Jurassic extension.
The various trapping situations depicted in Figure
11 are generalized from situations observed in El
Borma, Larich, Sanrhar, Oued Zar, Chouech, and
other Tunisian fields. Entrapment occurs in arched
TAGI sandstones associated with Triassic (or Triassic-
rejuvenated) faults, and in TAGI and Acacus sand-
stones with updip fault truncation. It should be noted
that Paleozoic formations dip southward, whereas the
Triassic TAGI dips to the west-northwest. Fault-
related folds in the Triassic section have low relief and
commonly exhibit asymmetry possibly related to late-
stage Tertiary tilting.
Accurate trap identification has been limited in
this area because of uncertainties in velocity modeling
and seismic interpretation caused by statics correction
problems. Such problems have been tied to a combi-
nation of thick, unconsolidated (active dune) sands at
the surface and, more importantly, variable interval ve-
locities within the Mesozoic section related to the pres-
ence of evaporitic units. Most dry holes drilled in re-
cent years appear to have been located on prospects
corresponding to virtual structures, namely, seismic
artifacts.
Attempts are being made in several domains to im-
prove seismic resolution. On the acquisition side, op-
erators have sought to optimize field parameters to
maximize subsurface coverage, increase fold, and en-
hance both short- and long-period statics. Related ef-
forts have included increased source power, increased
maximum offset, use of wide-line geometry, and po-
sitioning of traces close to the source. Processing and
reprocessing work has attempted to upgrade fault im-
aging and vertical resolution. Different approaches are
being used: in addition to the focus on statics correc-
tion, operators have successfully employed refraction
methods in conjunction with well data to create reli-
able velocity models.
Improvements in seismic data quality have in-
creased the accuracy involved in trap identification. An
example is shown in Figure 12. The seismic line runs
over a prospect in TAGI sandstones, with three-way
closure created by broad, fault-related arching of the
Acheche et al. 777
Triassic. The line indicates the relative subtlety of
structural disturbance typical of upper Paleozoic and
younger deposits in the northern Ghadames basin. The
trap shown is significant in size. Traps of this type are
known to be productive at several fields.
A second line that has benefited from data repro-
cessing is given in Figure 13. This section represents a
low-relief, asymmetric structure at the Triassic (TAGI)
level that has four-way closure (between shotpoints
350 and 500) but is small in size and difficult to map
precisely. It appears associated with a fault of probable
Hercynian age that underwent later (Mesozoic) reju-
venation. Angular truncation beneath the Hercynian
unconformity is evident. Its location is significantly
south of the flanks of the Telemzane arch, as witnessed
by the greatly increased thickness of the Paleozoic sec-
tion (compare Figures 12, 13), including the presence
of the Aouinet Ouenine interval, immediately above
the Ouan Kasa. Potential source rocks of the Aouinet
Ouenine exist immediately below the Hercynian un-
conformity in this area, suggesting the possibility of
stratigraphic entrapment as well.
A third type of structural trap, newly identified as
a result of improved seismic resolution, is shown in
Figure 14. The prospect in this case lies within a graben
feature and is defined by closure of northward-dipping
TAGI sandstones against a smaller, subsidiary fault. In-
creased dip within the TAGI is related to displacement
along the northern boundary fault, whereas sandstone
Figure 12. Two-dimensional
seismic line over a prospect in
southern Tunisia, showing high-
angle fault geometry and fault-
related closure at the TAGI (Tri-
assic) level. The data indicate
broad arching of the Triassic,
making for a sizable trap. More
pronounced deformation is evi-
dent at the Ordovician level.
Faults are shown in white.
778 Ghadames Basin (Tunisia)
position reaches a structural maximum in the hanging
wall of the subsidiary fault. The prospect is enhanced
by two other factors: (1) increased sandstone devel-
opment within the graben, whose early stages of for-
mation were coeval with TAGI deposition; and
(2) fault penetration of both Aouinet Ouenine and
Tannezuft source rocks, thus providing local migration
conduits.
Figure 14 represents a significant addition to delin-
eated trap types in the northern Ghadames basin. In
addition, drilling along the updip parts of the Telem-
zane arch, at Sabria and El Franig for example, point
to the possibility of small but important accumulations
where either Silurian source rocks or Cambrian–
Ordovician reservoirs occur in fault closure against the
Hercynian unconformity (Hammill and Robinson,
1992). A suggestion from these discoveries is that the
unconformity is sealing where the subcropping lithol-
ogy is sandstone, but leaky (e.g., into overlying TAGI
sands) where shales are present.
Stratigraphic entrapment in the northern Ghada-
mes basin has not been systematically pursued as a ba-
sis for exploration. Several discreet possibilities exist
for moderate- to large-scale accumulations. One of
these involves regional pinch-out of reservoir-quality
TAGI sandstones, which undergo a facies change to
more shaly lithologies along the southern flank of the
Telemzane arch. Another possibility exists in lateral
pinch-out of reservoir facies within incised paleovalley
Figure 13. Two-dimensional
seismic line, showing angular
truncation at the Hercynian un-
conformity and closure at the
Triassic TAGI level, possibly re-
lated to deeper faulting. Fault
shown in white.

Figure 14. North-south–

oriented seismic line, illustrating
a Triassic TAGI prospect in a
graben feature. The prospect
consists of updip closure
against a subsidiary fault. Faults
shown in black.

Acheche et al. 779

systems, which are known to be present in the TAGI.
Delineation of such valley systems also depends upon
improved seismic data quality and integration with
geological information derived from recent and his-
torical wells.
CONCLUSIONS
Despite decades of local drilling and discovery, the
Ghadames basin of northern Africa remains an under-
evaluated hydrocarbon province. This is especially true
of the northern, Tunisian part of the basin. Vast areas
in this part of the province remain unexplored. No
three-dimensional seismic surveys have been per-
formed. Petroleum systems are characterized at a pre-
liminary level only. Detailed reservoir and geochemical
studies have been conducted in only a few productive
areas. Difficulties in seismic interpretation have hin-
dered the adequate delineation of traps in many cases.
This general situation is now changing. Improve-
ments in data quality and collection, as well as more
systematic analyses, are underway. This work, kindled
by recent exploration successes in eastern Algeria, sug-
gests that good exploratory potential continues into
large parts of southern Tunisia. High-quality reservoirs
of Triassic age (TAGI) have considerable thickness,
sand quality, and regional continuity in this part of the
basin. New studies of maturation and migration history
strengthen the interpretation that enormous volumes
of petroleum have been generated in the basin, with
widespread charging of reservoirs and preservation of
many accumulations. Adjustments in the acquisition
and processing of seismic information have consider-
ably advanced data quality in this area and have yielded
two important results: (1) more accurate identification
of traps; and (2) increased awareness of a greater di-
versity of trap types than previously believed.
Such developments underline the possibility of ex-
ploration opportunities in southern Tunisia. Reservoirs
exist at shallow to moderate depths, and any future
production is supported by significant pipeline and
processing infrastructure. Only new drilling, based on
improved data, will confirm or constrain the large po-
tential for discovery that now lies beneath the sands of
this region.
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