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Child Development

Table of Contents
1 Social and Emotional Development in Children
2 Nature and Nurture Debate
3 Bowlby Attachment Theory
3.1 Childhood Temperament

4 Zone Of Proximal Development

5 Theory of Cognitive Development
6 Theory of Moral Development
7 Ecological Systems Theory
8 Erikson’s Psychosocial Model
9 Self-Concept Theory

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 1 Social and Emotional Development in
Children
From Infanthood to Adolescence

Children are a very interesting age group to study on and in fact, many psychology
theories are focused on them. Because it is in the childhood days that skills are
developed and the manner by which we respond to new challenges or various
situations, we can say that social and emotional development in children are full of
complexities.

Some children can easily adapt to changes in their environment, like a new food, a new
person or a new event in their life. This type of children are said to be having routine biological
cycles like eating at the same hour every day. On the other hand, other children may
negatively respond to shifts in their life, and may have irregular biological patterns. Other
children are caught in between and may respond neutrally over a situation or a change in their
environment. Since there are different types of children, it is really necessary to get to know
the social and emotional development of children across the life span.

1. At 9-18 Months of Age

Children aged 9 months want to be with their parents or primary caregivers all the time. They
become very anxious and may cry out loud when they get separated from their parents.
Throwing temper tantrums and hard-to-stop cries are just a few hallmarks at this age.

2. At 18 Months-2 Years of Age

Children at this age begin to try things on their own, but still want to be with their parents at
most times. They start to have a sense of gender identity, meaning girls feel that they are
girls, and start to play with toys meant for girls. Same goes with the boys.

3. At 2-3 Years of Age

Children at this age tries some risky behavior and may even violate some rules, as if they are
very curious on what will happen after breaking

This age is the peak of the child’s imagination as he becomes more interested in fantasy play,
and may even have imaginary friends. When children the rules of their parents. When offered

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something, like a food or a toy, they may say “No” so frequently that parents may get
impatient. Throwing tantrums is very normal at this age, but setting proper limits would lessen
the tendency of temper tantrums. Some children like to be engaged in active play, while
others don’t want to share their toys with other kids.

4. At 3 to 5 Years of Age

Engage in fantasy play, they assume different roles which would make them have meaningful
social interactions with other children. they are more willing to solve their problems with the
help of their parents, and they are also wanting to help and be helped by other children as
they become friends with other kids. At this age, they may fear that there is a monster under
their bed or inside the closet. What they need, therefore, is the support and reassurance of
their parents that they do not exist.

5. At 7 to 12 Years of Age

This age is the time when a child encounters a lot of issues in his life. He may feel that there’s
a need to become competent inside the classroom to meet the expectations of his parents
and teachers. He may also either want to make many friends and peers, or prefer to be alone.
Children at this age regard their parents as primary sources of guidance and support, and
teachers as the secondary ones.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Feb 12, 2012). Social and Emotional Development in Children. Retrieved
from Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/social-and-emotional-development

4
 2 Nature and Nurture Debate
The Argument Continues

Your physical features can be identified as identical to that of your parents, like your
eyes from your father, and the hair color from your mother. However, your personality
and talents may have come not from your father or mother. The environment where you
grew up may have a lasting effect or influence on that way you talk, behave and
respond to the things around you.

One of the oldest arguments in the history of psychology is the Nature vs Nurture debate.
Each of these sides have good points that it's really hard to decide whether a person's
development is predisposed in his DNA, or a majority of it is influenced by this life experiences
and his environment. As of now, we know that both nature and nurture play important roles in
human development, but we have not known yet whether we are developed majorly because
of nature or due to nurture.

Nature
The coding of genes in each cell in us humans determine the different traits that we have,
more dominantly on the physical attributes like eye color, hair color, ear size, height, and other
traits. However, it is still not known whether the more abstract attributes like personality,
intelligence, sexual orientation, likes and dislikes are gene-coded in our DNA, too.

One of the hottest issues against nature theory is that there may be an existing "gay gene",
which explains that gays are actually born that way. Another issue is that the criminal acts,
tendency to divorce and aggressive behavior causing abuse can be justified by the
"behavioral genes" once the researchers have proven their existence.

