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Runway Design 3
Caster angle is the angle formed between the tangent to the centre line
and longitudinal axis of the Aircraft.
As per ICAO, all the marking of runway are white, taxiway – yellow,
runway lighting colour-white, Taxiway lighting colour-Blue.
Runway orientation: It is oriented such that the direction of wind in
opposite to the direction of landing & take off.
Runway is so oriented that Landing and take off is done by Heading into
the wind (opposite to wind direction).
Cross-wind component:
Tunnel Engineering 17
It is an engineering structure, artificial gallery, passage or roadway beneath
the ground, under the bed of a stream or through a hill or mountain.
Open cuts:
It is open to sky passage excavated through huge soil mass of obstacle
like hill, run in required direction to connect.
Open cuts are provided up to depth 18m economically, if more than
18m depth.Tunneling is preferred. (60 feet)
For highways, tunneling is preferred to open cut if the depth of open
cut exceeds 15m.
It will require less time & cost for construction as compared to tunnels.
Advantages of tunnel
(a) For carrying public utilities like water, gas, railway lines or roads etc.
(b) Lesser maintenance &operating cost.
(c) Aerial warfare & bombing of cities have given important values to
tunnel.
(d) Cost of hauling is decreased due to lighter grades, possible in tunnels.
Classification
According to Alignment
(a) OFF - Spur Tunnels
Short length tunnels to negotiate minor local obstacles, is very
high projections on the way, which cannot be followed with
permitted
(b) Slope Tunnels:
Tunnel constructed in sleep hills for economic and safe opera-
tions of roads and railways.
(c) Saddle or Base Tunnels:-
Tunnel constructed in the valleys along the natural slope till slope
does not exceed ruling gradient
(d) Spiral Tunnels:
Tunnel provided in narrow valley in the form of loops in the inte-
rior of mountain so as to increase length of tunnel to avoid steep
sloper
Shape of the tunnel
D 2D
1 .2
D 2D
1.2
5D
D D D
1 in 24 1 in 24 D D
(a) ‘D’ Section (b) Rectangular © Circular (d) Egg. Shaped (e) Horse-shoe
Section Section section section
(i) In Rock tunnels: It is suitable for subway/Navigation channel.
(ii) Egg shaped section is used in sewers as it maintains required self
cleansing velocity. It provide least crosectional area at bottom.
(iii) Rectangular section is suitable only in case of hard rocks.
(iv) Circular section: It is most suitable for sewer & water carriage. It
is best suited for materials without cohsion (Quick sands) where the
pressure acts normal to the line of profile.
(v) Horse shoe shape is best suited for traffic purposes. It is most popular
for tunnel.
It is suitable for soft rock but difficult to construct.
706 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
Bridge Engineering 18
Codes used for Bridge Design:
1. IRC - 5 - Code of practice for specification of Bridge.
2. IRC - 6 - 2010 - Loads & stress. (L.S.M.)
(Old Code - IRC - 6 - 2000 - (W.S.M.)
3. IRC - 21 - Code of practice for cement concrete (L.S.M)
4. IRC - 22 - for composite structure
5. IRC - 78 - for foundation design
Bridge is an arrangement made to cross an obstacle in the form of a
low ground or a stream or a river or over a gap without closing the
way beneath.
Required for the passage of railways, roadways footpaths and even
for carriage of fluids.
Components of bridge
1. Sub-Structure
Component of bridge upto the level of bearing.
Consists of piers, abutments, wing walls and foundations for the piers,
abutments and wing walls.
2. Super Structure:
Component above the level of bearing.
Consist of beams, girders, arches and cables, parapet walls. Flooring,
guard stones, hand rails etc.
3. Adjoining Structure:
Component like approaches, guard stones, bearing, river training work,
apron etc.
718 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
Water way
Parapet or Crash Barrier
Bridge Deck
ch
oa
pr l1
Ap Bearing l2 l3
free
board
HFL Pier
Bearing
R.C.C.
Pier cap
Pedestol
Pile cap
Pile
Classification of Bridge
1. According to span
(i) Culvert
(ii) Minor Bridge
(iii) Major Bridgeiv) Long span bridge
2. According to Masonary
(i) Timber
(ii) Masonary
(iii) Iron & Steeliv) Prestressed
3. According to loading I.)Class A ii.) 70 R loading
Permanent Bridges
iii.)Class AA iv.)Class B
Temporary Bridge
Bridge Engineering 727
Some Important Formulae:
1. Marriman's formula:
V2 A 2 A
ha
2g Ca A1
2. Molesworth formula:
V2 A 2
ha 0.015 1
17g Ca
Where, A = Natural Waterway, A1 = Linear Waterway
Ca = Contracted Area
CIVIL Ki GOLI
Inglis Khosla
Dicken
Constant
1. Dicken's formula: Q CA3/4 Area of catchment
2. Ravey's formula: Q CA 2 / 3
123.2 A
4. Nawab Jung Bahadur's formula : Q
A 10.36
Applicable in North & South India