Cutting Tool Technology

By

MUBASHIR USMAN IJAZ

Manufacturing Process-||

Report submitted to Sir Ammar.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences,

Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan.

 Declaration of Originality
I hereby declare that this work is solely done by me and is not plagiarized.

Mubashir Usman Ijaz

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 Dedication
This work is dedicated to my family who has always been with me.

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 Acknowledgement:
I would like to appreciate all my teachers, class mates, for their kind help
throughout my work. Without their help this would not have been accomplished.

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Table of Contents
1 Introduction..............................................................................................................1

2 Cutting tool materials............................................................................................3

3 Cutting tool geometry............................................................................................5

3.1 Single point cutting tools....................................................................................8

3.2 Drilling tools......................................................................................................10

3.3 Multiple edge cutting tools...............................................................................12

4 Tool life....................................................................................................................13

4.1 Tool failure modes.............................................................................................14

5 Cutting fluids..........................................................................................................16

6 Conclusion..............................................................................................................17

7 References..................................................................................................................18

8 Vitae...........................................................................................................................19

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List of Tables

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Table of Figures
Figure 1 single point cutting tool.........................................................................................7
Figure 2 chip breakers on cutting tool.................................................................................8

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1 Introduction
Humans have delved themselves for the ease of doing work and betterment of life
standards for centuries. In its way they studied nature closely and developed many
methods and theories still on which the fundamentals of today’s physics relies. Making
things has always been the basic need of the civilizations, and as thus has also proved to
be very beneficial for the development of nations. Manufacturing has been part and
parcel for all communities since technology started to influence lives of humans. We can
say you might be seeing, using or wearing something made using some manufacturing
process. From fluorescent tubes, compact disc player to tennis rackets, automobiles of
daily use and supersonic jets to name a few. Since the industrial revolution different new
manufacturing processes have been developed and are serving human needs in almost
every aspect of lives. After development of several machines in England, technological
development soon spread in other European counties. Some of the inventions had
overwhelming contribution to the manufacturing, for example watt’s steam engine,
standards, gages, machine tools and Whitney’s technique of “interchange parts” and
assembly line. This made possible for mass production of tools and machines.

A number of manufacturing methods are in practice in modern manufacturing

such as metal die casting, sand casting, injection molding, powder metallurgy, extrusion,
slush casting, machining, rolling, welding, sintering, 3D printing etc.. Which method
should be employed for a particular part depends upon the shape, geometry, strength
required, end usage, economics, number of parts required, dimensional accuracy
required, operating temperature conditions etc.. For example for ordinary knife to be used
in kitchen maybe manufactured using investment casting or forging for the main blade
and for the case of steam turbine blade which will be subjected to high stresses, bending
moments and several high temperature conditions will need proper designing and
machining may be used for surface finish after single crystal growth. For manufacturing
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of a regular drink bottle blow molding can be used and for the manufacturing of a highly
contoured shaft such as used in rotor systems CNC machining will be used due to
dimensional accuracy requirements and shape complexity. In a same manner a car bonnet
can be manufactured by forging and for the manufacturing of thin walls and fine meshes
3D printing will be used, from all above mentioned examples it is evident that the end
usage and shape/geometry of the product decides that which manufacturing technique is
to be used. Machining is a material removal process and is used for its high precision and
surface finishing along with its diversity of part geometries. Although similar amount of
shape complexity can be achieved using casting however it lacks precision and close
tolerances achieved in machining. Also, after casting machining is used for achieving
high tolerances. Machining is used for the close tolerances and complicated parts with
final high surface finish. Machining is divided majorly in conventional machining,
abrasive processes and non-conventional machining. Conventional machining includes
milling, turning, drilling and other machining operations. Non-conventional machining
includes electrochemical, chemical machining, thermal machining etc. Abrasive
processes include grinding and other abrasive processes. Machining can be defined as
material removal process to obtain the desired part by shear deformation of the work
material using a sharp cutting tool to form a chip. It’s a shaping operation. Machining is
carried out by relative motion between work material and the cutting tool, primary
motion between cutting tool and work material is called speed and secondary motion is
called feed. The final shape is achieved by these two motion combined by the sharp
cutting tool penetrated into the work part. Conventional machining involves mainly three
process, in turning primary motion is provided by the rotating work piece and secondary
motion by the movement of the cutting tool. In case of milling cutting tool has several
sharp edges and it rotates along with it’s given fed along the work material so that the
rotation and rectilinear motion are perpendicular to each other to achieve desired part.
Various factors influence machining for example the type of work material, this is called
machineability and it depends upon the type of grains of metals, cutting fluids used,