On the other hand, the behavioral genes are somewhat proven to exist when we take a look
at fraternal twins. When fraternal twins are reared apart, they show the same similarities in
behavior and response as if they have been reared together.

Nurture
The nurture theory holds that genetic influence over abstract traits may exist; however, the
environmental factors are the real origins of our behavior. This includes the use of

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conditioning in order to induce a new behavior to a child, or alter an unlikely behavior being
shown by the child. According to John Watson, one of the strongest psychologists who
propose environmental learning as a dominating side in the nature vs nurture debate, once
said that he can be able to train a baby randomly chosen in a group of 12 infants, to become
any type of specialist Watson wants. He stated that he could train him to be such regardless
of the child's potentialities, talents and race.

Although it is true that fraternal twins raised apart have remarkable similarities in most
respects, still the intervention of the environment have caused several differences in the way
they behave.

In the end, we are still left with the confusing question: Are we born this way, or do we behave
according to our life experiences? The nature vs nurture debate goes on and on, but still, it is
a fact that we have traits that are predetermined by our genes, but we can still choose who we
want to be as we travel through our lifetime.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Sep 16, 2012). Nature and Nurture Debate. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate

6
 3 Bowlby Attachment Theory
The Emotional Bond

When a person is emotionally bonded with another person, attachment starts.

However, the things that occur with the presence of an attachment are really difficult to
understand, and this is the reason why attachment theorists emerged.

Perhaps the most prominent of this group of theorists, John Bowlby was the first psychologist
who started an extensive study on attachment. According to Bowlby's Attachment Theory,
attachment is a psychological connectedness that occurs between humans and lasts for a
long period of time. To Bowlby, attachment is what keeps a baby connected to his mother,
considering the needs of the child that can only be satisfied by his parent.

Characteristics of Attachment
There are four basic characteristics that basically give us a clear view of what attachment
really is. They include a safe heaven, a secure base, proximity maintenance and separation
distress. These four attributes are very evident in the relationship between a child and his
caregiver.

1. Safe Haven

Ideally, the child can rely on his caregiver for comfort at times whenever he feels threatened,
frightened or in danger. For example, if a child is given a toy that he doesn't like, he'd cry and
his mother would remove the toy and hug the child so he would stop crying.

2. Secure Base

Here, the caregiver gives a good and reliable foundation to the child as he goes on learning
and sorting out things by himself. For example, a child would ask questions to his mother
about why his dad got sick and can't play with him at the moment.

3. Proximity Maintenance

This means that the child aims to explore the world but still tries to stay close to his care giver.
For example, a teenager discusses peer problems with his mother.

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4. Separation Distress

This means that the child becomes unhappy and sorrowful when he becomes separated from
his caregiver. For example, an infant cries loudly when his mother leaves for work.

Attachment Styles
Aside from Bowlby, other theorists contributed to the study of attachment. Ainsworth, Main
and Solomon are the main researchers who theorized the different styles of attachment that
can be observed in the relationship of a person to another. These attachment styles include:
secure, ambivalent-secure, avoidant-insecure and disorganized insecure attachments.

1. Secure Attachment

When children are securely attached to their caregivers (parents), they feel happy whenever
their caregivers are around, but are upset when they get separated from them. While the child
is in distress when his parent is away, still, he feels secured with the feeling that his caregiver
will return sometime soon.

2. Ambivalent Attachment

A child who is ambivalently attached becomes very upset and sorrowful whenever he gets
separated from his parent. The child does not feel that he can rely on his caregiver whenever
he is in need of something.

3. Avoidant Attachment

Simply put, a child who has an avoidant attachment tends to keep away from his parents.
Studies revealed that this may be a cause of parents who are fond of neglecting or abusing
their children.

4. Disorganized Attachment

This is when there is no clear (or mixed) attachment between the child and his caregiver.
When the parent acts as an apprehensive caregiver and a reassuring one at different times,
the child may get confused and cause this kind of attachment.

Why is studying Bowlby's Attachment Theory important? Many studies have found out that
determining the attachment style in social relationships have a lasting effect on the future
behavior of people.

How to cite this article: 

8
Sarah Mae Sincero (May 17, 2012). Bowlby Attachment Theory. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/bowlby-attachment-theory

9
 3.1 Childhood Temperament
Why Children Behave Like That?

