ABUBAKAR TATARI ALI POLYTECHNICS BAUCHI

TED 221 [MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE I]

COURSE OUTLINE
1. Safety precautions in machine shop
2. Drilling machine – Types and Operations
3. Power saws – Types and Operations
4. The features and working principles of centre lathe
5. Turning between centres
6. Heat treatment
7. Drill and lathe tool sharpening
8. Taper turning
9. Screw cutting on the centre lathe
10. Turning of circular and eccentric components
11. Cutting fluids – coolants and lubricants
12. Components production
INTRODUCTION
Metal cutting or traditional machining processes are also known as conventional machining
processes. These processes are commonly carried out in machine shops or tool room for machining a
cylindrical or flat job to a desired shape, size and finish on a rough block of job material with the help
of a wedge-shaped tool. The cutting tool is constrained to move relative to the job in such a way that
a layer of metal is removed in the form of a chip. General metal cutting operations are shown in Fig.
20.1. These machining processes are performed on metal cutting machines, more commonly termed
as machine tools using various types of cutting tools (single or multi-point). A machine tool is a
power-driven metal cutting machine which assist in managing the needed relative motion between
cutting tool and the job that changes the size and shape of the job material. In metal cutting
(machining) process, working motion is imparted to the workpiece and cutting tool by the
mechanisms of machine tool so that the work and tool travel relative to each other and machine the
workpiece material in the form of shavings (or swarf) known as chips.

Machining is the broad term used to describe removal of material from a workpiece. This
Includes Cutting, Abrasive Processes (grinding), Advanced Machining Processes (electrical,
chemical, thermal, hydrodynamic, lasers) • Automation began when lathes were introduced in 1700s
• Now have computer numerical control (CNC) machines.

Machining operations are a system consisting of:

Workpiece – material, properties, design, temperature

Cutting tool – shape, material, coatings, condition
Machine tool – design, stiffness & damping, structure Independent variables
Fixture – workpiece holding devices
Cutting parameters – speed, feed, depth of cut

Page 1 of 13
Classification of Metal Cutting Processes
Hand Cutting Processes Machine Cutting Processes
Filing Drilling
Chiselling Hacksawing
Hand Hacksawing Turning
Shearing Milling
Hand Tapping Grinding
Die−Tapping Shaping
Hand Reaming Machine Threading
Machine Reaming

The machine tools involve various kinds of machines tools commonly named as lathe, shaper,
planer, slotter, drilling, milling and grinding machines etc. The machining jobs are mainly of two
types namely cylindrical and flats or prismatic. Cylindrical jobs are generally machined using lathe,
milling, drilling and cylindrical grinding whereas prismatic jobs are machined using shaper, planner,
milling, drilling and surface grinding. In metal cutting operation, the position of cutting edge of the
cutting tool is important based on which the cutting operation is classified as orthogonal cutting and
oblique cutting. Orthogonal cutting is also known as two-dimensional metal cutting in which the
cutting edge is normal to the work piece. In orthogonal cutting no force exists in direction
perpendicular to relative motion between tool and work piece. Oblique cutting is the common type of
three-dimensional cutting used in various metal cutting operations in which the cutting action is
inclined with the job by a certain angle called the inclination angle.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN MACHINE SHOP

Mis-happening of a large number of fire hazards, accidents, industrial disasters etc., can be
reduced to the minimum possible extent through careful safety planning within an industrial
organization. All these unwanted events can be prevented by effective planning for safety. Safety
consideration includes proper layout of buildings and equipment, such as providing adequate
ventilation, sufficient working area to the operator, clear pathways for movement of materials and
parts, provision for adequate personnel facilities- viz., canteens, lunch rooms, dispensary, firefighting
services, etc. Careful planning in advance for optimized and safe layout of design and manufacturing
activities for industry ensures industrial safety in the manufacturing and inventory areas.
Incorporating safety considerations well in time are helpful for the establishment of a new plant as
well as an existing plant needing major alterations. Such considerations lead to adequate safety to
men, machine and equipment, reduction in operational time and increase in production. Several codes
and standards for industrial safety, health and hygiene, fire prevention, etc. have been prescribed by
government and other safety agencies and they should be fully taken care of at the planning and
implementation stages of a plant.

