The document provides an overview of metrology and measurement. It defines metrology as the science of measurement and discusses its key elements including standards, workpieces, instruments, personnel, environment, and errors in measurement. Accuracy is defined as how closely a measurement agrees with the true value, while precision refers to the consistency of measurements under identical conditions. Factors like the standard used, workpiece, instrument characteristics, personnel skills, and environment can all affect the precision and accuracy of measurements.
The document provides an overview of metrology and measurement. It defines metrology as the science of measurement and discusses its key elements including standards, workpieces, instruments, personnel, environment, and errors in measurement. Accuracy is defined as how closely a measurement agrees with the true value, while precision refers to the consistency of measurements under identical conditions. Factors like the standard used, workpiece, instrument characteristics, personnel skills, and environment can all affect the precision and accuracy of measurements.
The document provides an overview of metrology and measurement. It defines metrology as the science of measurement and discusses its key elements including standards, workpieces, instruments, personnel, environment, and errors in measurement. Accuracy is defined as how closely a measurement agrees with the true value, while precision refers to the consistency of measurements under identical conditions. Factors like the standard used, workpiece, instrument characteristics, personnel skills, and environment can all affect the precision and accuracy of measurements.
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Definitions • The word metrology is derived from two Greek words Metro=measurement Logy=science Thus metrology is the science of measurement Metrology is the field of knowledge concerned with measurement and includes both theoretical and practical problems with reference to measurement. Metrology is the science of weights and measures Metrology is the process of making precise measurements of the relative positions and orientations of different optical and mechanical components Metrology is the science concerned with the establishment, reproduction, conversion and transfer of units of measurement and their standards Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Need of Inspection • To ensure the material, parts and components conform to the established standards • To meet the interchangeability of manufacture • To provide the means of finding the problem area for meeting the established standards • To produce the parts having acceptable quality levels with reduced scrap and wastage • To purchase good quality of raw materials, tools and equipment that govern the quality of finished products • To take necessary efforts to measure and reduce the rejection percentage • To judge the possibility of rework of defective parts Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Elements of Metrology • Standard • The most basic element of measurement is standard without which no measurement is possible. • Standard is a physical representation of unit of measurement. • Different standards have been developed for various units including fundamental units as well as derived units. • Workpiece • Workpiece is the object to be measured/measured part • Variations in geometry and surface finish of the measured part directly affect measuring system’s repeatability • Compressible materials like plastic or nylons pose a different type of problem that any gauge pressure will distort the material. This can be avoided by fixing of gauging pressure as suggested by the industry so that everyone will get uniform results Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Instruments • Instrument is a device with the help of which the measurement can be done • The instrument must be selected based on the tolerance of the parts to be measured, the type of environment and the skill level of operators • It should be remembered that what type of instruments the customer prefer to measure. • Person • There must be some person or mechanism to carryout the measurement • Modern gauges are increasingly easy to use but the failure to adequately train the operating personnel will lead a poor performance
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Standard • The measurement should be performed under standard environment • Temperature, dirt, humidity and vibration are the four environmental factors that influence measurement. • Vernier scale division of vernier caliper always changes when the measurement process is carried for ‘n’ number of times for the same dimension. The environment is indirectly related to temperature, humidity, conditioning etc.,
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Elements of Generalized Measurement System