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friction etc. Machine tool has its significance due to several reasons such as it’s the
primary component involved in shear deformation of the work material, it determines
accuracy of machined parts, exposed to high temperatures and forces, involved directly in
productivity and efficiency of a machining process.

Besides many advantages such as high surface finish, close tolerances that can be
achieved, diversity due to shape complexity, variety of work materials there are some
disadvantages associated with machining such as wasteful of material, since when
material is removed it can’t be directly used another disadvantage of machining is that
it’s time consuming process and takes a lot of time. Here in this report we will discuss
cutting tools that are directly involved in penetration thus cutting and their study is so
important because they are the core component of any machining process. In almost all
machining shops special care is given to their life and the temperature they are exposed to
during machining operation.

2 Cutting tool materials

` In 1800 when industrial revolution had not crossed England and the leading metal
used all over was iron, they used cast steal for cutting iron and after that many other types
such as Cermets and high-speed steels were invented. Now a days there are many cutting
tools available in the market and are selected carefully based upon the application. There
are some main properties to kept in mind while choosing a cutting tool which are its
ability:
1) to withstand abrasive wear,
2) to withstand high temperatures,
3) to absorb thermal shock,
4) lack of affinity between tool and work material and
5) to absorb energy or have high toughness so to avoid fracture failure.
These factors directly affect the tool life and its performance. Abrasive wear is effected
by the hardness, surface finish (good surface finish means smaller friction coefficient)
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and chemistry of work material and tool. Abrasive wear is due to harder particles on work
material and abrasion action between tool and work part. During milling there are
continuous heating and cooling cycles and thus tool material must withstand high
temperatures and absorb thermal shock. To avoid sudden fracture or shattered cutting
edge when tool is inserted into the work material, tool must have high toughness value so
that it can absorb cutting forces, vibrations and shock loads. Lack of affinity between
work material and tool is necessary to avoid oxidation and formation of built up edges
BUE, due to which tool surface is degraded and decreases surface integrity. Therefore
ideally cutting edge should be inert towards any work material. Most common tool
materials available are high speed steels, high carbon steels, cemented carbides, coated
carbides and cermets.

HSS withstands elevated temperatures without reduction in hardness. This allows

it for faster cutting than high carbon steel (used in 1950’s), therefore it’s called high
speed steel. HSS allows cutting speeds to reach around 19m/min. Tungsten content
enhances its hot hardness and addition of vanadium increases its abrasion resistance.
Generally, its recommended heat treatment at room temperature, HSS grades generally
display high hardness (above Rockwell hardness 60) and abrasion resistance. Micro-
grained sintered high speed steel typically may contain 13% tungsten, 10% cobalt, 6%
vanadium, 2.15% Carbon, 4.75% Cr and remaining iron. Lasers and electron beams may
be used for heat treatment, glazing, as sources of intense heat at the surface. Various
molten pool shapes can be reached as well as temperature cycles ranging from 103 to 106
K s−1. The development of cracks or porosity is minimal. Mostly HSS is used in drill
bits, milling cutters, saw blades and router bits.

Carbide is more costly than other run of the mill tool materials, and it is
progressively brittle, making it in danger of chipping and breaking To remunerate these
issues, the carbide cutting tip itself is regularly in the type of a little supplement for a
bigger tipped instrument whose shank is made of another material, typically carbon
instrument steel This gives the advantage of utilizing carbide at the cutting interface
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without the significant expense and fragility of making the entire apparatus out of carbide
Most present day face factories use carbide embeds, just as numerous machine
instruments and end factories.