Page 2 of 13
 A number of important features should be considered and suitably incorporated planning the
layout of a new plant and its buildings for safety. Hoists and conveyors are commonly used in
industries for raising, lowering and transporting loads for limited distances. A high degree of safety is
needed while these equipment are in operation. During operations of these equipment, one should
keep in mind the following important safety measures. Material handling and its storage are very
common functions in a plant. Material handling when performed manually the chances of injuries are
greater. Therefore, the following points should be taken care for carrying out such tasks. All material
handling equipment such as conveyers, automotive guided vehicles, robots, cranes should carry
proper guards for its gears and other dangerous moving parts to prevent access from these parts
during operation. All hoisting devices must be equipped with limit switches for preventing loads
block from over traveling accidentally.

Hoisting equipment especially cranes, should only be operated by properly trained personnel
for avoiding all sorts of mishaps or accidents. While operating a crane, the operator should be
entirely guided by standard signal and both operator and his signaller should be thoroughly trained.
Proper protections against fire and explosion hazards are required when gasoline operated cranes are
being used. Where manual loading is done on conveyors which run along a vertical path, either
partially or totally, safe load sign should be prominently displayed on all loading stations. Sufficient
lighting, ventilation, drainage, escape ways and guarding should be provided for conveyors which
run in pits, tunnels and similar other enclosures. Riding on a conveyor should always be prohibited.
All the persons working on or around the conveyor must wear tight cloths and safety shoes.

All rotating, reciprocating and projecting parts of machinery and equipment such as
sprockets, gears, etc., should be adequately protected by proper guarding. An effective lubrication
schedule should be worked out and implemented. All inspection should be carried out regularly and
worn-out parts, if any, should be replaced immediately.

OBJECTIVES OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

The objectives of industrial safety are as follows:

1. Industrial safety is needed to check all the possible chances of accidents for preventing loss of
life and permanent disability of any industrial employee, any damage to machine and material
as it leads to the loss to the whole establishment.
2. It is needed to eliminate accidents causing work stoppage and production loss.
3. It is needed to prevent accidents in industry by reducing any hazard to minimum.
4. It is needed to reduce workman’s compensation, insurance rate and all the cost of accidents.
5. It is required to educate all members regarding the safety principles to avoid accidents in
industry.
6. It is needed to achieve better morale of the industrial employees.

Page 3 of 13
 7. It is required to have better human relations within the industry.
8. It is needed to increase production means to a higher standard of living.

DRILLING MACHINE – TYPES AND OPERATIONS

Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the job
by cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or more cutting lips and
usually one or more flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of cutting fluid. A drilling
machine is a machine tool designed for drilling holes in metals. It is one of the most important and
versatile machine tools in a workshop. Besides drilling round holes, many other operations can also
be performed on the drilling machine such as counter- boring, countersinking, honing, reaming,
lapping, sanding etc.

TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE

Drilling machines are classified on the basis of their constructional features, or the type of
work they can handle. The various types of drilling machines are:

1. Portable drilling machine

2. Sensitive drilling machine (a) Bench mounting (b) Floor mounting
3. Upright drilling machine (a) Round column section (b) Box column section machine
4. Radial drilling machine (a) Plain (b) Semi universal (c) Universal
5. Gang drilling machine
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
7. Automatic drilling machine
8. Deep hole drilling machine (a) Vertical (b) Horizontal

Page 4 of 13
Portable Drilling Machine

A portable drilling machine is a small compact unit and used for drilling holes in workpieces
in any position, which cannot be drilled in a standard drilling machine. It may be used for drilling
small diameter holes in large castings or weldments at that place itself where they are lying. Portable
drilling machines are fitted with small electric motors, which may be driven by both A.C. and D.C.
power supply. These drilling machines operate at fairly high speeds and accommodate drills up to 12
mm in diameter.