Children show different kinds of attitude as they socialize with other people and
explore the world. Childhood temperament, in psychology, involves many aspects of
the child’s personality that leads to the formation of their attitudes and behavior.
Understanding a child’s temperament is crucial in parenting and guiding the child
throughout his life.

Nine Behaviors of Children

In order for us to understand childhood temperament, Thomas and Chess identified nine
behaviors in children.

1. Activity

This refers to the physical energy of the child. A child may be very active and constantly
moving, while another child may be behaved, relaxed and prefers to sit still rather than run
around. The first child may be sports-oriented, while the second child may be more on fine
motor activities like sketching and reading.

2. Regularity or Rhythmicity

This refers to whether the child has routines or is random in terms of biological functions. If a
child always wakes up at 7 am and wants to eat at 11 am, he may want things to be done in a
routine manner, whereas a child who wakes up at different times may do things in random.

3. Initial Reaction

The main question here is, “Is the child hesitant in approaching other people or things, or is he
bold and faces them as if without thinking?

4. Adaptability

Here, we ask whether a child is able to adjust to new things or changes in his environment
easily, or he resists such changes.

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5. Intensity

When assessing for intensity, we ask the question, “Is the child calm during a certain situation,
or does he become intense (e.g. excited)?”

6. Mood

This refers to the child’s response to a pleasant or unpleasant event or thing.

7. Distractibility

This refers to the likelihood of the child to be distracted or left undisturbed by other things in
his environment.

8. Persistence and Attention Span

When we want to know the child’s level of persistence, we may ask, “Does the child easily
lose interest in doing an activity, or is he patient enough to finish it?”

9. Sensitivity

This refers to a child’s tolerance towards changes in his surroundings. For example, a
sensitive child may be distracted when his mother turns on the radio, while a less sensitive
child is able to continue his task.

Three Types of Children

Looking at the nine behaviors that a child may show, Thomas and Chess were able to identify
the three types of children in terms of their childhood temperament.

1. The easy child is one who has a routine in his biological functions like waking, sleeping and
eating. He has a generally positive attitude, good mood, and adapts to change easily. He may
become frustrated at times but he is capable of smiling again after sometime.

2. The difficult child is one who has random cycles of waking, sleeping, eating and elimination.
When faced with new things or changes, he shows a negative behavior or approach like
crying loudly or throwing tantrums. The need a longer time in order to adapt to new people,
food or places.

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3. The slow-to-warm-up child is one who initially shows a negative approach but of milder
intensity than of the difficult child, when he is faced with new food, things, people and events.
However, repeated exposure on these changes would lead to the child’s acceptance, and he
may gradually show a more positive response towards them.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Jun 14, 2012). Childhood Temperament. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/childhood-temperament

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 4 Zone Of Proximal Development
Knowing Your Potential

Originally proposed by theorist Lev Vygotsky, the Zone of Proximal Development (or
ZPD) is a component of the Social Cognitive Theory. It is described as the gap between
the actual level of development and the potential development of a learner. Simply put,
it is the gap between what he has mastered and what he can still learn when an
educational support is around.

The Zone Of Proximal Development is a key area in the Education field as it explains how an
educator can contribute in improving the actual development level of a student as he aims to
achieving his potential development.

Basic Concepts of ZPD

The main notion of Vygotskian ZPD is that a student must be tested according to his ability to
solve problems independently as compared to his ability to solve them with assistance of the
educator; he is, therefore, not to be tested based on standardized tests in order to determine
his intelligence. This means that ZPD is a means of cognitive growth for the learner, and that
social interaction plays a major role in developing the cognitive ability of the student. With the
presence of the proficient persons like parents and teachers, the learner is able to develop his
cognitive ability. In the absence of their assistance, the child’s cognitive ability shall be tested
to determine whether he has achieved his potential development through social interaction.