Cemented carbides are carbides cemented with composites using a binder metal.
To a large extent, cemented carbides are used where high mechanical strength and wear
resistance are required, especially at high temperatures and in view of corrosive
situations. Since huge components of existing carbides are difficult to manufacture, a few
applications require composite components to be joined to metals. For example, a few
factors contribute to poor wettability, such as flexibility and compound and basic
reliability at elevated temperatures. The purpose behind this is their mixture of hardness
and durability contrasted with other cutting materials, for example synthetic diamond or
HSS. By choosing the fitting blend of hard stages, metallic binder stage and preparing
parameters, a wide mix of microstructures with an assortment of mechanical properties
can be accomplished. Conceivably the largest used cutting apparatus materials today are
the cemented carbide group of tooling, of which the gathering got from tungsten carbide
is most promptly utilized.

Manufactured diamonds are diamonds made of a similar material as normal diamond—

pure carbon, solidified in an isotropic 3D structure. Synthetic diamonds are extremely
useful for non-ferrous work materials and have high mechanical strength. The hindrance
to the production of a synthetic diamonds cutting tools as a modern item was that the
instrument was customarily made of common diamond. As diamond is a super-hard
material, synthetic diamonds have numerous favorable advantages as contrasted with
normal abrasives, for example, corundum and silicon carbide.

3 Cutting tool geometry

Machining and estimating places puts tremendous research not only on the expansion
of productivity in the design companies/industries, but also on preserving and shipping

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the item with the right price with the correct tolerances. The capital types of equipment
and the instruments alone are not capable of meriting the item. The right equipment with
the geometry indicated will place a transcendent job in the machine device industry.
Changing the devices and reworking the devices over time would result in steady quality
leas from the primary to the last section. Given the fact that with the high volume of jobs
these tools are expensive, it can very well be assisted in all methods. Therefore, picking
the correct item with right apparatuses and taking care of both the things in the endorsed
ways will give long life to the item and the tooling as well. Every cutting tool must
possess a certain shape/ geometry to perform certain machining operation and meet the
needs, an expansive scope of hardware geometries is accessible today to suit different
handy applications and machining frameworks. As a result, the apparatus/process creator
needs to go through voluminous machining information handbooks and inventories of
hardware producers to choose the correct instrument geometry boundaries for a given
application. We can classify cutting tools according to the machining operation in which
they are used for example drill bits, turning tools, taps, milling cutters. Another way of
classifying cutting tools is to divide them on the basis of number of cutting points a
cutting tool offer. In this regard there are single point cutting tools used in turning,
shaping, planning etc. and multiple point cutting tools as used in milling cutter, broaching
and sawing. The working piece of the cutting tool essentially comprises of two surfaces
crossing to shape the front line. The surface along which the chip streams is known as the
rake face or all the more essentially as the face, and that surface which is ground back to
clear the new or machined surface is known as the flank surface or just as the flank. In
the easiest yet regular case the rake and flank surfaces are planes. In a Series single point
device, rake face direction is controlled by two edges, back rake edge and slant to the side
rake. Together these points impact the assurance of chip way moves through the essence
of the rake. The tool's flank surface is set up at the edge. ERA and SRA. Those points
decide how much clearance between the instrument and the work surface which is newly
cut.

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 Centre line through tool shank is called the tool axis. Tool elements can be divided in
three parts as base (flat surface on tool shank parallel to the tool reference plane), wedge
(part of the tool between face and flank) and cutting part (involved in chip formation).

Figure 1 single point cutting tool

Total there are seven elements of a cutting tool in all, back rake angle, end relief
angle, side relief angle, side cutting edge angle, nose radius and end cutting edge angle
named collectively as tool geometry signature. Tool surfaces include
face, Chip breakers, flank. Face is a surface over which chip flows and when there are
more than one surfaces they are known as first face, second face etc. Tool material also
effects tool geometry. With the development of new cutting materials changes in tool
geometry are necessary for example HSS properties can be manipulated however many
materials are strong yet they are not tough as HSS also their tensile strengths are lower
than their compressive strengths. Some of the methods for designing a cutting tool of
very hard materials are discussed, The very hard materials must be either designed with a
negative or a small rake positive angles. This change tends to load more of the tool in
compression and less of it in shear. Encouraging the high compressive strength of these

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tough materials. Tungsten carbides, for example, rake angles are typically used between
+5 and +10. For Ceramics the rake angles are made as small as possible (5 is typical)
between the shaft and the shaft to provide as much cutting edge support as possible.
Another distinction is the way the tool's cutting edge is kept in place. From merchant
equation, which states that with increasing rake angle friction angle (and thus the friction
decreased) is decreased and shear plane angle is increased, as we know that a positive
rake angle is desirable since it reduces power consumption, temperature and cutting
forces and usually positive rake angle value lies between +5 to +20 degrees.