Sensitive Drilling Machine

It is a small machine used for drilling small holes in light jobs. In this drilling machine, the
workpiece is mounted on the table and drill is fed into the work by purely hand control. High rotating
speed of the drill and hand feed are the major features of sensitive drilling machine. As the operator
senses the drilling action in the workpiece, at any instant, it is called sensitive drilling machine. A
sensitive drilling machine consists of a horizontal table, a vertical column, a head supporting the
motor and driving mechanism, and a vertical spindle. Drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm can be
rotated in the spindle of sensitive drilling machine. Depending on the mounting of base of the
machine, it may be classified into following types:
1. Bench mounted drilling machine,
2. Floor mounted drilling machine

Upright Drilling Machine

The upright drilling machine is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine. It is
designed for handling medium sized workpieces and is supplied with power feed arrangement. In this
machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be available for drilling different types of
work. Upright drilling machines are available in various sizes and with various drilling capacities
(ranging up to 75 mm diameter drills). The table of the machine also has different types of
adjustments. Based on the construction, there are two general types of upright drilling machine:
(1) Round column section or pillar drilling machine.
(2) Box column section.
The round column section upright drilling machine consists of a round column
whereas the upright drilling machine has box column section. The other constructional features of
both are same. Box column machines possess more machine strength and rigidity as compared to
those having round section column.

Radial Drilling Machine

Page 5 of 13
The radial drilling machine consists of a heavy, round vertical column supporting a horizontal arm
that carries the drill head. Arm can be raised or lowered on the column and can also be swung around
to any position over the work and can be locked in any position. The drill head containing
mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted on a radial arm and can be moved
horizontally on the guide-ways and clamped at any desired position. These adjustments of arm and
drilling head permit the operator to locate the drill quickly over any point on the work. The table of
radial drilling machine may also be rotated through 360 deg. The maximum size of hole that the
machine can drill is not more than 50 mm. Powerful drive motors are geared directly into the head of
the machine and a wide range of power feeds are available as well as sensitive and geared manual
feeds. The radial drilling machine is used primarily for drilling medium to large and heavy
workpieces. Depending on the different movements of horizontal
arm, table and drill head, the upright drilling machine may be classified into following types-
1. Plain radial drilling machine
2. Semi universal drilling machine, and
3. Universal drilling machine.

Types of Drills

A drill is a multi-point cutting tool used to produce or enlarge a hole in the workpiece. It
usually consists of two cutting edges set an angle with the axis.
Broadly there are three types of drills:
1. Flat drill,
2. Straight-fluted drill, and
3. Twist drill

Flat drill is usually made from a piece of round steel which is forged to shape and ground to
size, then hardened and tempered. The cutting angle is usually 90 o and the relief or clearance at the
cutting edge is 3o to 8o. The disadvantage of this type of drill is that each time the drill is ground the
diameter is reduced. Twist drill is the most common type of drill in use today.

POWER SAWS – TYPES AND OPERATIONS

A power saw is a portable mechanical machine used for both industrial and other projects. It
is the type of power tool that comprises sturdy blades, chains, wire, set of teeth, etc. It is
basically used for the work piece in large cuts. It can cut wood, plastic, metals, concrete and other
materials like tiles and bricks.

Generally, there are three varieties of power saws namely 

1. Power saws with rotating blades

2. Power saws with reciprocating blade and
3. Power saws with circulating blade.

Page 6 of 13
Types and Uses of Power Saws

Power saws are extremely useful machine tools, but they are also very confusing. There are so
many types of saw in different categories and sub-categories of power saw, that it becomes difficult
to remember what each kind of saw does.

The types include: Table saws, Circular saws, Miter saws, Chop Saws, Radial arm saws,
Chainsaws, Reciprocating Saws, Jigsaws, Band Saws, Scroll saws, Panel Saws, Rip saws, Track
Saws, Tile Saws, Flooring saws.

Circular Saw - It has a tooth or abrasive disc to chop the material. It can be used on various
materials like plastic, wood, metal, etc. It is majorly used in sawmills. It is commonly powered by
electricity. It is preferred for making fast, long and straight cuts.

There are various types of circular saws like

i. Abrasive type: It has an abrasive disc that is circulated in rotating motion for grinding
purposes.  
ii. Concrete type: It is used for cutting concrete, bricks, and tiles. It comes in different shapes,
sizes, and styles.    
iii. Cord wood type: It has a round metal disc with sharp cutting edges. It consists of frames,
blade, mandrel, cradle and power source.  

Page 7 of 13
 iv. Cold type for metal: It is used for cutting metal materials. It is made up of high-speed steel
material. It has 3 blade types namely solid tooth, segmented tooth, carbide inserted tooth.

Jig Saw  

It is made up of an electric motor and reciprocating saw blade. It comes with a sole plate that
is known for the bevelling function of cutting the angles up to 45 o to make miter joints. It can cut
various materials in different cutting shapes.
It comes in 2 types - corded and cordless jigsaw. It can cut in different ways such as curved
lines, straight cuts, plunge cuts, and bevel cuts. A jigsaw is an ideal option for cutting curves and
complex shapes in wood. It is also known for making short crosscuts on board.

Mitre Saw - It is also known as a power mitre box that makes accurate crosscuts and mitres in a
work piece. It is done by pulling the large mounted circular blade down on the board in a quick
motion. It is commonly used for cutting, molding and trimming at the selected angles. Generally, the
saw is small, portable and has the blade size ranging from 8 to 12 inches. -  

There are different types of mitre saws like

i. Compound mitre saw: It can rotate the blade and head at various angles. It can also make
complex cuts in the wood and mostly used in trim work of homes.
Page 8 of 13
 ii. Dual compound mitre saw: It allows the head to rotate when angled on both left and right
sides. It is majorly used in decorative trim work.    
iii. Sliding compound mitre saw: It moves the saw head back and forth on the sliding rail. It can
also lock the rails for performing straight pull-down cuts.  
iv. Laser mitre saws: It has a laser guide for more precise cutting. It has an LED light for better
illumination in the work area.

Table Saw

It is also known as a bench saw These saws need a large working space area and are generally
coupled with the circular blade. They are preferred for making the most accurate cuts. It is the form
of a woodworking tool that has a circular saw blade mounted on an arbor. The device runs on an
electric motor. The depth of the cuts can be adjusted by moving the blade up and down. The angle of
the cut is controlled by adjusting the angle of the blade. There are different types of table saws like
compact, bench-top, job-site, hybrid, cabinet, and sliding saws. It is used for cutting wood, sheet
plastic, aluminum, brass, etc. Kickback, dust extractor, magnetic feather board, and automatic
braking are some of the safety accessories that come with the table saw to prevent fatalities.

THE FEATURES AND WORKING PRINCIPLES OF CENTRE LATHE

The term “engine” is associated with this lathe due to the fact that in the very early days of its
development it was driven by steam engine. This lathe is the important member of the lathe family
and is the most widely used. Similar to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has all the basic parts, e.g.,
bed, headstock, and tailstock. But its headstock is much more robust in construction and contains
additional mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds. An engine lathe is shown in the
diagram below. Unlike the speed lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cutting tool both in cross and
longitudinal direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage, feed rod and lead
screw.

Page 9 of 13
 Centre lathes or engine lathes are classified according to methods of transmitting power to the
machine. The power may be transmitted by means of belt, electric motor or through gears.

A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of grey cast iron on which headstock, tailstock,
carriage and other components of lathe are mounted. The major parts of lathe machine are given as
under:

i. Bed: The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted.
ii. Head stock: The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a
lathe.
iii. Tailstock: is commonly used for the objective of primarily giving an outer bearing and support
the circular job being turned on centers.
iv. Carriage: Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move in a
direction parallel to the spindle axis
v. Feed mechanism: Feed mechanism is the combination of different units through which motion
of headstock spindle is transmitted to the carriage of lathe machine.
vi. Thread cutting mechanism: The half nut or split nut is used for thread cutting in a lathe. It
engages or disengages the carriage with the lead screw so that the rotation of the leadscrew is
used to traverse the tool along the workpiece to cut screw threads.

LATHE OPERATIONS

For performing the various machining operations in a lathe, the job is being supported and
driven by anyone of the following methods. 1. Job is held and driven by chuck with the other end
supported on the tail stock centre. 2. Job is held between centers and driven by carriers and catch
plates. 3. Job is held on a mandrel, which is supported between centers and driven by carriers and
catch plates. 4. Job is held and driven by a chuck or a faceplate or an angle plate. The above methods

Page 10 of 13
for holding the job can be classified under two headings namely job held between centers and job
held by a chuck or any other fixture. The various important lathe operations are depicted through Fig.
21.8 (a), (b) and (c). The operations performed in a lathe can be understood by three major categories

Angles of Tools
• What is common to all cutting tools is the wedge shape.
• To cut metals, the tool must be wedge−shaped, be resistant to abrasion and tenacious.
• For different cutting operations there is a need for different tool angles.
• Cutting tools with small wedge angles penetrate the material more easily but also tend to break off
more easily if the material is hard

HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment is a heating and cooling process of a metal or an alloy in the solid state with
the purpose of changing their properties. It can also be said as a process of heating and cooling of
ferrous metals especially various kinds of steels in which some special properties like softness,
hardness, tensile-strength, toughness etc, are induced in these metals for achieving the special
function objective. It consists of three main phases namely

(i) Heating of the metal

(ii) Soaking of the metal and
(iii) Cooling of the metal.

The theory of heat treatment is based on the fact that a change takes place in the internal
structure of metal by heating and cooling which induces desired properties in it. The rate of cooling is
the major controlling factor. Rapid cooling the metal from above the critical range, results in hard
structure. Whereas very slow cooling produces the opposite affect i.e., soft structure. In any heat
treatment operation, the rate of heating and cooling is important. A hard material is difficult to shape
by cutting, forming, etc. During machining in machine shop, one requires machinable properties in

Page 11 of 13
job piece hence the properties of the job piece may require heat treatment such as annealing for
inducing softness and machineability property in workpiece.

Heat Treatment of Tool Steel

First of a1l, the purpose or functional requirements of the tool to be used should be
understood clearly. Accordingly, the heat-treatment will be carried on the tool to obtain the desired
qua1ities in the tool steel to meet the needed objective. For example, a cutting tool requires
particularly sufficient strength, high hardness and high wear-resistance.

Therefore, it is initially shaped by forging operation which should be carried out at

temperature 850°- 950°C with the help of hammers. Next normalizing is to be performed on it to
relieve the stresses and strains developed during forging and to have a uniform grain structure. Next
the tool steel is hardened by heating followed by sudden or rapid cooling depending upon the carbon
percentage in tool steel. The various heating ranges of different tool steels are as follows

C% in tool steel Heating Range

0.7 – 0.8% 780-850°C
0.8- 0.95% 765-790°C
0.95-1.10% 750-775°C
Above 1.10 % 740-760°C

The tool steel is heated to this temperature range and kept at that temperature for sufficient
time to achieve uniform structure inside the metal. Then it is quenched by immersing it into a bath of
fresh water (rapid cooling). For securing more homogenous cooling and reduce danger of cracking,
brine solution (10% brine or caustic soda solution) may be used. After hardening, tempering is
performed to remove extra hardness and brittleness induced during hardening. This is performed by
reheating the hardened tool steel up to 150-300°C once again and same is cooled in oils to reduced
internal stresses. Tempering is carried over to tool steel for the purpose of increasing its usefulness
and to provide good results in its performance. The important point is to note that drills and milling
cutters should be hardened throughout. But certain tools like screw taps, screw dies, lathe, planer and
shaping tools are not hardened throughout the surface of the cutting tools.

Heat Treatment Definitions

Term Meaning
Annealed The condition of a metal that has been heated above a specified temperature,
depending upon its composition, and then cooled down in the furnace itself
or by burying it in ashes or lime. This annealing process makes the metal
very soft and ductile. Annealing usually precedes flow- forming operations
such as sheet metal pressing and wire and tube drawing

Page 12 of 13
Normalized The condition of a metal that has been heated above a specified temperature,
depending upon its composition, and then cooled down in free air. Although
the cooling is slow, it is not as slow as for annealing so the metal is less soft
and ductile. This condition is not suitable for fl ow forming but more suitable
for machining. Normalizing is often used to stress relieve castings and
forgings after rough machining

Quench hardened The condition of a metal that has been heated above a specified temperature,
depending upon its composition, and then cooled down very rapidly by
immersing it in cold water or cold oil. Rapid cooling is called quenching and
the water or oil is called the quenching bath. This rapid cooling from
elevated temperatures makes the metal very hard. Only medium- and high-
carbon steels can be hardened in this way

Tempered Quench-hardened steels are brittle as well as hard. To make them suitable for
cutting tools they have to be reheated to a specified temperature between 200
and 300°C and again quenched. This makes them slightly less hard but very
much tougher. Metals in this condition are said to be tempered

Page 13 of 13