The Four-Stage Model

The four-stage Model proposed by Tharp and Gallimore provides us a clearer insight on the
zone of proximal development. The first stage includes the learner with the assistance of the
so-called “more capable others”, which include his parents, teachers, experts, coaches, peers
and others who have a mastery on the subject being learned on. Capacity begins in the first
stage. The second stage indicates that the learner assists himself towards learning. This may
involve inner motivation and determination. By the end of the second stage, the learner’s
capacity is developed. The third stage involves internalization, automatization and
“fossilization” , in which the learner feels a sense of mastery of the subject. Just when the
learner feels he has mastered the subject, in the fourth stage there may be a “de-

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automatization” in which he would regress back to the previous stages. This recursion to prior
stages is necessary in order for the learner’s cognitive ability to be further enhanced and
solidified.

Where is the ZPD?

Recognizing the state of the learner within the zone of proximal development can be easily
done by “most capable others” when they know how to ask the right questions and are able to
assess the learning style of the student. Asking the right questions means that the teachers,
coaches and parents must know the immediate needs of the learner, as well as his
developmental status.

Application of ZPD
The classroom is perhaps the best place where the knowledge of ZPD can be applied. In this
setting, the teacher or mentor is not only tasked to teach her lessons but is also responsible
for coming up with ways on stimulating the classroom into an interactive social environment.
The co-students of the learner can serve as the most capable others as other students may
contribute to the development of the cognitive ability of the learner.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Nov 4, 2012). Zone Of Proximal Development. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/zone-of-proximal-development

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 5 Theory of Cognitive Development

The Theory of Cognitive Development formulated by the famous psychologist Jean

Piaget is perhaps the most comprehensive and extensive theory that explain the
development of human intelligence as a person grows from being an infant into a full
grown adult.

According to Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, intelligence is brought about by a

series of transformations and various states, and that change is necessary for a person’s
intellect to be enhanced.

Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget described the development of human intelligence throughout the lifespan of a person.
The four stages connote that as a normal person grows older, there is an evident increase in
abstraction and complexity in thinking and rationalizing things.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 Years Old)

The sensorimotor stage is the phase that spans from the birth of the individual up to the time
when he learns and acquires language. The infant is very reliant to what he sees and hears,
and that he would react according to these sensory experiences. This stage also includes the
reflexes of the baby which include sucking, grasping and stepping. By the end of the
sensorimotor stage, the infant learns object permanence, which is the understanding that an
object continues to exist even when he can’t see, hear or touch it.

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years Old)

In this stage, the child is more engaged with play, and uses preoperatory thought, which is the
process by which the child represents objects through the use of words, scribbles, drawings
and pictures. The mental reasoning of the child is developed in this stage, but he still cannot
perform operations. Egocentrism (self-centeredness) and animism (belief that inanimate
objects can move or talk) are evident. Conservation is the main task in this stage. When you
present two identical glasses, Glass A and Glass B, to a child and pour equal amounts of
water, he would say that they have indeed the same amount of water. However, when you
pour the contents of one glass to another glass, Glass C, which is thinner and taller, the child
would say that Glass A and Glass C now contains different amounts of water. Failure of this

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task connotes that the child is still in preoperational stage.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 Years Old)

This stage starts when the child begins to use logic appropriately. The child is able to classify
objects (classification), sort them according to their attributes (seriation) and divide a problem
into several components in order to solve it (decentering).

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 Years and Above)

This stage is the hallmark of abstract thinking and usage of hypothetical rationalization. The
child is able to systematically look into problems and test several solutions.

Accommodation and Assimilation

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development included the concepts of accommodation and
assimilation. He believed that there are pre-existing cognitive schemas in each individual.
Because of the process of assimilation, we tend to take the relatively new information
unknown to us from our environment and fit them into these innate cognitive patterns. This
can be compared to finding the key that would perfectly fit the lock’s hole so that it would be
opened.

On the other hand, the process of accommodation states that we get the information from the
environment, then change our own cognitive patterns so that the information we got will suit
our schemas. In the example we had mentioned, the process of accommodation is like
changing the shape of the lock’s hole in order for the key to fit in it.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Nov 12, 2012). Theory of Cognitive Development. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/theory-of-cognitive-development

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 6 Theory of Moral Development

The Theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean
Piaget’s theory of moral reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg,
this theory made us understand that morality starts from the early childhood years and
can be affected by several factors.

Morality can be developed either negatively or positively, depending on how an individual

accomplishes the tasks before him during each stage of moral development across his
lifespan.

History of the Theory

How did Kohlberg come up with the theory of moral development? All his ideas started from
the research he performed with very young children as his subjects. He found out that children
are faced with different moral issues, and their judgments on whether they are to act positively
or negatively over each dilemma are heavily influenced by several factors. In each scenario
that Kohlberg related to the children, he was not really asking whether or not the person in the
situation is morally right or wrong, but he wanted to find out the reasons why these children
think that the character is morally right or not.

Levels and Stages of Moral Development

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

The first level of morality, preconventional morality, can be further divided into two stages:
obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange.

Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation

Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so
that the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example,
we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail.

Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it satisfies the

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individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person
because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the
children tend to say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of moral development. Conventional
morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action.

Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation

In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations
before him. This is also known as the “interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child
gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a
person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For instance, a
policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because
he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned with
the universal principles that relation to the action done.

Stage 5 : Social Contract Orientation

In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before
coming up with the decision on the morality of the action.

Stage 6 : Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers universally
accepted ethical principles. The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws
and rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles of justice.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Feb 23, 2012). Theory of Moral Development. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/theory-of-moral-development

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 7 Ecological Systems Theory
You and Your Environment

Otherwise known as the Human Ecology Theory, the Ecological Systems theory states
that human development is influenced by the different types of environmental systems.
Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory helps us
understand why we may behave differently when we compare our behavior in the
presence of our family and our behavior when we are in school or at work.

The Five Environmental Systems

The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our
lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the micro
system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro system, and the chronosystem.

1. The Micro System

The micro system's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends,
classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with you are
included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social
interactions with these social agents. The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the
experiences we have when socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but
we are contributing to the construction of such environment.

2. The Mesosystem

The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life. This means
that your family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child
is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards
his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to
withdrawal from a group of classmates.

3. The Exosystem

The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person
does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a
child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for

19
several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child's social relationship,
or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.

4. The Macrosystem

The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involve
the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a
still developing or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a
person work harder every day.

5. The Chronosystem

The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may also involve
the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person. One classic example of this is how
divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple's relationship but also their
children's behavior. According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on
the first year after the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the interaction within
the family becomes more stable and agreeable.

Value of the Theory

This theory, published in 1979, has influenced many psychologists in terms of the manner of
analyzing the person and the effects of different environmental systems that he encounters.
The ecological systems theory has since become an important theory that became a
foundation of other theorists' work.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Mar 14, 2012). Ecological Systems Theory. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory

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 8 Erikson’s Psychosocial Model
On Tasks, Virtues and Crises

When does a person start to learn how to trust other people? In what age would a
person be ready to know how can he become a good individual? Why do many people
feel some sort of identity crisis going on inside of them? These are just a few
questions that are explained in the theory developed by Erik Erikson. Erikson’s
Psychosocial Model involves 8 stages of human development across the lifespan.

Stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Model

1. Trust vs. Mistrust ( 0 - 1 Year)

Virtue: Hope

The infant’s basic needs are required to be satisfied by his primary caregivers, preferably his
parents. When the baby is crying because he is hungry, his mother must satisfy his hunger
through giving breast milk and feeding him. If the infant is able to consistently rely on his
mother for sustenance and support, he would develop a sense of trust, he knows that he can
hope for a dependable someone to satisfy his needs. However, when his mother does not
positively respond to the baby’s need, the infant would have a sense of mistrust, that is, he
feels that everyone is unreliable.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (2-4 Years)

Virtue: Will

When the child reaches the age of 2 to 4, he begins to explore his environment. When the
parents are supportive and encourages him to do so but still protects him from danger, the
child feels a sense of autonomy. However, when parents or caregivers are restricting the child
from learning things, like not letting the child dress himself when he says he can do it, the
child may feel shameful and doubtful of trying new things.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (4 to 6 Years)

Virtue: Purpose

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When the child reaches this age, he may feel that he wants to accomplish activities on his
own for a certain purpose. Caregivers must promote a sense of initiative in them such as
letting them be the leader of a group of children. On the other hand, he may feel guilty about
his needs and wants if the parent would not allow him to do things independently.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (7 to 12 Years)

Virtue: Competence

At this age, children are more eager to learn more things, and want to master skills like
reading and writing, to the extent that they compete with other children. When parents and
teachers are able to encourage children through praising them for their accomplishments,
they feel that they are productive, and they show industry through being patient and diligent.
However, if they are punished for exerting efforts, they may feel inferior and their self-esteem
becomes low.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (13 to 19 Years)

Virtue: Fidelity

Becoming an adolescent involves feeling a mixture of emotions. At this age, the person wants
to know who he really is through the roles he plays in the society. When he fails to accomplish
this identity crisis, he would have role confusion which would affect his adult life.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 to 40 Years)

Virtue: Love

At this age, an individual may feel loved and wanted when he encounters someone with
whom he can share the rest of his life. When his friends settle for good to form their own
families and the person is left without anyone to accompany him, he may feel isolated and
withdrawn.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (45 to 65 Years)

Virtue: Care

At this age, the person wishes to produce something of real value for the benefit of the
younger generation. When, he fails to do so, he may feel that he is unproductive.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 Years Onwards)

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Virtue: Wisdom

Towards the end of one’s life, the person would look back at his past years. When he feels
that he had lived a satisfying life, he would have a sense of ego integrity. However, he may
feel that he’s in despair if he was unproductive or was not able to accomplish his life goals.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Sep 16, 2012). Erikson’s Psychosocial Model. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/eriksons-psychosocial-model

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 9 Self-Concept Theory
How Do You See Yourself?

Self-concept, strictly defined, is the totality of our beliefs, preferences, opinions and
attitudes organized in a systematic manner, towards our personal existence. Simply
put, it is how we think of ourselves and how we should think, behave and act out our
various life roles.

The self is perhaps the most complex unit to study in psychology. Each of us have different
personality, traits, abilities and preferences that sometimes we cannot understand what is
really going on inside of us. While we may not be able to exactly explain why we think this
way, or why do we behave in that manner, the self-concept theory is a good foundational
knowledge on the importance of our perceptions towards our personal existence.

History of the Self-Concept Theory

In order for us to study this theory, we need to know first the history of the development of self-
concept theory. The earliest milestone in the self-concept theory is that of Rene Descartes,
who proposed that a person’s existence depended on how he perceives so. Sigmund Freud,
one of the most prominent psychologists, proposed many theories that talk about our internal
mental processes. His theory holds that we have 3 main aspects within us, the id (pleasure-
oriented), ego (balance between id and superego) and the superego (conscience-driven)
which may influence the way we think of ourselves.

Aspects of Self-Concept Theory

The self-concept theory holds many assumptions about our personal judgment towards our
selves. Here are some of them:

1. Self-concept is learned.

One of the very basic assumptions of this theory is that no person is born with a self-concept.
Self-concept is believed to develop as a person grows old. This means that our perceptions
towards our selves can be shaped and can be altered, and can also be affected by
environmental factors. In this sense, self-concept is actually a product of socialization and
development. A person may have a perception of himself different from what other people

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thinks of him. For example, an individual feels that he is generous while others see him as a
selfish person.

2. Self-Concept is organized.

A person may have numerous views of himself. He may think that he is kind, patient, loving
and caring, or selfish, cruel, rude and stubborn. No matter how many different perceptions you
have on yourself, still, there is one perception that facilitates all of these insights, causing one
organized self-concept. When a person believes something that is congruent to his self-
concept, it is more likely that he would resist changing that belief. He tends to stick to his
present view of himself for quite a long time, and changing this perception of his self may take
too long, but change is feasible.

3. Lastly, self-concept is dynamic.

As a person faces different situations and new challenges in his life, his insight towards
himself may constantly change depending on the way he responds to such life changes. We
see things depending on our self-concept. We behave according to how we see ourselves in a
situation. Therefore, self-concept is a continuous development wherein we tend to let go of
the things and ideas that are not congruent to our self-concept, and we hold on to those that
we think are helpful in building a more favorable perception of our personal existence.

How to cite this article: 

Sarah Mae Sincero (Apr 25, 2012). Self-Concept Theory. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/self-concept-theory

Thanks for reading!

Explorable.com Team

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