A chip breaker has the function of improving chip control and decreasing the
cutting resistance. A stronger balance between the two would improve efficiency in
machining. If the chip breaker can break chips into acceptable pieces, they won't wrap
around the workpiece, vibration will decrease and tools won't get damaged so easily.
Cutting resistance also has an effect on chip breakers. Reduced cutting resistance can
prevent vibration-caused cutting edge chipping and fracturing. In addition , lower cutting
resistance may decrease the load and heat, and may delay the development of wear of
tools. How do chips really get broken? Grooved chip breakers close to cutting edge make
the chips. An easy and efficient method of breaking the chips is to grind a small curved
lip on the tool's cutting edge; or to have an individual chip breaker secured to, or placed
on top of, the tool holder dogs keep in place. Typically, a square piece of steel of the
same length as the tool with a slightly concave of convex end ground is found to be very
efficient in breaking the pieces, and can be easily modified to the best advantages. This
type of arrangement is best suited for disposable insert type tools which are mechanically
clamped. Chip breakers can be an obstruction or a groove that breaks off the chip.

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 Figure 2 chip breakers on cutting tool

3.1 Single point cutting tools

Different operations can be performed in turning operation some of them include
facing, taper turning, contour turning, form turning, chamfering, cutoff, threading, boring,
drilling, and knurling. In turning single point cutting tool, knurling tool and parting tools
are usually employed. Turning in its simplest form generates cylindrical surfaces. Here's
one device are supplied along the Z-axis lathe slideway (CNC) or a turning center, while
the workpiece rotates the headstock (I.e. the component is either kept in: a chuck, a
mandrel, face-board, or between centers – if overhanging it is too long), the part is
machined and therefore generating a consistent, circular and cylindrical form diameter of
the part turned. Facing is another essential machining action that is attempted and for this
situation, the apparatus is taken care of over the X-pivot slideway while the part pivots,
once more, producing a level face to the part, or a sharp corner at a shoulder, then again it
can be cutting the fractional, or completed part to length (i.e going head to head) .
Tighten turning can be used to deliver short, or long shapes having either a quick shape
(for example with a huge included point), or moderate shape (for example having a little
included edge – regularly a 'self-holding tighten' , such as a Morse tighten). There are a
wide range of tasks that can be accomplished on a CNC machine/turning focus, the scope
of turning activities is immense, feedrates can be fluctuated, as can rotational rates.
Facing tasks can likewise be utilized to create either bended raised, or inward surface
highlights to the machined part – here the surface is both produced and framed, requiring

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synchronous customized taking care of movements to the Z-and X-axes. shaping , while
others, for example, boring, exhausting, screw-cutting, of inside highlights, and shaping
what's more, screw-cutting of outer highlights, to name only a not many of the customary
tasks embraced. With the approach of factory/turn focuses, by having CNC control of the
headstock and rotational, or driven-/live-tooling' to the machine's turret, this permits
kaleidoscopic highlights to be created (for example pads, spaces, splines, keyways, and
so on.), just as penetrated and tapped gaps across and at edges to the significant pivot of
the workpiece, or on the other hand off-hub. For a turning tool to cut and produce
effectively satisfactory bits, both rake and clearance angle to point of tool.

Today tools are result of past, research and development experience; a look at all
aspects of the micro-geometry of the tool at edge cutting. Another important aspect is the
effectiveness of chip breaker technology, in some cases essential flexure function (i.e.,
elastic behaviour) of the actual insert / toolholder tool for the multifunctional latest tools
are essential. The cutting forces are to a great extent the consequence of chip breakage,
its evacuation and chip-breaking activities, with the more pressure and friction in this
procedure creating forces acting in different ways. Worries at the rake face will in general
be fundamentally compressive in nature, despite the fact that some shear pressure will be
available, this is because of the way that the rake is once in a while 'ordinary' to the
principle cutting heading. This compressive pressure will in general be at its most
noteworthy nearest to the bleeding edge, with the territory of contact between the chip
and rake face being straightforwardly identified with the geometry here, thus the
requirement for tooling makers to upgrade the geometry in this locale.

Two different type of forces present at in turning are oblique cutting forces and
orthogonal cutting forces, orthogonal cutting forces include tangential and axial forces
while oblique cutting forces include a third force called radial force. At first, the device
holder bracing framework ought to be chosen to give ideal execution in various
applications over a wide scope of workpiece geometries. The sort of machining activity
and to a lesser degree, the workpiece size decides instrument holder determination. For
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instance, roughing-out procedure on enormous parts will set extensively various
expectations, to that of completing passes on little parts. Toolholders will have the widest
size possible for the tool turret of the turning centre, that requirement is vital, as it lowers
the 'tool overhang ratio' – to provide stiffness and integrity to stabilize cutting of insert
edge. Of particular interest is a nose radius which decides inherent strength in roughing
operation and texture obtained in surface finishing operations.

3.2 Drilling tools

Drilling is perhaps the most popular machining operation today 's process is under
way, with their origins traced back to the development of cutting tools In 19th Century
North America. The year 1864 John, in the early part of the American Civil War Morse
(that is to design the important 'Morse' later Taper - for the exact location of the 'sleeved
drills' spindles in their mating machine) Founded Morse Twist Drill & Machine
Company 'Northern' Morse then went on to potentially grow the most important cutting
tool to date has advanced, namely the twist drill is ubiquitous. Drill press is the standard
machine tool in drilling. There are different types of drill press, most common drill press
is upright drill which stands on a floor and a table is used for holding the work material.
Other drill press include radial drill press, gang drill press, CNC drill and multiple spindle
drill.

Originally designed for Morse over the last few years the twist drill has changed very
little 150 years – from the moment of its conception. Compared with the contemporary
drills of that somewhat crude design time, Morse said: 'There is a growing drill scraping
metal through be drilled while the metal is cut and discharged from mine without
clogging chips and borings.

Morse Declaration was optimistic at best, to some extent, while the 'cold truth' tells
another story, like success of a drill is affected by a great many factors. Different two
area of cutting can be established: first, main edge of cutting, or lips; second at
intersection clearance and main cutting edge-known as the edge to the chisel. The cutting

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process is really for a twist drill can be equated to an oblique left turn tool, where
geometries for the rake and clearance face the same and the correlation of these two
machinations the experimental processes have been validated Witte 's work, in 1982.
Both regions remove stuff, producing effective cutting lips material removal, and the
contribution of the chisel edge is unreliable, and is primarily responsible for spatial
drilling faults. An oblique figure the cutting action takes place in the direction of motion,
being the product of lip offset which is parallel to a radial side, ahead of the middle,
around its web thickness is equal to half the drill point and increases moving for the drill
center. This understatement is responsible for inducing chip flow in a typical direction to
the lips according to the Stabler act. Twist drill operations were performed for about 150
years, with a twist drill giving 'equilibrium cutting conditions', if the drill is symmetric
geometry. There was possibility that the drilling work may be considered as two single
points tools engaged in a straight internal turn work.

A twist drill creates both torque and torsion thrust as it rotates and the workpiece is
fed in. The main torque contribution is through the lips, with a small amount of torque
produced through the chisel point the rotation of the drill to the resistance of the work
material. Heat generated during drilling operation is passed to the environment mainly by
two modes of heat transfer as conduction through chip formation and convection through
the air spaces in the drill bit as it penetrates deeper into the work material. In one
operation a trepanning operation is performed, but instead of complete hole machining,
only a part of the hole is cut, and the core is left. Nonetheless, trepid operation presents
one major problem, which is the core generated as the quagmire the tool penetrates into
the workpiece and becomes quite hard to manage. A counterbalancing operation is a
technique often used for previously manufactured enlargements rows, usually for correct
supply dimensions and/or finishing of surfaces improved. They are also produced to
register counterbores a shaft with a larger facet, or to sink a precision cap-head bolt
below the surface of a clamped part. In this context latest case, the hole that was
previously drilled is often used to balance the axis of the bolt using a counterbalancing

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tool with the same drilled diameter as the 'pilot-bush' to act as a guide to enable correct
counterbored machining deep. A jig or fixture is a work holding device used specifically
for a work material.

3.3 Multiple edge cutting tools

A multi-point cutting tool contains more than two main cutting edges which engage
simultaneously in pass cutting action. Often cutters with two cutting edges (more than
one) are also called multipoint cutting instruments (instead of being considered a double-
point cutter). In a multi-point cutter, the number of cutting edges can vary from three to a
few hundred. Since cutting edge appears at the intersection of rake surface and flank
surface, for each cutting edge there is a set of rake surface and flank surface as well. Most
multi-edge tools are used in the machining process in which the tool is mounted changed.
Drilling and friction are common examples. Conversely, broaching and some sawing
operations (hack sawing and band sawing) using multi-edge devices that operates in a
linear movement. Many sawing operations (circular sawing) take rotational action blades
saw. A milling process is a 'intermittent movement to cut' where every single cutting
inserts continuously enter and exit the break, as opposed to transform, which is basically,
ongoing machining, once the cutting is engaged. It follows that at every cut the tooth
impacting the surface of the job ('intermittent the cutter),' 'its operation will be affected
by: inherent robustness, state of the machine tool and disponible spindle strength. This
will have an great influence on the efficient machining capability of the cutter features
required in the part. Milling operation decides which milling cutter is to be used.
Different types of milling cutters are available for different operation, some names
includes form milling cutter (they are peripheral milling cutter which are extensivly used
in gear making), face milling cutter (they can be made of HSS and cut from both
periphery and teeth), plain milling cutters (there cutting edges are oriented are at an angle
called the helilical milling cutters and are used for slab and peripheral milling), end
milling cutters (look similar to the drill bits but they cut with their peripheral teeth rather
than end as in drill bit used for face milling, ball milling, contouring etc). Combined
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cutting action is a facemilling operation by inserts, especially on the periphery of the
method and, to a lesser degree, insert edges onto the front of the cutter. The cutter rotates
at 90 ° during facemilling to that of the radial feed direction workpipe. Facemilling has an
axial. Just a set of extensive range of friction cutters available for machining and for
milling / turning centers. Milling cutters and related machinery this tor is determined by
the width of the peripheral cutting edges of insert cut, with faces of insert on the cutter
edge, which generates the finished ground workpiece.

There are some disadvantages associated with multiple edge cutting tools they have
complicated manufacturing and designing, cutting is inherently intermittent using
multiple edge cutting tools also they are costly economically.

4 Tool life
As tool wear increase causes Tool loss in the Metal removal process and leads to
increased machining expense. It is important to research the tool failure modes and
optimize every possibility to reduce the machining costs, increase production rate and
achieve world-class performance. The final failure is believed to have happened when the
instrument has worn out and can no longer function and will crack under the enhanced
cutting forces due to the blunt cutting edge. The gradual wear which results in this
ultimate failure is inevitable but controllable. At the other side, due to several preventable
reasons, a device may fail which we would call premature failure. Various factors
affecting tool life include cutting conditions (V, d, f), tool geometry (all six angles, and
nose radius), workpiece material, cutting fluid, machine tool and work piece region and
tool material.

As cutting proceeds, the different wear mechanisms lead to increased wear levels on
tool to cut. The typical wear growth curve can usually identify three regions. First is the
break-in era, during which the sharp cutting-edge wears quickly at the start of its usage.
In the first few minutes of cutting, this first region occurs. The break time is followed by

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wear, which takes place at a fairly uniform rate. It is called stationary wear area. If tool
wear is plotted as a function of time, it turns out that the curve looks similar to the creep
curve, which shows the secondary region is greater than the primary and tertiary.

Some modes of tool failure that reduce tool life include chipping, notching, built up
edges.

n
Taylor tool life equation is given by: vT =C
n and C value depend upon depth of cut, work material and feed. V is cutting speed and T
is tool life.

4.1 Tool failure modes

There are various wear patterns taken into consideration for failure analysis. Three
main types of tool failures include temperature failure, fracture wear and gradual wears.
In the Taylor life equation flank wear is the criteria for tool failure. Fracture failure is a
brittle failure due to excessive forces on cutting point and it’s a sudden failure which
must be avoided in practical situations. Thermal failure is due to elevated temperatures
and it makes the tool soften at the tool point thus plastic deformation and loss of sharp
edge. Fracture and temperature failures are premature failures and only gradual wear is
preferred as it leads to the longest possible use of the tool for the longest possible use of
the tool, gradual wear occurs at two locations on the tool as crater and flank wear. Flank
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wear, notch wear, plastic deformation, breakage of insert, thermal cracking, built up
edges (built-up edge BUE indicates binding of working material to the cutting tool's rake
face near to the cutting edge. It often occurs at lower cutting speeds while machining
softer or ductile metals. Low carbon steel, aluminium and copper, for example) are
symptoms of decreased tool life.

Although flank wear tool life criteria was used in Taylor tool life equation,
however its not practical to be used in industry because it takes more time, following
other methods are usually preferred as tool life criteria.

1) Complete failure of cutting edge

2) Visually inspecting a cutting tool by the operator
3) Chips becomes ribbony and difficult to dispose off
4) Operator use fingernail test for inspecting cutting edge
5) Degraded surface finish
6) Changes in sound as the machining operation performed
7) Sometimes collective time of tool usage is an indication of completed tool life
8) Power consumption is increased
9) Operator is also instructed to change the tool after specific number of work
materials so counting work materials is also an indication of tool failure.

5 Cutting fluids
To improve machining operation cutting fluids are employed and they usually serve
two main functions as heat extraction and friction reduction. These are a types of
lubricant/coolant used only for metalworking, for example, machining and stepping.
There are various kinds of cutting liquids, including oils, oil-water emulsions, aerosols
concentrates, and air or different gasses. Cutting liquid is produced using distillates of oil,
creature fats, plant oils, water and air, or other crude fixings. This can be alluded to as
cutting liquid, cutting oil, cutting fluid, coolant, or oil, contingent upon the specific

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circumstance and the kind of cutting liquid being thought of. Lubricants are usually based
on oil and their main objective is to reduce friction. A special type of lubrication is
extreme pressure lubrication, which involves formation of thin salt layer on metal
surface. Lubricants are mostly effective at low cutting speeds and are not much effective
at high cutting speeds. Usually tapping and drilling are mostly benefitted from lubrication
because of low speed operation. At high speeds chip motion hinders the lubricant to reach
at interface.

Coolants are mostly effective at high speeds and aim to reduce heat at the tool work
interface. Coolants usually have higher specific heat and thermal conductivity value and
they therefore reduce temperature and help prolong tool life due to decreased thermal
shocks. Coolants are mostly employed in turning and milling operation where cutting
speeds are higher and most often water is used as a coolant since its specific heat value is
much higher than many other fluids. It is possible to use any possible method of applying
cutting fluid (e.g. flooding, spraying, soaking, misting, brushing) with the appropriate
option depending on the application and the available equipment. The ideal has always
been high-pressure , high-volume pumping for many metal cutting applications to push a
fluid stream (usually an oil-water emulsion) directly into the tool-chip interface, with
walls around the unit to contain the splatter and a sump to capture, filter and recirculate
the fluid. This form of device is widely used , especially in fabrication. However both
lubricants and coolants have positive impact on Taylor tool life equation and increase C
value upto 40% and therefore tool life.

6 Conclusion
Cutting tools are used in machining operations and their study is very important
since they are directly involved in cutting operations and exposed to cutting forces and
elevated temperature conditions. There are two main factors for a cutting tool its material
and tool geometry. Different types of cutting tools are available for each machining
operation and they type of tool which is to be selected for a particular operation depends
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upon the machining operation being performed, end use of the work material and the
desired shape which is to be [ CITATION Mik \l 1033 ]achieved.

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7 References

[1] M. P. Groover, FUNDAMENTALS OF MODERN MANUFACTURING, USA: John

Wiley & Sons, Inc..
[2] G. T. Smith, Cutting Tool Technology, London: Springer-Verlag London Limited,
2008.

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