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Primary sensing element • The primary sensing element receives signal of the physical quantity to be measured as input. • It converts the signal to a suitable form (electrical, mechanical or other form), so that it becomes easier for other elements of the measurement system, to either convert or manipulate it. • Variable Conversion Element: • Variable conversion element converts the output of the primary sensing element to a more suitable form. It is used only if necessary. • Variable Manipulation Element: • Variable manipulation element manipulates and amplifies the output of the variable conversion element. It also removes noise (if present) in the signal. Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Data Processing Element: • It processes the data signal received from the variable manipulation element and produces suitable output. • Data processing element may also be used to compare the measured value with a standard value to produce required output. Data Transmission System: • Data Transmission System is simply used for transmitting data from one element to another. • It acts as a communication link between different elements of the measurement system. • Some of the data transmission elements used are cables, wireless antennae, transducers, telemetry systems etc. • Data Presentation Element: • It is used to present the measured physical quantity in a human readable form to the observer. • It receives processed signal from data processing element and presents the data in a human readable form. • LED displays are most commonly used as data presentation elements in many measurement systems. Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology The liquid or gas filled temperature bulb acts as primary sensing element and variable conversion element. It senses the input quantity(temperature) and converts it into a pressure built up within the bulb. This pressure is transmitted through the capillary tube (which acts as data transmission element) to a spiral bourdon type pressure gauge. Bourdon tube acts as a variable conversion element which converts the pressure into displacement. The displacement is manipulated as a variable manipulation element. The pointer and scale indicate the temperature, thus serving as data presentation elements. Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Accuracy: Accuracy may be defined as the ability of an instrument to respond to a true value of measured variable under the reference conditions. It refers how closely the measured value agrees with the true value. The difference between the measured value and the true value is know as Error of measurement. Precision: Precision may be defined as the degree of exactness for which an instrument is designed or intended to perform. It refers the repeatability or consistency of measurement when the measurements are carried out under identical conditions Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Effects of elements of metrology on Precision and Accuracy • Factors affecting the standard of measurement • Coefficient of thermal expansion • Elastic properties of a material • Stability with time • Calibration interval • Geometric compatibility • Factors affecting the workpiece to be measured • Coefficient of thermal expansion of material • Elastic properties of a material • Cleanliness, surface finish, surface defects such as scratches, waviness etc., • Adequate datum on the workpiece • Thermal equalization Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Factors affecting the characteristics of an instrument • Scale error • Repeatability and readability • Calibration errors • Effect of friction, zero drift, backlash etc., • Inadequate amplification • Deformation when heavy workpieces are measured • Constant geometry for both workpiece and standard. • Factors affecting person • Training/skill • Ability to select the measuring instruments and standard • attitude towards accuracy • Planning measurement techniques for minimum cost, consistent with precision requirements etc.
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Factors affecting environment • Temperature, humidity, atmosphere, pressure etc., • Clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision • Temperature equalization between standard, workpiece and instrument. • Thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights, heating elements, sunlight and people. • Manual handling may also introduce thermal expansion.
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Errors in Measurement • An error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and the actual value • True value may be defined as the average value of an infinite number of measured values • Measured value can be defined as the estimated value of true value that can be found by taking several values during an experiment. • Error in measurement=Measured value-True value The Errors in measurement can be expressed either as an absolute or relative error
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Absolute Error: Absolute error is the algebraic difference between the measured value and the true value of the quantity measured. It is further sub divided into • True absolute error • The algebraic difference between the measured average value and the conventional true value of the quantity measured is called true absolute error • Apparent Absolute error • While taking the series of measurement, the algebraic difference between one of the measured values of the series of measurement and the arithmetic mean of all measured values in the same series is called apparent absolute error. • Relative Error: It results as the results of the absolute error and the value of comparison used for the calculation of absolute error. • Absolute error=True value-Measured Value=300-280=20 units • Relative error=Absolute error/Measured value=20/300=0.06=6% Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Types of Errors in Measurement system
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Gross Errors • Gross errors are caused by mistakes in using instruments, calculating measurements and recording data results. • Eg: The operator or person reads the pressure gauge reading as 1.10 N/m2 instead of 1.01 N/m2 • This may be the reason for gross errors in the reported data and such error may end up in calculation of the final results, thus producing deviated results. • Blunders • Blunders are caused by faulty recording or due to a wrong value while recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit while reading a scale.
