Bedin, J. et al. (2012). Géotechnique 62, No. 3, 263–267 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/geot.10.P.
037]
TECHNICAL NOTE
Gold tailings liquefaction under critical state soil mechanics
J. B E D I N
, F. S C H NA I D
, A . V. DA F O N S E C A † a n d L . D E M . C O S TA F I L H O ‡
The results from a laboratory testing programme de-
signed to evaluate the behaviour of gold tailings are
presented, and interpreted in the critical state frame-
work. Drained and undrained triaxial tests sheared under
monotonic loading allowed the critical state line (CSL) to
be established. The observed highly non-linear shape of
the CSL was used to investigate the intrinsic dynamics of
the monotonic undrained response of tailings, and to
define the undrained instability state. This behaviour is
useful in explaining the mechanics of tailings, which
exhibits relatively well-defined transitions of state cap-
tured by the state parameter.
KEYWORDS: critical state; liquefaction; tailings; triaxial tests
INTRODUCTION
Static liquefaction has been extensively studied over the years.
Although much of the data deals with granular soils, consider-
able effort has been devoted to understanding the undrained
behaviour of tailing materials, using the triaxial apparatus as
reference (e.g. Fourie & Papageorgiou, 2001; Yunxin & Sego,
2001; Jefferies & Been, 2006). These studies have been
conducted independently and have not always been consistent,
with the consequence that there is no unified framework to
link all aspects of tailing full response mechanisms. In order
to bridge this gap in knowledge, an experimental testing
programme has been carried out, with the aim of: (a) studying
the behaviour of gold tailings in the light of critical state soil
mechanics; and (b) evaluating predictive means to detect the
onset of flow instability from parameters of state.
In the present work, concepts and definitions of flow and
liquefaction are derived from early work (e.g. Castro, 1969;
Lade, 1999; Andrade, 2009), suitably adapted to the ob-
served behaviour of tested tailings. Flow instability is de-
fined as a phenomenon that triggers the development of
large strains, corresponding to a strain-softening behaviour
accompanied by increasing pore pressures and a reduction in
deviatoric stresses (e.g. Kramer, 1996; Lade, 1999; Li &
Dafalias, 2000; Thevanayagam et al., 2002). Only in extreme
conditions does the rise in pore pressures lead to a complete
loss of shear strength (q  0), with samples experiencing
very large strains when a true liquefaction state is reached.
EXPERIMENTAL TESTING PROGRAMME
Characterisation of the tailings comprises identification of
minerals, grain size distribution and microscopy. The mater-
Manuscript received 11 April 2010; revised manuscript accepted 7
June 2011. Published online ahead of print 25 November 2011.
Discussion on this paper closes on 1 August 2012, for further details
see p. ii.

Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande
do Sul, Brazil.
† Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
‡ LPS Consulting & Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
263
Les résultats d’un programme d’essais en laboratoire,
conçu pour évaluer le comportement de stériles d’or, sont
présentés et interprétés dans le cadre de l’état critique.
Des essais triaxiaux drainés et non drainés sous charge
monotone ont permis d’établir la ligne d’état critique
[critical state line (CSL)] . On a utilisé la forme fortement
non linéaire de la CSL pour examiner la dynamique
intrinsèque de la réaction monotone non drainée des
résidus, et définir l’état d’instabilité non drainé. Ce
comportement est utile pour expliquer la mécanique des
résidus présentant des états transitoires relativement bien
définis saisis par le paramètre de l’état.
ial disposed in ponds is predominantly low-plasticity or non-
plastic silty sand, with an average in situ solids content (by
weight) of about 30%, an in situ water content of 35%, and
a high specific gravity (2.89 , Gs , 3.2 g/cm3 ). Quartz
(32.5%), albite (24.3%), chlorite (23.0%) and sulfides
(3–6.5%) are the typical minerals in the tested tailings.
Conventional static tests were accomplished using both
oedometer and triaxial apparatus capable of testing tailings
under a range of confining stresses and drainage conditions.
The moist tamping method was used to reconstitute speci-
mens at their average in situ density. Samples were prepared
by mixing the soil with a small amount of water and
compacting the mixture in a mould, in layers prepared from
equal-volume lifts to produce homogeneous mixtures (e.g.
Lade, 1978). The mixture is partially saturated when placed,
and the interparticle suction is utilised to allow a high void
ratio to be achieved.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
One-dimensional compression and hydraulic conductivity
tests have been carried out in specimens reconstituted at four
different void ratios (e0 ¼ 0.9, 1.2, 1.5 and 2.0), which cover
the maximum and minimum determined in situ values. The
relationship between vertical effective stress and void ratio
presented in Fig. 1 gives a description of the soil’s compres-
sibility. The vertical stresses were not sufficiently high to
identify the normal compression line (NCL), and an attempt
to fit a straight line to points measured at high stresses gave
a slope º equal to 0.048 for an initial void ratio of 2.0.
The hydraulic conductivity has been determined by con-
stant-head tests carried out in the oedometer cells at differ-
ent vertical stresses. An average value of 2 3 106 m/s was
taken as representative.
Drained and undrained triaxial tests have been performed
to evaluate the stress–strain–pore pressure and effective
stress–volume–strain behaviour of the gold tailings. All
reported test specimens were isotropically consolidated to
their desired consolidation pressure before shearing. Most of
the work is concentrated on undrained tests, because static
liquefaction is triggered by undrained failure in monotonic
264 BEDIN, SCHNAID, DA FONSECA AND FILHO
Sample
e0 size: mm
2·20 0·9 200 ⫻ 70 mm
1·5 200 ⫻ 70 mm
2·0 200 ⫻ 70 mm
2·00
1·2 70 ⫻ 28 mm
1·5 70 ⫻ 28 mm
1·80 2·0 70 ⫻ 28 mm
Normal compression line
1·60
Void ratio
1·40

1·20

1·00

0·80

0·60
0·1 1 10 100 1000
Vertical stress: kPa

Fig. 1. Compressibility curve of gold tailings from oedometer tests

shear. Results of triaxial tests on saturated samples are
presented in Fig. 2, in which deviatoric stress (
1 
3 ) and
pore pressures are plotted against axial strains. At the lowest
confining stress range shown in the figure (
39 , 100 kPa),
the tests reveal a strong strain-softening response, followed
by a loss of stability, a rapid increase in shear strains, and
uncontrolled pore pressure development. The reduction in
deviatoric stress after the initial peak occurs when the shear
strength required for static equilibrium of the soil sample is
greater than the shear strength of the soil, and large flow
strains are required before equilibrium is restored. At high
confining stresses the behaviour changes to gentle strain-
softening. From these results it can be assumed that 15%
maximum axial strain was sufficient to establish critical state
conditions in these undrained tests.
In this series of undrained triaxial tests, all samples
exhibit positive pore water pressure in shear, revealing the
tendency to contractive response over a wide range of
confining pressures. Note that the generated excess pore
pressure shows a smooth increase during shear, with no
identifiable inflection point that might indicate a collapsible
response associated with a meta-stable rearrangement of soil
particles. It is the particle fabric that helps to explain the
contractive response and the susceptibility to liquefaction at
low confining pressures. In Fig. 3 sand particles are seen to
be generally mixed with large amounts of highly compress-
ible silty particles that dictate the overall compressibility of
the skeleton. The large contractive volumetric strain response
of the mixture occurs in a combination of high initial void
ratio and low pressure, generating high excess pore pressures

15 kPa
1200 60
22 kPa
15 kPa
30 kPa
22 kPa
50 kPa
30 kPa
60 kPa
75 kPa 50 kPa
q ⫽ (σ1 ⫺ σ3): kPa

q ⫽ (σ1 ⫺ σ3): kPa

800 40 60 kPa
100 kPa
200 kPa 75 kPa
250 kPa 100 kPa
400 kPa
600 kPa
400 20
800 kPa
1000 kPa
1200 kPa
Excess pore pressures: kPa

0
Excess pore pressures: kPa

250

500 50

750

1000 100
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Strain, εa Strain, εa

(a) (b)

Fig. 2. Undrained triaxial test results, effective stress, strain and excess pore pressure: (a) all results; (b) tests at small confining stresses
under liquefaction (expended scale)
 GOLD TAILINGS LIQUEFACTION UNDER CRITICAL STATE SOIL MECHANICS 265
deserve further consideration. The tested gold tailings exhibit
a marked curvature in the CSL that cannot be captured by a
single semi-logarithm line. The idealised representation of a
soil described by parallel NCL and CSL, if valid, should be
m viewed with caution, and is not applicable to the low-stress
0µ
13 range. It is only for stresses greater than 30 kPa that drained
and undrained tests produce fairly similar critical states for
140

samples with the same initial density, and sheared from the
µm

isotropic NCL.
An identifiable change in slope characterised by the
threshold between two almost semi-log linear parts of the
NCL and CSL is apparent for stresses in the range 200–
110

400 kPa. Although this stress range is fairly low for grain

µm
µm

crushing, which is normally observed at stresses higher than

150
20 kV ⫻ 250 100 µm
Fig. 3. Images of gold tailing particle shapes and sizes
that lead easily to soil liquefaction, a tendency that is
gradually suppressed as the void ratio reduces and the
confining pressure increases.
A complementary series of drained compression and
extension triaxial tests have been carried out showing a
strong contractive behaviour in the stress confining range of
15–100 kPa, confirming trends observed in undrained shear.
Critical state analysis based on both drained and undrained
triaxial tests is summarised in Fig. 4 using the Cambridge
(p9–q) and (e–ln p9) planes. The isotropic compression line
is presented in the same diagram for reference. The results
show the idealised behaviour of a unique critical state line
(CSL), indicating independence from the drainage conditions
and strain rates associated with different test procedures.
However, there some singularities in the present case that
1·1
Undrained test
Drained compression
Repeated tests
Flow
1·0
liquefaction
Void ratio
1 MPa (e.g. Lade et al., 1998; McDowell & Bolton, 1998),
the threshold was in fact attributed to particle breakage,
given the low intrinsic particle strength of alumina, magne-
sium and iron identified from chemical characterisation
(Mg ¼ 13.50%; Al ¼ 23.00%; Si ¼ 33.48%; Fe ¼ 26.47%).
There is no solid investigation to support the hypothesis of
particle breakage, which would require breakage measure-
ments at stress levels both in isotropic loading and at critical
state. There is also no fundamental physical framework
linking microscopic phenomena to macroscopic behaviour,
and for this reason the discussion presented herein is spec-
ulative, and conceived to provide a basis for future research.
Grain size distributions consistently revealed specimens at
the end of the shear stage that were characterised by a fines
content larger than that of natural samples (Fig. 5). This
behaviour has been qualitatively confirmed by observations
from a large number of 2503 microscope magnification
specimens, as illustrated in Fig. 6. A reduction in particle
sizes produced by shear-induced grain crushing (,100 ìm)
is observed in relation to the original particle matrix of these
tailings (100–150 ìm particles).
At low mean stress (p9 , 30 kPa) the CSL becomes flatter,
because the effective stress path reflects the soil instability
that results from the fact that the tailing cannot sustain a
constant stress difference. Only under undrained compression
does the shear strength reduce dramatically, sometimes ex-
hibiting complete flow failure liquefaction at zero effective
stress, a behaviour that has previously been observed by

Flow Lade & Yamamuro (1997) in silty sand mixtures. A few

0·9 λfl
instability drained tests in extension differ from the undrained tests in
λ compression, since they do not exhibit the same marked
reduction in pressure when tested at high initial void ratios
Stable
0·8 and low stresses. However, it is recognised that the extension
Grain and compression CSLs are not necessarily the same in the
crushing
λc
0·7
(a)
µm

0·30
0
10

0·25

0·20
ψ(e0 ⫺ ecrit)

90
µm

µm
50

0·15
100 µm

0·10
60 µm
0·05
p⬘fl p⬘c
0
1 10 100 1000 10 000 20 kV ⫻ 250 100 µm
log p⬘ ⫽ (σ1 + 2σ3/3): kPa
(b)
Fig. 5. Particle crushing after undrained shear at confining
Fig. 4. State parameter variation during triaxial testing stresses of 800 kPa
266 BEDIN, SCHNAID, DA FONSECA AND FILHO
100
90

Percentage finer by weight: %

80
70
Sample 1

冧
60
Sample 2
50 Initial samples
Sample 3
40 Sample 4
30 Sample 5 Sheared at σ3 ⫽ 600 kPa
Sample 6 Sheared at σ3 ⫽ 800 kPa
20 Sample 7 Sheared at σ3 ⫽ 1000 kPa
10 Sample 8 Sheared at σ3 ⫽ 1200 kPa

0
0·001 0·01 0·1 1 10
Grain size: mm

Fine Medium Gravel

Clay Silt Gravel
Sand

Fig. 6. Grain size distribution of gold tailings

e–ln p9 plane, as the modes of loading are different, owing
to the distinct intermediate principal stress relative to the
major and minor stresses.
Additional information emerges from the state parameter
ł, defined by the relative position of the NCL with respect
to the CSL, and calculated as the difference between the
current void ratio and that on the CSL at the current p9 (e.g.
Jefferies & Been, 2006). The conceptual framework in which
the CSL is parallel to the NCL, and consequently specimens
with different initial states along the NCL will have the
same state parameter, has not been observed in the measured
data. The values of ł are shown to reduce with increasing
mean stress, as previously indicated in Fig. 4. For moderate
mean stresses the state parameter is less variable, and
presents an average value of around 0.04. At a mean stress
of about 30 kPa the onset of flow instability is depicted by a
marked increase in ł. The state parameter reached values as
high as 0.3 under flow failure liquefaction when zero mean
effective stresses was measured. In this particular case,
results on the log axis are represented by a non-zero value
for the sake of clarity and comparison. Clearly, flow instabil-
ity is a function of the state of the tailings rather than a
material property, as extensively demonstrated by previous
research in sand (e.g. Jefferies & Been, 2006; Andrade,
2009).
deviatoric stress at critical state relative to the deviatoric
stress at the initial peak. In this region a sample suffers
severe strain-softening but no liquefaction as it reaches a
distinct position at critical state. For stresses lower than the
onset of soil instability, p9fl , a sample at its initial state ( p90 ,
e0 ) located above the CSL experiences larger reductions of
its undrained shear resistance, inducing a slope ºfl (flow)
that is flatter than º (stable). This implies that flow
instability reduces with increasing confining pressures.
(c) Stable conditions. Here the drained and undrained critical
states coincide, defining a condition where the slope of
the CSL, º (stable), is essentially parallel to the slope of
the NCL. In this case samples sheared from the isotropic
normal compression line show strain-hardening to critical
state with compression response and increased pore
pressure. This idealised behaviour is compatible with that
conceived in most constitutive models of flow liquefac-
tion based on critical state soil mechanics (e.g. Doanh et
al., 1997; Dubujet & Doanh, 1997; Lade & Yamamuro,
1997; Borja, 2006; Andrade, 2009).
(d ) Particle breakage. For stresses greater than the stress
corresponding to shear-induced grain crushing, p9c , the
soil is able to reach denser states at critical state, and as a
consequence the slope of the CSL, ºc (crushing),
becomes greater than º (stable).

Clearly the gradient of the CSL at low pressures is unrelated

CONCLUDING REMARKS to that at higher stresses. Changes in state conditions are
The critical state of gold tailings was shown to be highly depicted by the state parameter, which is considered a good
non-linear, reflecting flow instability of the tailings structure predictor of the changes in behaviour of gold tailings,
at low stress levels, as well as possible changes in grain size providing a basis to identify whether the structure at a given
and shape induced by grain crushability at high mean initial state is susceptible to static liquefaction.
stresses. In problems associated with a wide range of
stresses, it may be necessary (or convenient) to describe the
CSL in an idealised three-linear model segment in the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
e-log p9 space, characterising four distinct state conditions, The writers wish to express their gratitude to the agency
as follows. CNPQ (INCT-REAGEO) and to the Portuguese Science and
Technology Foundation (CEC/FEUP) for the financial sup-
(a) Flow liquefaction. At low confining stresses these tailings port for this research programme.
exhibit a pronounced contractive response, generating
high excess pore pressures, that ultimately leads to flow
liquefaction instability, coupled with a complete loss in NOTATION
shear strength and the development of excessive strains. e void ratio
(b) Flow instability. Ranging from the low to the moderate e0 initial void ratio
stress range, flow instability is associated with large Gs specific gravity
deformations and high pore pressures, which reduce the p9 mean effective stress
 GOLD TAILINGS LIQUEFACTION UNDER CRITICAL STATE SOIL MECHANICS 267
p9c mean stress p9 at crushing Fourie, A. B. & Papageorgiou, G. (2001). Defining an appropriate
p90 initial mean stress p9 steady state line for Merriespruid gold tailings. Can. Geotech. J.
p9fl mean stress at start of flow liquefaction 38 No. 4, 695–706.
q shear strength Jefferies, M. & Been, K. (2006). Soil liquefaction: A critical state
º slope of critical state line approach. London: Taylor & Francis.
ºc slope of critical state line for crushing Kramer, S. L. (1996). Geotechnical earthquake engineering. Upper
ºfl slope of critical state line for flow liquefaction Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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3 principal stresses Lade, P. V. (1999). Instability of granular materials. In Physics and

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39 minor effective principal stress Yamamuro), pp. 3–16. Rotterdam: Balkema
ł state parameter Lade, P. V. & Yamamuro, J. A. (1997). Effects of non-plastic fines
on static liquefaction of sands. Can. Geotech. J. 34, No. 6,
918–928.
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