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Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Measurement Error • The measurement error is the result of the variation of a measurement of the true value. • The best example of the measurement error is, if electronic scales are loaded with 1kg standard weight and the reading is 1002grams, then • The measurement error is = (1002grams-1000grams) =2grams • Measurement Errors are classified into two types: systematic error and random errors Systematic error • The errors that occur due to fault in the measuring device are known as systematic errors. • These errors can be detached by correcting the measurement device. • These errors may be classified into different categories. • Instrumental Errors • Environmental Errors • Observational Errors • Theoretical Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Instrumental Errors • Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction of the measuring instruments. • These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction. • In order to reduce these errors in measurement, different correction factors must be applied and in the extreme condition instrument must be recalibrated carefully. Environmental Errors • The environmental errors occur due to some external conditions of the instrument. • External conditions mainly include pressure, temperature, humidity or due to magnetic fields. • To reduce the environmental errors • Try to maintain the humidity and temperature constant in the laboratory by making some arrangements. • Ensure that there shall not be any external electrostatic or magnetic field around the instrument. Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Observational Errors • As the name suggests, these types of errors occurs due to wrong observations or reading in the instruments particularly in case of energy meter reading. • The wrong observations may be due to PARALLAX. • In order to reduce the PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are needed: meters provided with mirror scales. Theoretical Errors • Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model system. For example, a theory states that the temperature of the system surrounding will not change the readings taken when it actually does, then this factor will begin a source of error in measurement. Random Errors • These are errors due to unknown causes and they occur even when all systematic errors have been accounted. • These are caused by any factors that randomly affect the measurement of the variable across the sample. • Such errors are normally Preparedsmall and by, S.David follows Blessley AP/MECH, the laws of probability. Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Methods of Measurement • Direct method • In this method, the quantity to be measured is directly compared with the primary or secondary standard. • This method is widely employed in production field. • In this method, a very slight difference exists between the actual and the measured values because of the limitation of the human being performing the measurement. • Indirect method • In this method, the value of quantity is obtained by measuring other quantities that are functionally related to the required value. • Measurement of the quantity is carried out directly and then the value is determined by using a mathematical relationship. • Eg: angle measurement using sine bar Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Fundamental or absolute method • In this method, the measurement is based on the measurements of base quantities used to define the quantity. • The quantity under consideration is directly measured and is then linked with the definition of that quantity. • Comparative method • The quantity to be measured is compared with the known value of the same quantity or any other quantity practically related to it. • The quantity is compared with the master gauge and only the deviations from the master gauge are recorded after comparison. • Eg. Dial indicators
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Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Transposition method • This method involves making the measurement by direct comparison wherein the quantity to be measured(V) is initially balanced by a known value (X) of the same quantity. Then, ‘X’ is replaced by the quantity to be measured and balanced again by another known value (Y). If the quantity to be measured is equal to both X and Y, then • V= 𝑋𝑌 • Eg. Determination of mass by balancing methods • Coincidence methods • In this method, a very minute difference between the quantity to be measured and the reference is determined by careful observation of certain lines and signals • Eg: Vernier caliper
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Deflection method • This method involves the indication of the value of the quantity to be measured by deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale. • Eg. Pressure measurement • Null measurement method • In this method, the difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the known value of the same quantity with which comparison is to be made is brought to be zero. • Substitution method • This method involves the replacement of the value of the quantity to be measured with a known value of the same quantity, so selected that the effects produced in the indicating device by these two values are the same.
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Contact method • In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the sensor or measuring tip of the instrument. • Eg. Micrometer, Vernier calliper and dial indicator • Contactless method • As the name indicates, there is no direct contact with the surface to be measured • Eg. Tool makers microscope, profile projector • Composite method • The actual contour of a component to be checked is compared with its maximum and minimum tolerance limits. • Cumulative errors of the interconnected elements of the component which are controlled through a combined tolerance can be checked by this method. • This method is very reliable to ensure interchangeability and is effected throughPrepared theby,use of composite GO gauges. S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology General characteristics in metrology Sensitivity: It is the ratio of the magnitude of output signal to the magnitude of input signal. It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds. Sensitivity=(Infinitesimal change of output signal)/(Infinitesimal change of input signal)
If the input-output relation is linear, the sensitivity will be constant
for all values of input. If the instrument is having non-linear static characteristics, the sensitivity of the instrument depends on the value of the input quantity. Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Hysteresis: All the energy put into the stressed component when loaded is not recovered upon unloading. Hence, the output of a measurement system will partly depend on its previous input signals and this is called as hysteresis. Range: It is the minimum and maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure/ The region between which the instrument is to operate is called range. Range = Lower Calibration Value – Higher Calibration Value = Lc to Hc Span: It is the algebraic difference between higher calibration value and lower calibration value. Span = Hc - Lc Ex: If the range of an instrument is 100̊ C to 150̊ C, its span is 150̊ C – 100̊ C = 50̊ C Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Response Time: It is the time which elapses after a sudden change in the measured quantity, until the instrument gives an indication differing from the true value by an amount less than a given permissible error. Speed of response of a measuring instrument is defined as the quickness with which an instrument responds to a change in input signal. Repeatability: It is the ability of the measuring instrument to give the same value every time the measurement of a given quantity is repeated. It is the closeness between successive measurements of the same quantity with the same instrument by the same operator over a short span of time, with same value of input under same operating conditions.
Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Stability: The ability of a measuring instrument to retain its calibration over a long period of time is called stability. It determines an instruments consistency over time. Backlash: Maximum distance through which one part of an instrument may be moved without disturbing the other part. Accuracy: The degree of closeness of a measurement compared to the expected value is known as accuracy. Precision: A measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement. i.e. successive reading does not differ. The ability of an instrument to reproduce its readings again and again in the same manner for a constant input signal. Magnification: Human limitations or incapability to read instruments places limit on sensitiveness of instruments. Magnification of the signal from measuring instrument can make it better readable.
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Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Resolution: Minimum value of input signal required to cause an appreciable change or an increment in the output is called resolution/ Minimum value that can be measured when the instrument is gradually increased from non-zero value. Error: The deviation of the true value from the desired value is called error. Drift: The variation of change in output for a given input over a period of time is known as drift. Threshold: Minimum value of input below which no output can be appeared is known as threshold. Reliability: Reliability may be explicitly defined as the probability that a system will perform satisfactory for at least a given period of time when used under stated conditions. The reliability function is thus same probability expressed as a function of the time period.
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Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Standards Types of standards • Line standard • Standard yard • Standard metre • End standard • End bar • Slip gauges • Wavelength standard
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Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Line standard The measurement of distance may be made between two parallel lines or two surfaces. When a length is measured between as the distance between centres of two engraved lines, it is called line standard Standard yard
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Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology • Yard is made of a one inch square cross section bronze bar and is 38 inches long • The bar has a round recess (gold plug) of 0.5 inches diameter and 0.5 inches deep. The gold plug is 1 inch away from both the ends • The highly polished top surfaces of these plugs contain three transversely and two longitudinally engraved lines lying on the neutral axis • The yard is the distance between two central transverse lines on the plugs when the temperature of the bar is constant at 62OF • To protect the gold plug from accidental damage, it is kept at the neutral axis as the neutral axis remains unaffected even if the bar bends
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Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Standard metre • The metre is the distance between the centre portions of two lines engraved on the polished surface of bar made up of platinum (90%) and iridium (10%) having a unique cross section • The web section gives maximum rigidity and economy in the use of costly material • The upper surface of the web is inoxidizable and needs a good finish for quality measurement • the bar is kept at 0OC and under normal atmospheric pressure. Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology End standard The need of an end standard arises as the use of line standards and their copies was difficult at various places in workshops These are usually in the form of end bars and slip gauges • End bar • End bars made of steel having cylindrical section of 22.2 mm diameter with the faces lapped and hardened at the ends are available in various lengths. • Flat and parallel faced end bars are firmly used as the most practical end standard used for measurement. • These are used for measurement of larger sizes • Slip gauges • Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of hardened and stabilized high grade cast steel • The length of a slip gauge is strictly the dimension which it measures • The blocks after being manufactured are hardened to resist wear and are allowed to stabilize to release internal stresses • A combination of slip gauges enables the measurements to be made in the range of 0.0025mm to 100mm but in combinations with end bars, the measurement range upto 1200mm is possible. Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology Wavelength standards • Line and end standards are physical standards and are made up of materials that can change their size with temperature and other environmental conditions • In search for such suitable unit of length, wave length source is established • Laser is used as primary level wavelength standard • According to this standard, a metre is defined as equal to 1650763.73 wavelength of the red orange radiation of krypton isotope gas 1 metre =1650763.73 wavelengths 1 yard =0.9144m =0.9144x1650763.73 =1509458.3 wavelength. Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology